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7/27/2019 2. Nature of Approaches Lecture - Eclass
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ARISTOTLEARISTOTLE
UNIVERSITYUNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGLISHSCHOOL OF ENGLISH
APPLIED LINGUISTICSAPPLIED LINGUISTICS
METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING MODERNMETHODOLOGY OF TEACHING MODERN
LANGUAGES IILANGUAGES II
INSTRUCTOR: DR THOMAI ALEXIOUINSTRUCTOR: DR THOMAI ALEXIOU
2. NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS2. NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS
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Time of popularity and unpopularity of theTime of popularity and unpopularity of the
main approaches and methodsmain approaches and methods
18501850 19701970 198019801960196019501950194019401930193019201920191019101900190018901890188018801870187018601860 19901990
The GrammarThe Grammar--Translation Method (GTranslation Method (G--TM)TM)
The Direct Method (DM)The Direct Method (DM)
[Paul Davis (2000). Success in English Teaching]
Situational Language Method (SLM)Situational Language Method (SLM)
The AudioThe Audio--lingual Method (ALM)lingual Method (ALM)
Alternative Methods (AMs)Alternative Methods (AMs)
Communicative Language TeachingCommunicative Language Teaching
TheThe Latest trends and MITLatest trends and MIT
(CLT)(CLT)
Total Physical Response (TPR)Total Physical Response (TPR)
The Silent WayThe Silent Way
SuggestopediaSuggestopedia
The Natural ApproachThe Natural Approach
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In describing methods, the differenceIn describing methods, the differencebetween a philosophy of language teachingbetween a philosophy of language teaching
and a set of derived procedures for teachingand a set of derived procedures for teachinga anguage, s cen ra .a anguage, s cen
ra .
Techniques carry out a method which isTechniques carry out a method which isconsistent with an approachconsistent with an approach
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ANTHONYS HIERARCHY
APPROACH
METHOD
TECHNIQUE
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Approach/Method/TechniqueThe arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniquescarry out a method which is consistent with an approach . ..
.. . An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature
of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes thenature of the subject matter to be taught. .. .
... Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material,
no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected
approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.
Within one approach, there can be many methods . ..
... A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in a
classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish
an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method,
and therefore in harmony with an approach as well (Anthony 1963:63-7).
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Anthony's modelApproach level at which assumptions
and beliefs about language and language
learning are specified
practice (choices are made about the
particular skills to be taught, the content to
be taught, and the order in which thecontent will be presented)
Technique level at which classroom
procedures are described
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Approaches versus Methods STRUCTURAL
APPROACH
COGNITIVE APPROACH COMMUNICATIVE
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATIONMETHOD
DIRECT METHOD
APPROACH
NATURAL APPROACH
AUDIO-LINGUALMETHOD
TPR
SUGGESTOPEDIA TASK-BASED
SILENT WAY
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Attempts at a Framework Approach = philosophy
Method = plan
Technique = classroom implementation, a trick
Comment:
However, boundaries are blurred
Approach/method
Method/techniqueHow an approach may be realized in a method/ how method and technique
are related Ignores the dynamic context of teaching
Meant to lessen confusion
Despite the advantage of simplicity and comprehensiveness, it fails togive sufficient attention to the nature of a method itself
What about the roles of teachers and learners assumed in a method
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Approach according to Richards &Rodgers
Approach refers to theories about the
nature of language and language learning
that serve as the source of ractices and
principles in language teaching
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Method according to Richards&Rodgers
A method according to Richards and
Rodgers was an umbrella term for thespecification and interrelation between
theory and practice (1984:154)
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METHOD
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Language teaching approachesRichards andRodgerscontributions:
1. Their approachbrought objectives syllabusObjectives
. e r es gn rougthe need of asyllabus
3. Their procedurebrought activities,roles for teacher andlearner andinstructionalmaterials
activitiesInstructionalmaterials
roles
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OVERVIEW
(Richards & Rodgers 2001, p.33)
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Theory of language
At least 3 different theoretical views of
language and the nature of language
roficienc ex licitl or im licitl inform
current appraches and methods in
language teaching
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1. Structural view Language is a system ofstructurally related elements for
the coding of meaning
The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery ofelements of this system
Defined in terms of phonological units (e.g. phonemes),grammatical units (e.g. clauses, phrases, sentences),grammatical operations (e.g. adding, shifting, joining, ortransforming elements), and lexical items (e.g. functionwords and structure words)
Examples: Audiolingual, TPR, Silent Way
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2. The functional view Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional
meaning
This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative
dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics
Leads to a specification and organization of language teachingcontent by categories of meaning and function rather than byelements of structure and grammar(requesting, complaining)
Example: Wilkins notional syllabus, ESP
Notional syllabus would include apart from lexis andgrammar, topics, notions and concepts learners need tocommunicate (time, space, measurement, probability)
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3. Interactional view Language a vehicle for realizing
interpersonal relations and social transactions.
