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Botany Bay Project W orking paper no. 2
Liquid waste m anagem entC.Joy,W .Hickson and M .B uchanan
HANCOCK I T D 1 8 9 .5
■ A82 B6 -B64 no . 2
TD189.5.A82B6.B64 no.2
N 0 9 8 5 1 1
a . n . u . l i b r a r y
This book was published by ANU Press between 1965–1991.
This republication is part of the digitisation project being carried out by Scholarly Information Services/Library and ANU Press.
This project aims to make past scholarly works published by The Australian National University available to
a global audience under its open-access policy.
Liquid waste management
Botany Bay working paper ino. 22 (Completed February 1977)
Liquid waste managementC.Joy,W.Hickson and M.Buchanan
Botany Bay Project Canberra 1978
First published in Australia 1978
Printed in Australia.
(5) C. Joy W. Hickson, M. Buchanan 1978
This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of privatste stuc research, criticism, or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part t may reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be mad<de to t publisher.
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry
Joy, C.Liquid waste management.
(Botany Bay project working paper; No. 2). ISBN 0 7081 1343 5
1. Sewage disposal — Sydney. I. Hickson, W., joint author. II. Buchanan, M., joint author.III. Title. (Series)
628.3099441
FOREWORD
This is the last of the three volumes of Working Papers prepared for the Botany Bay Project. These published papers covered environmental law, air pollution control and now problems of water quality. Other papers in addition to these were produced but the Management Committee decided to limit publication to these areas. In the main, the major Reports of the Project fully conveyed the contents of these unpublished papers.A basic consideration in publication of papers has been
that a good deal of technical information existed in some papers and much of these technical data could not be incorporated fully in the more generalised Reports. This applies to the three papers in this volume by Drs Buchanan and Joy and by Mr Hickson.
As with other Working Papers, this volume is presented with minimal editing, to preserve the integrity of the original documents. Since the Reports were produced under my Editorial direction to give some emphasis to social issues, it is more appropriate that the technical and technological orientation of these Working Papers should be allowed to appear without editorial interference.Drs Buchanan and Joy and Mr Hickson were all members of
staff of the Project and these papers were prepared in circumstances in which many other pressures intruded on their time. The Project was fortunate to have their enthusiasm and wit in the completion of these many tasks and of the papers that are collected together in this volume.
N.G. Butlin December 1976
v
CONTENTS
F o r e w o r d v
MANAGEMENT POLICY M D PRACTICE (C. J o y )
1. INTRODUCTION
2 . THE LIQUID WASTE CYCLE 2 . 1 G e n e r a t i o n
D i s p o s a l A s s i m i l a t i o n
2 . 3 . 1 P u b l i c H e a l t h T h r e a t s2 . 3 . 2 O r g a n i c W a s t e M a t t e r2 . 3 . 3 A q u a t i c N u t r i e n t s2 . 3 . 4 F l o a t i n g W a s t e M a t t e r2 . 3 . 5 O i l
3. THE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES IN THE BOTANY BAY REGION
3. 1 T h e B o t a n y Bay R e g i o n3 . 2 L i q u i d W a s t e G e n e r a t i o n3 . 3 L i q u i d W a s t e D i s p o s a l
WATER RESOURCE CONFLICTS IN THE BOTANY BAY REGION4 . 1 W a t e r R e s o u r c e U s e s a n d U s e r s4 . 2 H e a l t h T h r e a t s - D o m e s t i c W a s t e w a t e r4 . 3 H e a l t h T h r e a t s - T o x i c M a t e r i a l s4 . 4 S i c k W a t e r w a y s - I n a d e q u a t e D i s s o l v e d Oxygen4 . 5 N u t r i e n t R i c h R i v e r s - U n d e s i r a b l e A q u a t i c
P l a n t G r o w th4 . 6 S t i c k y F e e t a n d G r e a s y B e a c h e s4 . 7 C o n t a m i n a t e d G r o u n d w a t e r - I n d u s t r y F o u l i n g
I t s Own N e s t4 . 8 Murky R i v e r s - E x c e s s i v e S u s p e n d e d S o l i d s4 . 9 A c c i d e n t a l P o l l u t i o n - O i l S p i l l s a n d O t h e r
D i s c h a r g e s4 . 1 0 E r o s i o n a n d S i l t a t i o n o f W a t e r w a y s4 . 1 1 T h e F u t u r e
MANAGEMENT : SYDNEY AUTHORITIES AND THEIR ACTIVITES 5 . 1 An O v e r a l l P i c t u r e
1
3
679
1112131415 15
16161822
2830313233
34 36
3637
3738 40
4243
v i i
5.2 The Metropolitan Water, Sewerage andDrainage Board 475.2.1 Water Supply 485.2.2 Sewered Wastes 515.2.3 Sewage Treatment 515.2.4 Industrial Wastewater 555.2.5 Sewer Overflows 59
5.3 The Water Pollution Control Branch 595.3.1 The Classification of Waterbodies 605.3.2 Pollution Control Activities 655.3.3 Monitoring of Water Quality 67
5.4 The Maritime Services Board '706. MANAGEMENT : PROBLEMS AND POSSIBILITIES 73Footnotes 77Text Tables
I Estimated Water Consumption in the BotanyBay Region for the 12 Month Period to theEnd of June, 1973 20
II Estimated Liquid Waste Generation in theBotany Bay Region for the 12 Month Period to the End of June, 1973 21
III The Discharge of Botany Bay Region LiquidWastes Into Inland and Ocean Waters(1,000 m. litres) 26
IV Future Demand of the Sydney Water SupplySystem 49
V Major Storage Reservoirs of the SydneySupply System 50
VI Details of Sewer Systems Serving the SydneyRegion 52
VII Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and DrainageBoard Standards for Acceptance of Trade Wastes to Sewer and Stormwater Channel 56
VIII The Control of Illegal Industrial WasteDischarges by the M.W.S. & D.B. 58
IX Restrictions on the Discharge of Wastesinto Classes, R, C, P & S Wastes 62
viii
X Activities of the Water Pollution Control Branch in Regard to the Implementation of the Clean Waters Act and Regulations 66
