2. MICROPRAGMATICS2. MICROPRAGMATICS

A.A.DEIXISDEIXIS

B.B.B. IMPLICIT MEANING B. IMPLICIT MEANING (PRESUPPOSITIONS)(PRESUPPOSITIONS)

DEIXISDEIXIS

• It is the anchoring of language use in a real It is the anchoring of language use in a real world by pointing at variables along some of world by pointing at variables along some of its dimensions (its dimensions (indexicals)indexicals)::

• Person deixis (social deixis) Person deixis (social deixis) – the speaker – the speaker (I); the addressee (you); the others (he, she, it)(I); the addressee (you); the others (he, she, it)

• Time deixis (Time deixis ( with ‘now’ as the conventional with ‘now’ as the conventional deictic centre)deictic centre)

• Spatial deixisSpatial deixis (with ‘here’ as the (with ‘here’ as the conventional deictic centre)conventional deictic centre)

• Discourse deixis Discourse deixis (cohesion and coherence (cohesion and coherence devices in a text)devices in a text)

PERSON DEIXISPERSON DEIXISHONORIFICSHONORIFICS

• Person deixis operates on a basic three part Person deixis operates on a basic three part division, the speaker (I), the addressee (you) and division, the speaker (I), the addressee (you) and other(s) (he, she, it). other(s) (he, she, it).

• in many languages these deictic expressions are in many languages these deictic expressions are elaborated with markers of social status Yule elaborated with markers of social status Yule (1996) . Expressions which indicate higher status (1996) . Expressions which indicate higher status are described as are described as honorificshonorifics (social deixis). (social deixis).

• For example, in French and Romanian there are For example, in French and Romanian there are two different forms that encode a social contrast two different forms that encode a social contrast within person deixis, ‘tu’ (tu) and within person deixis, ‘tu’ (tu) and ‘vous’(dumneavoastra). This is known as ‘vous’(dumneavoastra). This is known as T/V T/V distinctiondistinction..

PERSON DEIXISPERSON DEIXIS• Using a third person form, where a second person Using a third person form, where a second person

would be possible, is one way of communicating would be possible, is one way of communicating distance. This can also be done for humorous or ironic distance. This can also be done for humorous or ironic purposes, as in:purposes, as in:

‘‘Would his highness like some coffee?’Would his highness like some coffee?’• The distance associated with third person forms is also The distance associated with third person forms is also

used to make potential accusations less direct, as in:used to make potential accusations less direct, as in:Somebody didn’t clean up after himself.Somebody didn’t clean up after himself.• There is also a potential ambiguity in the use in English There is also a potential ambiguity in the use in English

of the first person plural. There is an of the first person plural. There is an exclusive weexclusive we (speaker plus others, excluding addressee) and (speaker plus others, excluding addressee) and inclusive weinclusive we (speaker and addressee included), as in (speaker and addressee included), as in the following possible reply to the accusation:the following possible reply to the accusation:

We clean up after ourselves around here.We clean up after ourselves around here.

DEICTIC PROJECTIONDEICTIC PROJECTION

• Deictic projectionDeictic projection= speakers being able to project = speakers being able to project themselves into other locations, time or shift person themselves into other locations, time or shift person reference. Eg. via dramatic performances, when using reference. Eg. via dramatic performances, when using direct speech to represent the person, location and direct speech to represent the person, location and feelings of someone else.feelings of someone else.

E.g.: I was looking at this little puppy in a cage with E.g.: I was looking at this little puppy in a cage with such a sad look on its face. It was like, ‘Oh, I’m so such a sad look on its face. It was like, ‘Oh, I’m so unhappy here, will you set me free?’ (taken from unhappy here, will you set me free?’ (taken from Yule, 1996:13)Yule, 1996:13)

• All indexical expressions refer to certain world All indexical expressions refer to certain world conditions, either subjective or objective in nature. The conditions, either subjective or objective in nature. The following story, borrowed from Levinson 1983:68) is following story, borrowed from Levinson 1983:68) is meant to illustrate the importance of having the right meant to illustrate the importance of having the right point of view, and how one can anticipate the way people point of view, and how one can anticipate the way people will construe the world in terms of their point of view.will construe the world in terms of their point of view.