Interactional theories focus on the patterns of, , ,
found in conversational exchanges
Language teaching contentFocus on patterns
of interaction in conversation, between reader
and text
Example: Task-Based Language Teaching.
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Theory of language learning
A learning theory underlying an approach or
method responds to two questions:
processes involved in language learning?
(b) What are the conditions that need to be met in
order for these learning processes to beactivated?
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Process-oriented & Condition-
oriented
Some methods are process-oriented, i.e.
are based on language learning theories
e. . Audio-Lin ual Method
Other methods are condition-oriented
(e.g. Total Physical Response)
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Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model A learning theory on which a method has been built
Monitor theory addresses both the process and the conditiondimensions of learning
At the level of rocess Krashen distin uishes betweenacquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the naturalassimilation of language rules through using language forcommunication.Learning refers to the formal study oflanguage rules and is a conscious process. According to
Krashen, however, learning is available only as a "monitor."
At the level of conditions input, comprehensible, slightlyhigher, interesting, not grammatically sequenced, quantity, lowanxiety
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Tracy Terrell's Natural Approach (1977)
A method derived from a learning theory rather
than a particular view of langauge
Natural Approach is based on a learning theorythat specifies both processes and conditions
Yet, the learning theory underlying such
methods as Counseling-Learning and the Silent
Way addresses primarily the conditions held tobe necessary for learning to take place but not
the learning processes
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Therefore At the level of approach, we are concerned withtheoretical principles
With respect to language theory, we are concerned witha model of language competence and an account of the
basic features of linguistic organization and language
With respect to learning theory we are concerned withan account of the central processes of learning and anaccount of the conditionsbelieved to promote successful
language learning These principles may or may not lead to "a" method
Approach does not specify procedure and theory does notdictate set of activities. The link between approach andprocedure is the design
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Design what the objectives of a method are;
how language content is selected and organized
within the method, that is, the syllabus model
the types of learning tasks and teaching
activities the method advocates;
the roles of learners;
the roles of teachers;
the role of instructional materials
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Objectives focus primarily on oral skills and say
that reading and writing skills are
secondary and derive from transfer oforal skills
The degree to which a method is
process or product-oriented is realisedin the emphasis on vocabulary
acquisition and grammatical
proficiency and how errors are treated
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Syllabus Criteria for the selection and organization of linguistic and /or subjec-matter
content.
(a) what materials to be selected?
(b) how should the materials be organized?
( c ) what subject matter?
Syllabuswith methods that are product centered rather than thosethat are process centered
y a us pr nc p es or u o ngua , s tuat ona an not ona -functional methods as well as ESP are easily identifiable
In situational and audiolingual, there is a list of grammatical itemsand an associative lexis list
Notional syllabus includes communicative content in terms offunctions, notions, topics, grammar and vocabulary. These are allpredetremined, they are a priori syllabuses
Counseling-Learning, Silent Way, TPR?
A posteriori approach to syllabus specification yielded byexamination of lesson protocols
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7 basic syllabus types (Brown 1995)
Structural approach: Audiolingual
SituationalOral
Functional CLT
Notional CLT
Skills based TBL
Task based TBL
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Types of learning and teaching
activities
The objectives of a method are attained
through instructional process, the organized and
directed interaction of teachers, learners, andma er a s
Differences among methods at the level of
approach different kinds of learning and
teaching activitiesE.g. Teaching activities that focus on
grammatical accuracy may be quite different
from those that focus on communicative skills
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Type of activitiesAudiolingualism uses dialogue and pattern
practice extensively
avtivities with special charts and coloured
rods
CLT use information gap and informationtransfer tasks
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Types of activity Different philosophies at the level of approach
activities and in different uses for particular activity
types. .motivation and change of pace from drills whereas inCLT the same games provide practice for interactiveexchanges
Differences in activity types in methodsdifferentarrangements and groupings of learners
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Setting of teacher-centeredness
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Setting of learner-centeredness(focus on communicative activities & pair, group work)
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Setting of learner-centeredness
[Tony Wright (1997). Roles of Teachers and Learners]
Focus on
rehearsal &
class discussion
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Learner roles How learners are regarded
learners' contribution to the learning process
This is seen in the types of activities learners
carry out, the degree of control learners have overthe content of learning, the patterns of learnergroupings adopted, the degree to which learnersinfluence the learning of others, and the view of
the learner as processor, performer, initiator,problem solver
Audiolingualism example: Stimulus- response,learners are cast a passive role
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Teacher roles
Learner roles are linked to teachers status and
function
Teacher and learner roles define the type of
interaction characteristic of classrooms
Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as
a source of knowledge and direction; others see the
teacher's role as catalyst, consultant, guide, and model
for learning; Others teacher initiative to building
instructional content and designing lesson plans
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Teacher roles in methods(a) the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that ofpractice director, counselor, or model, for example;
(b) the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place;
(c) the degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the
content of what is taught; and .