XI Prosecutions Under the Prevention of OilPollution of Navigable Waters Act 71
Text FiguresThe Botany Bay Region 17The Generation of Liquid Wastes in the
Botany Bay Region 19Sydney’s Water Resources 23Disposal of Liquid Wastes Generated in the
Botany Bay Drainage Basin 25Major Authorities Responsible for the
Management of Liquid Wastes in Sydney 44
PLANNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEWERAGE FACILITIES IN SYDNEY (M.E. Buchanan) 811. INTRODUCTION 832. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEWERAGE SERVICES IN SYDNEY 83
2.1 Provision of Sewerage to Outlying Areas 852.2 Provision of Sewerage for Inner City
Redevelopment 863. LABOR’S NATIONAL SEWERAGE PROGRAM 1972-1975 88
3.1 The National Sewerage Program - Sydney 914. CONCLUSION 94Appendix A 96Appendix B 107Appendix C 109Footnotes p 111
Text TablesI Projected population of ’major urban areas'
of New South Wales, 1971-2001 95
ix
A. 1 S e w e re d P r o p e r t i e s i n 1954 c. 97
A .2 S e w e re d D w e l l in g i n L o c a l G o v e rn m e n t A r e a s- 1971 C e n s u s D a ta 1(100
A. 3 P r o p e r t i e s N o t S e r v e d b y S e w e ra g e : 1971 1(106
T e x t F i g u r e s
A . 1 P e r c e n t o f P r o p e r t i e s S e w e re d : B o ta n yB ay C a tc h m e n t L .G .A s : 1 9 5 4 -1 9 7 3 f 99
A. 2 ( a ) P e r c e n t o f P r o p e r t i e s S e w e re d 1954 1(101
( b ) P e r c e n t o f P r o p e r t i e s S e w e re d 1960 1(102
( c ) P e r c e n t o f P r o p e r t i e s S e w e re d 1966 1(103
( d ) P e r c e n t o f P r o p e r t i e s S e w e re d 1972 1(104
A .3 P e r c e n t a g e s o f P o p u l a t i o n S e r v e d b y S e w e ra g e i n B o ta n y B ay C a tc h m e n t ,1 9 5 2 -1 9 7 3 1(105
SERVICE AND CAPITAL CHARGES FOR SYDNEY’ S SEWER WASTES(W .J . H ic k s o n ) 1113
1 . INTRODUCTION 1 U 5
2 . APPROACHES TO LIQ U ID WASTE MANAGEMENT I t 16
3 . THE ROLE OF PRICES IN DEMAND MANAGEMENT I t 19
4 . COMMON TYPES OF SEWERAGE CHARGING SCHEMES 1120
5 . INDUSTRIAL WASTE CHARGES IN SYDNEY 1121
6 . GENERAL IMPLICATIONS OF TRADE WASTE CHARGES 1124
7 . CROSS-SUBSIDISATION THROUGH THE SYDNEY BOARD'SCHARGING SYSTEM 1127
8 . PRICIN G TO FINANCE CAPITAL OUTLAYS 1 .31
9 . THE PROFILE OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON SEWER WASTEDISPOSAL IN SYDNEY 1.34
0 . SUB-DIVIDERS AND DEVELOPERS' CONTRIBUTIONS 1.36
1 . IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 1 4 0
Appendix A Footnotes
142143
Text TablesI Total Revenue From Trade Waste ChargesII All Properties: Water Revenue and
Consumption Sydney Statistical Division, 1972/73
III Analysis of Sewerage and DrainageRevenue, Sydney Region, 1972/73
IV Capital Finance Account, M.W.S. & D.B.1970/71 to 1974/75
V Financing of Capital Works from theRenewals and Other Purposes Reserve Account - 1971/71 to 1974/75
VI Average Servicing Charges and Costs,Outer Sydney
VII Operation of Developer ContributionPolicy in Sydney, 1962-75
Text Figures1 Effect of Strength Charge on Industrial
Waste Discharged2. Industry's Demand Curve for Sewerage
Treatment
Text Graphs1. Expenditure on New Capital Works,
M.W.S. & D. Board, 1965/66-1974/752. Capital Expenditure on Major Sewerage
Facilities, by Type, 1967/68-1974/75
128
129
130
132
133
137
139
125
126
135
135
xi
MANAGEMENT POLICY AND PRACTICE
C. Joy
July 1975
1. INTRODUCTION
W aste Management i s a p ro b le m o f i n c r e a s i n g eco n o m ic , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n c e rn t o c i t y r e g io n s , f o r i t i s h e r e t h a t th e c o n c e n t r a t io n s o f p e o p le , i n d u s t r y and u rb a n s t r u c t u r e s i n t e n s i f y b o th th e g e n e r a t io n o f w a s te s and th e ty p e and num ber o f c o n f l i c t s t h a t a r i s e d u r in g t h e i r d i s p o s a l . A c i t y ' s w a s te s a r e u l t i m a t e l y d is c h a r g e d i n t o th e la n d , a i r and w a te rb o d ie s o f th e s u rro u n d in g e n v iro n m e n t. H ere th e y a r e a s s i m i l a t e d and d i s p e r s e d by a v a r i e t y o f p h y s i c a l , c h e m ica l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . \ D i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o f p e o p le u se th e e n v iro n m en t f o r a v a r i e t y o f p u rp o s e s . In many in s ta n c e s w a s te d i s p o s a l and a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t e r f e r e w i th t h e s e o th e r u s e s : w a s te s 'p o l l u t e ' t h e e n v iro n m e n t, th e y re d u c e 'e n v ir o n m e n ta l q u a l i t y ' and th e y d e c re a s e 'e n v ir o n m e n ta l a m e n i ty '. Some w a s te s a r e a d i r e c t t h r e a t to human h e a l t h , b u t th e d e t r im e n ta l e f f e c t s o f many a r e m ore a e s t h e t i c i n n a tu r e .
C o n f l i c t s o f e n v iro n m e n ta l u se im pose ' e x t e r n a l ' c o s t s and lo s s e s on d is a d v a n ta g e d g ro u p s o f p e o p le . They may become more p ro n e to h e a l t h a i l m e n t s , la n d v a lu e s may f a l l in th e a r e a s w here th e y l i v e , o r th e y may no lo n g e r d e s i r e t o , o r even b e a b le t o , p u r s u e c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s i n a f f e c t e d a r e a s o f th e e n v iro n m e n t. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , th e u se o f th e e n v iro n ment f o r w a s te d i s p o s a l p u rp o s e s i s a d i r e c t a d v a n ta g e to o th e r g ro u p s o f p e o p le . By 'e x t e r n a l i z i n g ' p a r t o f t h e i r w a s te m anagem ent c o s t s , w a s te d i s c h a r g e r s a r e n o t r e q u i r e d to m eet t h e i r f u l l m a n u fa c tu r in g o r p r o c e s s c o s t s .\ W aste m anagem ent i s an e x p e n s iv e u n d e r ta k in g f o r c i t i e s .