A melamed (Hebrew teacher) discovering that heA melamed (Hebrew teacher) discovering that hehad left his comfortable slippers back in the house,had left his comfortable slippers back in the house,sent a student after them with a note for his wife.sent a student after them with a note for his wife.The note read: “Send me your slippers with thisThe note read: “Send me your slippers with thisboy”. When the student asked why he had writtenboy”. When the student asked why he had written‘‘your’ slippers, the melamed answered: ‘Yold!your’ slippers, the melamed answered: ‘Yold!(Fool) If I wrote ‘my’ slippers, she would read ‘my(Fool) If I wrote ‘my’ slippers, she would read ‘myslippers’ and would send her slippers. What could Islippers’ and would send her slippers. What could Ido with her slippers? So I wrote ‘your’ slippers,do with her slippers? So I wrote ‘your’ slippers,she’ll read ‘your’ slippers and send me mine.”she’ll read ‘your’ slippers and send me mine.”

TEMPORAL DEIXISTEMPORAL DEIXIS

• One basic type of temporal deixis in English is in One basic type of temporal deixis in English is in the choice of verb tense, which has only two basic the choice of verb tense, which has only two basic forms, the present and the past (forms, the present and the past (the proximal the proximal and the distaland the distal). The past tense is always used in ). The past tense is always used in English in those if-clauses that mark events English in those if-clauses that mark events presented by the speaker as not being close to presented by the speaker as not being close to present reality.present reality.

• E.g. If I had a yacht…E.g. If I had a yacht…(source: Yule, 1996:15)(source: Yule, 1996:15)• The idea expressed in the example is not treated The idea expressed in the example is not treated

as having happened in the past. It is presented as as having happened in the past. It is presented as deictically distant from the speaker’s current deictically distant from the speaker’s current situation. So distant, that it actually communicates situation. So distant, that it actually communicates the negative (we infer that the speaker has no the negative (we infer that the speaker has no yacht).yacht).

SPATIAL DEIXISSPATIAL DEIXIS

• The concept of distance is relevant to The concept of distance is relevant to spatial deixis, where the relative location of spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. people and things is being indicated. Contemporary English makes use of two Contemporary English makes use of two adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’, for the basic adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’, for the basic distinction. Some verbs of motion, such as distinction. Some verbs of motion, such as ‘come’ and ‘go’, retain deictic sense when ‘come’ and ‘go’, retain deictic sense when they are used to mark movement toward they are used to mark movement toward the speaker (‘the speaker (‘Come to bed’)Come to bed’) or away the or away the speaker speaker (‘Go to bed’).(‘Go to bed’).

TASKTASK Identify indexicals in the Identify indexicals in the

following textfollowing text1.1.Debby: Go anywhere today?Debby: Go anywhere today?2.2.Dan: Yes, we went down to Como. Up by bus, and Dan: Yes, we went down to Como. Up by bus, and

back by hydrofoil.back by hydrofoil.3.3.Debby: Anything to see there?Debby: Anything to see there?4.4.Dan: Perhaps not the most interesting of Italian Dan: Perhaps not the most interesting of Italian

towns, but it’s worth the trip.towns, but it’s worth the trip.5.5.Debby: I might do that next Saturday.Debby: I might do that next Saturday.6.6. Jane: What do you mean when you say perJane: What do you mean when you say perhapshaps

not the most interesting of Italian towns?not the most interesting of Italian towns?7.7. Jack: He means Jack: He means cercertainly not the most interesting…tainly not the most interesting…8.8.Dan: Just trying to be polite.Dan: Just trying to be polite.

IMPLICIT MEANINGIMPLICIT MEANING

==what can be meant or communicatedwhat can be meant or communicated

beyond what is explicitly or literally said, beyond what is explicitly or literally said, byby

means of presuppositions, implications andmeans of presuppositions, implications and

implicaturesimplicatures

• Conventional means for conveying Conventional means for conveying implicit meaning: implicit meaning: PRESUPPOSITIONSPRESUPPOSITIONS

PRESUPPOSITIONSPRESUPPOSITIONS= implicit meaning that must be pre-supposed, = implicit meaning that must be pre-supposed,

understood, taken for granted for an utterance to understood, taken for granted for an utterance to make sense. make sense.