Asymmetrical relationships, conductor-orchestra, therapist-patient,coach player or more symmetrical.
Friend-friend, colleague- colleague, teammate-teammate.
Role of the teacher reflects-objectives of the method and learningtheory, teacher provides content and create conditions for successfullanguage learning.
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The role of instructional materials The instructional materials further specify subject matter
content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or suggestthe intensity of coverage for syllabus items, allocating the
amount of time, attention, and detail particular syllabus items or,
Instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-daylearning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of thesyllabus
Some methods require instructional use of existing materials,realia, some assume teacher-proof materials, near native-competence, some can replace the teacher, some inhibitinteraction etc (view of roles and teacher ability)
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Example: Materials in
Functional/Communicative methodology
materials will focus on the communicativeabilities of interpretation, expression, and
negotiation , ,and interesting exchanges of information, ratherthan on the presentation of grammatical form
materials will involve different kinds of texts anddifferent media, which the learners can use todevelop their competence through a variety ofdifferent activities and tasks
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By comparison, the role of instructional materials within an individualized
instructional system might include the following specifications:
1. Materials will allow learners to progress at their
own rates of learning
2. Materials will allow for different styles of learning
3. Materials will provide opportunities for
independent study
4. Materials will provide opportunities for self-
evaluation and progress in learning
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Procedure
This encompasses the actual moment-to-momenttechniques, practices, and behaviours that operate inteachin a lan ua e accordin to a articular method
It is the level at which we describe how a methodrealizes its approach and design in classroom
behaviour
At the level of procedure we are concerned with howthese tasks and activities are integrated into lessonsand used as the basis for teaching and learning
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3 dimensions to a method at the level of procedure
(a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues,information-gap activities, etc.) to present new languageand to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, orother aspects of the target language;
b the wa s in which articular teachin activities areused for practicing language;
(c) the procedures and techniques used in givingfeedback to learners concerning the form or content oftheir utterances or sentences
Procedure focuses on the way a method handles thepresentation, practice and feedback phases of teaching
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Silent Way pronunciation chart
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Silent Way - Cuisinaire rods
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Caleb Gattegno's Silent Way (1972, 1976)
It is a method built around a theory of conditions
Gattegno's focuses on learners' needs to feel secure
about learning and to assume conscious control of
learning
Many of the techniques used in the method are
designed to train learners to consciously use their
intelligence to heighten learning potential
Links: The linking of structuralism (a linguistic
theory) to behaviorism (a learning theory) produced
Audiolingualism. What about cognitivism?
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Procedure
Silent Way course based on Stevick (1980: 44-5)
1. The teacher points at meaningless symbols on a wallchart. The symbols represent the syllables of the spokenlanguage. The students read the sounds aloud, first in
chorus and then individually2. After the students can pronounce the sounds, theteacher moves to a second set of charts containingwords frequently used in the language, in cludingnumbers. The teacher leads the students to pronounce
long numbers3. The teacher uses colored rods together with charts and
gestures to lead the students into producing the wordsand basic grammatical structures needed
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Error treatment
Silent Way Stevick (1980: 45)
When the students respond correctly to theteacher's initiative, she/he usually does not reactwith any overt confirmation that what they did
was right If a student's response is wrong, on the other
hand, the teacher indicates that the studentneeds to do further work on the word or phrase;if she/he thinks it necessary, she/he actually
shows the student exactly where the additionalwork is to be done
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Conclusion We expect methods to be most obviously
idiosyncratic at the level of procedure thoughclassroom observations often reveal that
teachers do not necessarily follow theproce ures a me o prescr es
Any language teaching method can bedescribed in terms of the issues identified hereat the levels of approach, design, and procedure
Very few methods are explicit with respect to allof these dimensions