M oreover, as a c i t y g ro w s, i t becom es i n c r e a s i n g ly e x p e n s iv e to m a in ta in a g iv e n l e v e l o f e n v iro n m e n ta l a m e n ity . Sydney p r e s e n t ly a l l o c a t e s some 3.5% o f i t s g r o s s d o m e s tic p ro d u c t to w a s te m anagem ent. Sewage t r e a tm e n t p l a n t s p r e s e n t l y u n d e r c o n s t r u c t io n a r e a lo n e e s t im a te d to c o s t some $150-$200 m i l l i o n . The v e ry m a g n itu d e o f th e s e r e s o u r c e s i s s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n to q u e s t io n th e aim s and o b j e c t i v e s o f w a s te m anagement p ro g ram s and t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
T h is p a p e r exam ines v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f th e m anagem ent o f l i q u i d w a s te s i n Sydney. 1 L iq u id w a s te s o f c o n c e rn t o th e c i t y i n c lu d e d o m e s tic a n a i n d u s t r i a l w a s te w a te r > s u r f a c e ru n o f f , se w e r o v e r f lo w s and l e a c h a t e from g a rb a g e dumps. By f a r th e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t io n o f t h e s e l i q u i d w a s te s d e p o s i t t h e i r w a s te lo a d i n t o w a te rb o d ie s a ro u n d th e c i t y r e g io n . M ost t h e - e i b y 's s e w e re d w a s te s a r e d is c h a r g e d i n to th e o cean
c 'W ’fe3
waters to the east, although a small but evergrowing fraction discharges into sensitive 'inland* waterways such as George's River, Other discharges into these inland waters include surface run-off, sewer overflows (directed there by special relief valves) and leachate. Although it is decreasing, a considerable proportion of industrial wastewater is also discharged directly into inland waterbodies. These wastes have caused a variety of conflicts in various waterbodies: high levels of faecal bacteria in George's River have led to the closure of public baths; aquatic nutrients are stimulating the growth of alligator weed and the development of algal blooms in George's River; the waters of Alexandra Canal, 'Salt Pan Creek and the upper Parramatta River have all been extensively degraded by industrial discharges; under certain wind and tidal conditions, ocean beaches are coated with greases, fats and other floating matter from nearby sewer outfalls. While these problems are not as extensive or as extreme as many of the more publicized cases from overseas, the reduction in urban amenity has been significant.Geographically, Sydney is in a fortunate position compared
to many other cities, especially those located along large inland waterways. Sydney has ocean waters readily available as a sink of high assimilative capacity for most of its sewered wastes; the city is not forced to use the same water- bodies for waste disposal and water supply; and there are no large upstream urban areas, apart from the suburbs of Sydney itself, to independently pollute the rivers draining the city. These factors simplify the management of liquid wastes in Sydney and partially explain why water resources conflicts have not been as extensive or as extreme as overseas examples.For many years the management of liquid wastes in Sydney
rested with 3 major authorities, the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board, the Department of Public Health and the Maritime Services Board. For a variety of reasons this management structure was not successful in controlling the detrimental effects of liquid wastes. There was little co-operation and co-ordination between authorities, each of which held very narrow views of its own responsibilities.(The Maritime Services Board was completely disinterested in its water pollution control responsibilities and made little effort to enforce them.) The Public Health Act, with its emphasis on 'nuisance' rather than amenity, provided little scope for the effective management of industrial wastes discharged to watercourse.
4
But more importantly, these authorities held the view that 'management' was solely 'disposal'; wastes were something merely to be disposed of. Essentially, Management consisted of providing specific 'technical' solutions to individual problems that were viewed in isolation from the many other factors that affected urban amenity. While such 'solutions' were often 'successful' within the narrow criteria of the individual authority concerned, they were not being guided towards overall goals. Indeed, no attempts were made to define such goals.
In the last five years or so the administrative side of Liquid Waste Management in Sydney has been significantly restructured. Two new authorities, the State Pollution Control Commission (particularly its Water Pollution Control Branch), and the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority have been created. The various authorities still, however, tend to operate in an isolated manner and objectives still are not recognized and evaluated in terms of urban amenity. Moreover, the present Sydney liquid management structure still does not recognize the variety of interrelated urban elements that shape urban amenity.What is missing from the present structure is a 'true'
management strata. The potential consequences of this largely rudderless management are well illustrated by the Delaware River Program in the U.S.A. The water of this river is extensively degraded by liquid wastes from the several large urban centres that drain into it. After a study of the impact of these wastes, it was decided to spend some $700 million to increase dissolved oxygen levels along the river. Quite apart from a number of technical shortcomings of the study, a recent critique has argued that this expenditure will not significantly increase either the recreational amenity of the river for nearby residents or its attractiveness as habitat for aquatic organisms. It seems that in social amenity terms, the money would have been better devoted to either protecting and preserving a relatively unpolluted area at the mouth of the river, or to improving the quality of a tributary of the Delaware, rather than the quality of some 150 kilometres of the river itself. Basically, it was the lack of consideration of measures of environmental amenity that led to this inefficient and ineffective spending of resources. We can see a glimmer of a similar but lesser situation in Sydney, with the proposal of Water Pollution Control Branch to improve the quality of Cook's River by the construction of a series of impoundments along the river.