• a. a. Existential presuppositionsExistential presuppositions : : Presuppose the existence, at a given place and/orPresuppose the existence, at a given place and/ortime, of entities in the real world (eg. possessives,time, of entities in the real world (eg. possessives,definite NPsdefinite NPsEg: The King of France is talking to NapoleonEg: The King of France is talking to Napoleon

said at this time in history and using the present said at this time in history and using the present tense, is devoid of real meaning because the tense, is devoid of real meaning because the existential presuppositions carried by the referring existential presuppositions carried by the referring expressions ‘The King of France’ and ‘Napoleon’ are expressions ‘The King of France’ and ‘Napoleon’ are not satisfied.not satisfied.

b.b.Factive Factive presuppositionspresuppositions

A number of verbs (know, realise, regret) or A number of verbs (know, realise, regret) or phrases invoving be aware, be gladphrases invoving be aware, be glad

Eg:Eg:• She didn’t realise he was ill. (He was ill)She didn’t realise he was ill. (He was ill)• We regret telling him (We told hem)We regret telling him (We told hem)• I wasn’t aware that she was married. (She I wasn’t aware that she was married. (She

was married)was married)• I am glad that it’s over (It’s over).I am glad that it’s over (It’s over).

c. Non-factive c. Non-factive presuppositionspresuppositions

• I dreamed that I was rich (I wasn’t I dreamed that I was rich (I wasn’t rich)rich)

• Lexical presuppositionsLexical presuppositions E.g. He E.g. He stopped smoking (He used to smoke)stopped smoking (He used to smoke)

• They started complaining (They They started complaining (They weren’t complaining before)weren’t complaining before)

• Structural presuppositionsStructural presuppositions E.g.: E.g.: When did you leave (You left)When did you leave (You left)

• Where did you buy the bike (You Where did you buy the bike (You bought the bike).bought the bike).

dd. Lexical . Lexical presuppositionspresuppositions

The use of one form with its asserted The use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.(non-asserted) meaning is understood.

Eg. Eg. managemanage (presupposing (presupposing tried)tried)• He stopped smoking (He used to He stopped smoking (He used to

smoke)smoke)• They started complaining (They They started complaining (They

weren’t complaining before)weren’t complaining before)

e. Structural e. Structural presuppositionspresuppositions

Some sentence structures Some sentence structures conventionally presuppose that part conventionally presuppose that part of the structure is already assumed of the structure is already assumed to be true.to be true.

Eg. Eg. wh-constructionswh-constructions

• When did you leave (You left)When did you leave (You left)

• Where did you buy the bike (You Where did you buy the bike (You bought the bike).bought the bike).

TASKSTASKS

Analyse the following utterances in Analyse the following utterances in terms of presuppositions:terms of presuppositions:

• I regret the year of prosperity and peace I regret the year of prosperity and peace has ended.has ended.

• The UN managed to bring about peace.The UN managed to bring about peace.• A time of prosperity and peace will return.A time of prosperity and peace will return.• What the UN did was to bring about peace What the UN did was to bring about peace

in Bosnia.in Bosnia.• 1996, which was a year of prosperity and 1996, which was a year of prosperity and

peace, will be remembered forever.peace, will be remembered forever.

TASKSTASKS

Study the following sign, appearing at selected Study the following sign, appearing at selected private parking sites throughout the Greater private parking sites throughout the Greater Chicago area (Mey, 1993:15). What does this Chicago area (Mey, 1993:15). What does this sign tell you explicitly? And implicitly?sign tell you explicitly? And implicitly?

__________________________________________________________________________________ALL UNAUTHORIZED VECHICLESALL UNAUTHORIZED VECHICLESWILL BE TOWED BY LINCOLNWILL BE TOWED BY LINCOLNTOWING SERVICE TO 4884 N.CLARKTOWING SERVICE TO 4884 N.CLARKFEE $80.00FEE $80.00 CASH,CASH,VISA & MASTER CHARGE ACCEPTEDVISA & MASTER CHARGE ACCEPTEDPHONE 561-4433PHONE 561-4433