This small river system, confined to flow between concrete banks for a good deal of its length, is both the most polluted and least used waterway in Sydney. Any improvement in quality will not be reflected in significantly increased amenity. Too many other factors tip the scale the other way. Before embarking on such a scheme, Sydney authorities should carefully examine its costs and likely benefits.The real urban environmental issue in cities such as Sydney
is not the presence or absence of pollution, but rather the balance to be struck between the controlled pollution of the environment for waste disposal purposes on the one hand, and the degree to which this interferes with other uses and users on the other. In striking this balance, the wants and desires of affected groups in society, the values they attach to the amenity of their environment, and the costs and benefits of various schemes should all enter into policy decisions.The piecemeal and narrow approach of Sydney’s liquid waste authorities falls far short of these ideals. And as long as it does so, waste management in Sydney must tend to be ineffective, inefficient and inequitable. Moreover, the intensity of problems will increase in the future with the urban expansion of Sydney into the western areas that are drainaged by inland waterways. Waterbodies such as the George's River, and to a lesser extent the Nepean River have a very low capacity to assimilate liquid wastes. Not only will problems intensify, but their nature will change as well. Whereas past problems have centred around the traditional concerns of B.O.D. and faecal bacteria, those of the future will increasingly involve aquatic nutrients, toxic materials and oil spills.To date, the response of Sydney's liquid waste management
has been largely ’remedial’. A challenge for future management is the possibility of introducing ’preventative’ controls to alleviate problems before they develop or intensify. Such an approach will require a restructuring of management with more emphasis on urban planning. It will also require information of a new sort - namely, the values and priorities that Sydneysiders attach to the amenity of their waterbodies.
2. THE LIQUID WASTE CYCLE
Falling rain drives the liquid waste cycle. It replenishes the reservoirs that supply water for the household, business and industrial needs of the city, water that after use mainly
6
becom es ’w a s te w a te r ’ , a l i q u i d w a s te t h a t i s m o s tly d is p o s e d b y d i s c h a r g e i n t o w a te r b o d ie s , o f t e n v i a sew ers and d r a i n s . R a in w a te r , as i t wends i t s way b ack to th e o c e a n , t r a n s p o r t s a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s i n t o w a te rb o d ie s . R a in , i n th e form o f ’ s u r f a c e r u n - o f f ' , s c o u rs w a s te s from c i t y s u r f a c e s and f lu s h e s them i n t o w a te r b o d ie s ; i t s e e p s i n to w a s te s b u r ie d o r dumped on la n d and d i s s o lv e s w a s te m a t e r i a l s t o p ro d u c e a c o n c e n t r a te d l i q u i d w a s te known a s ' l e a c h a t e 1 , much o f w h ich e s c a p e s i n to w a te r c o u r s e s ; and r a in w a te r , f i n d i n g i t s way i n t o s e w e rs , c a u se s them to o v e rf lo w and d i s c h a r g e t h e i r c o n te n ts i n t o n e a rb y c re e k s and s tr e a m s .T h ese l i q u i d w a s te s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f how th e y e n t e r w a te r - b o d i e s , i n t e r f e r e w ith th e a m e n ity o f o th e r w a te r r e s o u r c e u s e s and u s e r s .
T h is s e c t i o n d e s c r ib e s th e g e n e r a t io n and d i s p o s a l o f l i q u i d w a s te s and th e w a te r p o l l u t i o n p ro b lem s t h a t a r i s e d u r in g t h e i r a s s i m i l a t i o n i n w a te r b o d ie s . A lth o u g h Sydney i s r e f e r r e d to i n p a s s in g , t h i s s e c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y g e n e r a l b a c k g ro u n d f o r r e a d e r s u n f a m i l i a r w i th t h e s e a s p e c t s . O th e r r e a d e r s a r e i n v i t e d to s k ip t o t h e n e x t s e c t i o n w here th e g e n e r a t i o n and d i s p o s a l o f l i q u i d w a s te s i n th e B otany Bay r e g io n o f Sydney i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l .
2 . 1 G e n e ra t io n
W ate r i s e s s e n t i a l to many human a c t i v i t i e s . C o s t ly r e s e r v o i r s , t r e a tm e n t p l a n t s and r e t i c u l a t i o n n e tw o rk s a r e b u i l t to c o l l e c t , s t o r e and d e l i v e r p o t a b l e w a te r to c i t y consum ers who u se i t m a in ly f o r h o u s e h o ld , b u s in e s s and i n d u s t r i a l p u rp o se s and f o r th e i r r i g a t i o n o f p a rk s and g a rd e n s . H ouseho ld and b u s in e s s u sa g e i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e upkeep o f p e r s o n a l h e a l t h and c l e a n l i n e s s a t home and a t w ork and in c lu d e s w a te r f o r w a sh in g p u rp o s e s i n k i t c h e n s , b a th ro o m s and l a u n d r i e s , and w a te r f o r th e g e n e r a l c le a n in g o f homes and w o rk p la c e s . W ater i s an e s s e n t i a l raw m a t e r i a l o f i n d u s t r y . I t i s u sed f o r a v a r i e t y o f p u rp o s e s t h a t in c lu d e th e c le a n in g o f th e many p r o d u c ts and p ie c e s o f eq u ip m en t o f m a n u fa c tu r in g p r o c e s s e s . I t i s a l s o u sed a s a medium f o r c h e m ic a l r e a c t i o n s and f o r h e a t in g and c o o lin g p u rp o s e s . F i n a l l y , a s i g n i f i c a n t volum e o f w a te r - a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f S ydney’ s a n n u a l co n su m p tio n - i s u sed in th e w a te r in g o f p a rk s and g a rd e n s .
What hap p en s to th e w a te r consum ed f o r th e s e p u rp o se s ? M ost o f th e w a te r u se d f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s r e tu r n e d to t h e a tm osp h e re by th e p r o c e s s e s o f e v a p o r a t io n and p l a n t t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
7
But by far the greatest volume of water used for household, business and industrial purposes is degraded by the addition of small amounts of waste materials and becomes wastewater.In fact, by far the most common use of water in a city - accounting for about two-thirds of Sydney's annual consumption - is to remove waste materials and transfer them to some other area of the environment. To this end, extensive and costly sewerage networks are constructed.Wastewater is mainly water with very little waste. Domestic
sewage, for example, is, by weight, over 99.5% water. The remainder - less than 0.5% - is actual waste materials. Although only a minor component, these small quantities of- waste matter are responsible for the major detrimental effects of liquid wastes on the amenity of waterbodies. Domestic wastewater, the end product of water used for household and business consumption, contains urine and faecal matter from toilets, dirt, oil, bleaches, soaps and other cleaning compounds from bathrooms, kitchens and laundries; and kitchen foodscraps. The waste materials in industrial wastewater include foodscraps and a wide variety of other organic matter from breweries, dairies, abattoirs, fruit and vegetable canneries, paper mills, wool scourers and dye-houses; inert wastes such as the dirt and coal dust from coal washing operations; and most importantly, the many toxic wastes arising from modern manufacturing processes, such as electroplating operations and the production of organic and inorganic chemicals.As well as domestic and industrial wastewater, the continual
movement of water between ocean, atmosphere and land generates a number of other liquid wastes that can collectively be termed 'wet-weather' wastes. Falling rain scavenges air-borne wastes and carries them to the ground; surface run-off dissolves and entrains the wastes deposited on urban surfaces and flushes them into watercourses; rainwater trickling and percolating through wastes buried or dumped on land, such as at garbage dumps, leaches out waste materials; while rainwater entering sewers through cracks and leaks and from the illegal connection of roof drainage to sewer causes them to overflow and discharge their wastes over the land's surface and into nearby waterbodies.
Thus, we see that the management of 'liquid' wastes is also linked to the management of 'air-borne' and 'solid' wastes.As far as Sydney is concerned, air-borne wastes are a negligible component of the water pollution problems of the city and will not be discussed further. In contrast,
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l e a c h a t e from th e c i t y ’ s g a rb a g e dumps t o g e t h e r w i th sew er o v e r f lo w s h a v e had a m arked p o l l u t i n g e f f e c t on a number o f t h e Sydney ’ s s m a l l e r w a t e r b o d i e s .
W e t-w e a th e r w a s t e s c o n t a i n a w ide v a r i e t y o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s and i n many c a s e s can be as damaging t o t h e a m e n i ty o f w a t e r - b o d i e s a s d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r . S u r f a c e r u n - o f f c o n t a i n s e f f l u e n t from l e a k i n g s e p t i c t a n k s and o t h e r f a u l t y d i s p o s a l sy s te m s u se d i n unsew ered a r e a s ; a n im a l f a e c e s ; l e a v e s , g r a s s , c l i p p i n g s and f e r t i l i z e r s from g a r d e n s ; fo o d - s c r a p s ; g e n e r a l l i t t e r ; a v a r i e t y o f t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s t h a t i n c l u d e l e a d from l e a d e d m o to r f u e l s , z i n c , and o r g a n ic p e s t i c i d e s and w e e d i c i d e s , su ch as DDT, from g a r d e n s ; and c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f th e f i n e s i l t - l i k e m a t t e r t h a t makes w a t e r b o d i e s murky a f t e r s t o r m s . 3 L e a c h a te t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n s v e ry h ig h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o r g a n i c w a s t e s d e r i v e d from t h e f o o d s c r a p s , p a p e r and o t h e r o r g a n i c m a t t e r d i s p o s e d a t g a rb a g e dumps, and i r o n s a l t s from t h e r u s t i n g o f ’ t i n ’ cans and o t h e r s t e e l p r o d u c t s . Sewer o v e r f lo w s c o n s i s t o f u n t r e a t e d o r ’ raw ' sew age , b u t a r e o f t e n h e a v i l y d i l u t e d by t h e r a i n w a t e r c a u s in g them.
2 .2 D i s p o s a l
The d i s p o s a l o f l i q u i d w a s t e s i s s t r o n g l y f o c u s s e d a ro u n d w a t e r b o d i e s , f o r i t i s h e r e t h a t m ost o f t h e l i q u i d w a s t e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r p r o b le m s , a r e d i r e c t e d . D is c h a r g e i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s i s g e n e r a l l y t h e o n ly f e a s i b l e method o f d i s p o s a l f o r t h e h u g e volum es o f d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r g e n e r a te d i n c i t i e s . (The u s e o f t h e s e w a s t e s f o r l a n d i r r i g a t i o n , an a p p a r e n t l y a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e , i s u s u a l l y i m p r a c t i c a l b e c a u s e o f t h e v a s t a r e a s o f l a n d r e q u i r e d . ) As w e l l as d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r , m ost o f t h e w e t - w e a th e r w a s t e s a l s o t e n d t o f i n d t h e i r way i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s , w hich fo rm p a r t o f a c i t y ’ s n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e sy s te m . L e a c h a te t e n d s to g r a v i t a t e i n t o n e a rb y w a t e r c o u r s e s and sew er o u t f lo w s a r e d i r e c t e d t h e r e by s p e c i a l r e l i e f v a l v e s .
Sewer s y s te m s p l a y a key r o l e i n t h e d i s p o s a l o f d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r . They a l lo w t h e s e w a s t e s , i n t h e form o f ’ s e w a g e ' , t o be c o l l e c t e d from a w ide a r e a and t r a n s p o r t e d away t o be d i s c h a r g e d , w i t h o r w i t h o u t t r e a t m e n t , a t some o t h e r l o c a t i o n . W hile t h e p r o v i s i o n o f se w e ra g e h a s v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d t h e w id e s p r e a d p u b l i c h e a l t h e p id e m ic s o f e a r l i e r d a y s , i t h a s c r e a t e d o t h e r p ro b le m s . The d i s c h a r g e a t a s i n g l e p o i n t o f w a s t e s from a l a r g e number o f g e n e r a t o r s a c c e n t u a t e s t h e p ro b lem s o f d i s p o s a l . D e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s a r e
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c o n c e n t r a t e d i n a l i m i t e d a r e a , and a r e h e ig h t e n e d by th e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e w a te rb o d y t o f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e t h e w a s t e s .One o b v io u s way t o l i m i t t h e e x t e n t o f t h e r e s u l t i n g w a t e r p o l l u t i o n i s t o ’ t r e a t ’ sewage to remove some o f t h e w a s te m a t e r i a l s p r i o r to d i s c h a r g e . ( I t i s g e n e r a l l y im p o s s ib l e t o remove a l l t h e w a s t e s , as few ty p e s o f t r e a t m e n t a r e e n t i r e l y e f f e c t i v e . C o n s e q u e n t ly , t h e e f f l u e n t , a s t h e t r e a t e d l i q u i d i s known, u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s r e s i d u a l w a s te m a t t e r . ) To t h i s e n d , l a r g e and c o s t l y sewage t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s have b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d . T h i s , i n f a c t , h a s b e e n th e m ost common way o f r e s p o n d in g t o w a t e r p o l l u t i o n p rob lem s i n Sydney, w here t h e t r e a t m e n t works on a l l m a jo r o c e an o u t f a l l s e w e rs a r e b e in g c u r r e n t l y u p g rad e d .
A number o f t h e w a s t e m a t e r i a l s o f i n d u s t r i a l o r i g i n t h a t u l t i m a t e l y become l i q u i d w a s te p r e s e n t a t h r e a t to human h e a l t h th ro u g h many, i f n o t a l l , s t a g e s o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . They may be a h e a l t h t h r e a t t o w o rk e rs em ployed i n manuf a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s t h a t e i t h e r p ro d u c e o r r e q u i r e them ; i f d i s c h a r g e d t o s e w e r , t h e y may p r e s e n t a t h r e a t to t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y o f sew er workmen, o r damage se w e ra g e f a c i l i t i e s and d i s r u p t sewage t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s ; o r i f d i s c h a r g e d i n t o p u b l i c d r a i n s and w a t e r c o u r s e s , th e y may p r e s e n t a t h r e a t to t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . Once d i s c h a r g e d i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s , some o f t h e s e w a s te s c an a c c u m u la te i n t h e f l e s h o f o y s t e r s and o t h e r s e a f o o d s and p o s e a t h r e a t to humans e a t i n g them. Such w a s te s g e n e r a l l y h a v e t o undergo some fo rm o f t r e a tm e n t b e f o r e se w e ra g e a u t h o r i t i e s w i l l a l lo w them to b e d i s c h a r g e d i n t o p u b l i c s e w e rs o r d r a i n s , o r b e f o r e o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s w i l l a l lo w t h e i r d i r e c t d i s c h a r g e i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s . The r e s u l t i n g ' s l u d g e s ' , o r w a s t e r e s i d u e s removed by t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s , a r e o f t e n h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d and t o x i c . They a r e commonly d i s p o s e d o f on l a n d by dumping o r c o n t r o l l e d b u r i a l , w here t h e y may c a u se p rob lem s o f an a e s t h e t i c o r more s e r i o u s n a t u r e . The i l l e g a l and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e dumping o f i n d u s t r i a l s lu d g e s i n t h e b u s h la n d and w a t e r c o u r s e s o f Sydney h a s c a u se d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e rn o v e r t h e p a s t few y e a r s .
T hus , t h e w a s te m a t e r i a l s c o n ta i n e d i n l i q u i d w a s te s o r i g i n a t e from and a r e d i s c h a r g e d back i n t o t h e l a n d , a i r and w a t e r b o d i e s o f t h e e n v iro n m e n t . Man’ s te c h n o lo g y and th e c o n t i n u a l movement o f w a t e r and to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , w in d , a r e t h e means by w hich w a s te i s t r a n s f e r r e d from one medium to a n o th e r . I n Sydney, a s i n m ost o t h e r c i t i e s , l i q u i d w a s te d i s p o s a l c e n t r e s a ro u n d th e d e l i b e r a t e o r u n p r e v e n t a b l e u se o f t h e c i t y ' s w a t e r b o d i e s as an u l t i m a t e d r a i n f o r t h e m ajor p o r t i o n o f t h e w a s t e s . But t h i s l e a d s t o w a t e r p o l l u t i o n ,
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t h e common p a n a c e a f o r w h ich h a s b een a d d i t i o n a l w a s te t r e a tm e n t . T h ere a r e o t h e r means o f m anaging l i q u i d w a s te s . T h e re i s some p o t e n t i a l f o r r e c y c l i n g and r e u s in g w a s te m a t e r i a l s , s o u rc e c o n t r o l s can b e im posed to l i m i t th e g e n e r a t i o n o f c e r t a i n ty p e s o f w a s t e s , and i n c e r t a i n c a s e s t h e c a p a c i t i e s o f w a te rb o d ie s to a s s i m i l a t e w a s te s can b e i n c r e a s e d . One s h o r tc o m in g o f l i q u i d w a s te m anagem ent in Sydney i s t h a t a num ber o f th e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e n o t b e in g e x p lo r e d .
2 .3 A s s im i la t io n
As we h a v e s e e n , m ost l i q u i d w a s te s c o n s i s t o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l am ounts o f w a s te d i s s o lv e d o r e n t r a in e d in much g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s o f w a te r . A lth o u g h o n ly a m in o r f r a c t i o n o f l i q u i d w a s te s c o n s i s t o f a c t u a l w a s te m a t e r i a l s , i t i s th e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h i s com ponent i n th e w a te rb o d y t h a t i s r e s p o n s i b le f o r n e a r l y a l l o f th e s u b s e q u e n t p ro b le m s . Once d is c h a r g e d i n t o a w a te rb o d y , w a s te m a t e r i a l s a r e a s s i m i l a t e d by a v a r i e t y o f p h y s i c a l , c h e m ic a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t re d u c e t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t io n and d i s t r i b u t e them th ro u g h an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g a r e a o f th e e n v iro n m e n t. As an exam ple o f w a te r a s s i m i l a t i o n by a p h y s ic a l p r o c e s s , c o n s id e r th e d i s c h a r g e o f a l i q u i d w a s te i n t o a r i v e r . As th e w a s te i s f lu s h e d downs tr e a m by th e w a te r , i t g r a d u a l ly d i s p e r s e s o r s p re a d s o u t a c r o s s th e r i v e r and i t s c o n c e n t r a t io n i s re d u c e d by r i v e r w a te r m ix in g w ith th e w a s te m a t e r i a l s . The r a t e o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , o r a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i ty o f th e r i v e r , depends p r i n c i p a l l y on th e r i v e r f lo w . I f th e f lo w i s h ig h , a l a r g e r am ount o f w a te r i s a v a i l a b l e to d i l u t e th e w a s te and f l u s h i t dow nstream and o u t o f th e d is c h a r g e z o n e . V a rio u s c h e m ic a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a l s o a c t upon c e r t a i n w a s te m a t e r i a l s and f u r t h e r re d u c e t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t io n . The u p ta k e o f o r g a n ic m a t t e r by b a c t e r i a i s an exam ple o f a b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s t h a t re d u c e s th e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f w a s te m a t te r (and a l s o d i s s o lv e d oxygen) i n a w a te rb o d y .
I f th e r a t e o f w a s te m a t e r i a l d i s c h a r g e i n t o a w a te rb o d y e x ceed s i t s c a p a c i ty to a s s i m i l a t e th e w a s te e f f e c t i v e l y , m arked p o l l u t i o n and l o s s o f a m e n ity w i l l r e s u l t . The a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f a num ber o f w a te r r e s o u r c e s i n Sydney h a v e b een o v e r s t r e s s e d by e x c e s s iv e wastfe d i s c h a r g e s , th e two m ost n o to r io u s exam ples b e in g A le x a n d ra C an a l and th e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f th e P a r r a m a t ta R iv e r .
A lth o u g h l i q u i d w a s te s c o n ta in a w id e v a r i e t y o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s o r i g i n a t i n g from a l a r g e num ber o f s o u r c e s , t h e i r
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d e t r im e n ta l e f f e c t s on th e a m e n ity o f w a te rb o d ie s a r e l im i t e d i n num ber. As f a r a s Sydney i s c o n c e rn e d , th e m ain w a te r p o l l u t i o n p ro b lem s a r e c a u se d by w a s te s t h a t n o u r i s h th e g row th o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s , by f l o a t i n g w a s te s t h a t w ash up on b e a c h e s , and by o i l . The ty p e o f p o l l u t i o n c a u se d by th e s e w a s te s and i t s e f f e c t s on a m e n ity i s now b r i e f l y d e s c r ib e d . D e t a i l s o f th e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e w a s te s on th e a m e n ity o f S y d n e y 's w a te r - b o d ie s a r e g iv e n i n S e c t io n 4 .
2 .3 .1 P u b l ic H e a lth T h r e a ts
The two w a s te s t h a t p r e s e n t p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t s to p u b l ic h e a l t h a r e f a e c a l m a t t e r from d is e a s e d p e o p le and o th e r a n im a ls and th e t o x i c w a s te m a t e r i a l s t h a t o r i g i n a t e from many m odem i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s . Im p ro p e r ly d is p o s e d f a e c a l m a t te r h a s b een a t h r e a t to p u b l ic h e a l t h th ro u g h o u t th e h i s t o r y o f m ank ind , and h a s c a u se d many o f th e e p id e m ic s o f th e l a s t 4 ,0 0 0 y e a r s . A lth o u g h t o x ic m a t e r i a l s h av e b een used i n m a n u fa c tu r in g p r o c e s s e s f o r many y e a r s , t h e i r w id e s p re a d u se i n m odem m a n u f a c tu r in g , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e Second W orld W ar, h a s made them a more e x te n s iv e t h r e a t to p u b l ic h e a l t h i n r e c e n t t im e s .
A l l f r e s h f a e c a l m a t t e r i s te e m in g w ith b a c t e r i a and o th e r m ic ro -o rg a n is m s . W hile t h e g r e a t m a jo r i ty a re h a r m le s s , th e f a e c a l m a t te r from d is e a s e d p e rs o n s can c o n ta in b a c t e r i a and v i r u s e s t h a t a r e a t h r e a t to p u b l ic h e a l t h . C h o le ra , ty p h o id and h e p a t i t u s a r e among th e d i s e a s e s t h a t can b e t r a n s m i t t e d by c o n ta m in a t io n o f d r in k in g w a te r s u p p l i e s w i th i n f e c t e d f a e c a l m a t te r . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , d r in k in g w a te r i s t y p i c a l l y d i s i n f e c t e d by c h lo r i n a t i o n o r o t h e r m eans b e f o r e b e in g d e l i v e r e d to co n su m ers. In many c a s e s , th e e f f l u e n t from sew age t r e a tm e n t p l a n t s i s a l s o d i s i n f e c t e d to k i l l p o t e n t i a l l y h a rm fu l m ic ro b e s b e f o r e i t i s d is c h a r g e d i n t o s u r f a c e w a te r s . H ow ever, t h e r e i s d isa g re e m e n t o v e r w h e th e r o r n o t t h i s i s n e c e s s a r y i f th e s u r f a c e w a te r s a r e u se d f o r b a th in g and r e c r e a t i o n p u rp o se s r a t h e r th a n a s a s o u rc e o f d r in k in g w a te r .
The U n ite d Kingdom P u b l ic H e a lth L a b o ra to ry S e r v ic e , a f t e r a f i v e - y e a r s tu d y o f 40 sew age p o l lu t e d b a th in g b e a c h e s in E ng land and W ales , c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e was n e g l i g i b l e h e a l th r i s k i n b a th in g i n su c h w a t e r s , t h a t t h i s m in im al r i s k was p ro b a b ly due to ch an ce i n g e s t a t i o n o f i n t a c t f a e c a l m a t te r from i n f e c t e d p e r s o n s , and t h a t t h i s was o n ly l i k e l y to o ccu r w here th e w a te r was so g r o s s ly p o l lu t e d and a e s t h e t i c a l l y r e v o l t i n g t h a t few p e o p le w ould d e l i b e r a t e l y ch o o se to b a th e i n i t . ^ T h u s , i t i s a rg u e d t h a t th e p o l l u t i o n o f b a th in g
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waters with sewage is more an aesthetic problem rather than a definite and unacceptable public health risk,^ and that the chlorination of sewage effluent discharged into bathing waters appears to be unnecessary. Moreover, excessive chlorination can result in the formation of substances that are toxic to larval and other young forms of aquatic life.6 Notwithstanding this line of argument, many public health authorities, those of Sydney included, still maintain a conservative attitude with regard to the pollution of bathing beaches with sewage: they require sewage effluent to be chlorinated and issue public health warnings and close beaches and baths when the level of faecal bacteria in the water becomes 'excessive’.Many of the waste materials originating from modern indus
trial processes are toxic to living organisms. These include the so-called heavy metals (such as chromium, zinc, lead, copper, mercury and arsenic); cyanide compounds, acids and alkalis; some of the organic pesticides and weedicides (such as DDT); and various other organic and inorganic chemical compounds. The major source of these toxic materials is industrial wastewater, although surface run-off may also contain significant quantities. The presence of these substances in waterbodies can be detrimental to aquatic organisms in a variety of ways. If sufficiently high concentrations develop, many toxic substances rapidly kill most forms of aquatic life. Others, such as mercury and DDT, can have detrimental effects even if present in waterbodies in relatively low concentrations. They tend to become concentrated into the body tissues of the higher predators, such as fish, shellfish and birds, where they can interfere with essential life processes. Human consumption of seafoods excessively contaminated with these substances can lead to gastric illness, and in extreme cases, major disability and even death. Oysters contaminated with heavy metals caused several cases of gastric disturbance, ranging from generalized gastric uneasiness to acute nausea and vomiting, in Tasmania in 1970.7 In Japan, 41 people died over a 9-year period from eating seafood contaminated with mercury. The source of this mercury was industrial wastewater discharged into a bay which local people used as a source of seafood.°2.3.2 Organic Waste MatterEach of the various types of liquid wastes is a significant source of organic waste matter. Its utilization as a food source by the so-called aerobic bacteria requires oxygen, and in surface waters, these bacteria consume oxygen dissolved
13
within the waterbody itself. Certain chemical reactions that waste materials undergo in waterbodies also deplete the dissolved oxygen content of the water. For these reasons, we speak of wastes, especially organic wastes, as exerting a biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.), which is a measure of their potential to reduce the level of dissolved oxygen in a waterbody (the higher the B.O.D., the greater the dissolved oxygen reduction). If the B.O.D. of a waste is sufficiently great, the reduction in dissolved oxygen may kill fish, shellfish, and other aquatic organisms or drive them to areas with more satisfactory levels. Ultimately, all of the dissolved oxygen in the waterbody may be consumed, and if.these conditions persist, the water may become anaerobic or 'septic1: blackish in colour with an unpleasant odour similar to rotten eggs and devoid of fish and most other forms of aquatic life. In Sydney, Alexandra Canal is such an example.It was rendered anaerobic and devoid of aquatic life for many years by industrial waste discharges, but is now showing signs of recovery - fish are moving back - as these discharges are being increasingly diverted to sewer.2.3.3 Aquatic NutrientsAquatic nutrients, which are present in all types of liquid waste, can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants to nuisance proportions. The two nutrients of concern are the nitrogen and phosphorous compounds that originate from organic waste matter, urine, agricultural fertilizers and certain types of detergents. Excessive growth of the larger rooted plants can interfere with the use of the waters for bathing and boating purposes; excessive growth of the smaller floating plants, such as algae, can lead to an 'algal bloom'. While algae produce oxygen and increase the dissolved oxygen content of a water- body during daylight hours, they also consume dissolved oxygen in their respiration process during the hours of darkness.Thus, algal blooms are characterized by high levels of dissolved oxygen during the day and low levels during the night. If an algal bloom 'climaxes', it reaches a critical size such that the respiration process of the algae deoxygenates the water and kills algae, fish and other aquatic organisms. As a consequence, masses of dead organisms may wash up onto beaches where they rot to produce a stinking mess. In Sydney, the George's River is presently characterized by fairly regular algal blooms, sporadic fish kills, and the excessive growth of alligator weed, a rooted plant that grows across the water surface as a dense floating mat.
14
The level of nutrients required to foster and sustain aquatic growth in waterbodies is very small. In stagnant waters, such as reservoirs and lakes, levels of as little as 0.01 milligrams per litre of phosphorous and 0.2 milligrams per litre of nitrogen are sufficient to maintain aquatic growth.9,10 Rivers and other flowing waters can, however, apparently sustain levels of up to 10 times these values without nuisance growths occurring.^^ The potential contribution of sewage to aquatic plant growth is apparent when it is realized that nutrient concentrations in untreated sewage are typically of the order of 100 to 1,000 times greater than these levels.2.3.4 Floating Waste MatterBoth dry and wet weather liquid wastes contain floating waste matter which wind and water currents can deposit on beaches where it interferes with their use for recreational purposes. The principal materials of concern are the greases, fats and oils that are present in domestic and industrial wastewater. These materials adhere to feet, towels and clothing and generally reduce recreational amenity. Many of the ocean bathing beaches in Sydney are sporadically contaminated in this way.2.3.5 OilOil and its derivatives, products essential to many industrial processes and human activities, are another class of materials that are detrimental to many uses and users of waterbodies. Major oil spills can transform beaches into oily quagmires and can have devastating effects on birds and aquatic organisms along the seashore.Quite apart from these ill-effects, certain types of deter
gents used to disperse the oil are highly toxic to marine life and often do more harm than the oil itself.13 While major oil spills are a spectacular source of oil pollution, it is probable that a greater quantity of oil enters waterbodies as a waste material in regular industrial wastewater discharges, and as a result of the many minor accidental oil spills that occur in port areas and at land-based industrial establishments. Surface run-off from urban areas also contains oil, most of which originates from discharges or spillages from motor vehicles onto roadways. These regular and smaller discharges of oil can lead to relatively continuous low levels of pollution in port and inland waters. This, in turn, may
taint fish and shellfish and interfere with their use as a fishery resource; it may also interfere with sensitive biological processes of aquatic organisms ; 13,14 an(j may result in low levels of oil pollution along beaches and interfere with their use for recreational purposes.
3. THE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES IN THE BOTANY BAY REGION
3.1 The Botany Bay RegionThe Botany Bay Region consists of the 17 local government areas shown in Fig. 1 and contains about 50% of the population of Sydney. Reasons for examining this limited area, rather than the whole of Sydney, include its more manageable size, greater availability of data, and its present and prospective future importance as an area of waste generation. Many aspects of liquid waste generation and disposal in the Botany Bay region are typical of Sydney as a whole. However, special problems of environmental deterioration arise in the region.
Throughout this century, much of Sydney's urban and industrial growth has been concentrated in the Botany Bay region. Because many of the problems associated with the disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater result in part from this development, it is now briefly described.Urban development has essentially progressed inland from the north-eastern section of the region, close to the city centre, into the more remote southern and western areas. After the Second World War, the municipalities of Liverpool, Bankstown and Fairfield became major development centres. Campbelltown and Sutherland, the current growth centres, are expected to cater for much of Sydney’s future growth. By the year 2000 there could be up to an extra 500,000 people settled in these areas.
An important factor in this development has been the growth of manufacturing in the region. This has basically taken place in three major locations: an area around Alexandra Canal, Cook’s River and the northern shores of Botany Bay in the municipalities of Marrickville, South Sydney and Botany; an area around the upper reaches of Salt Pan Creek in the municipality of Bankstown; and the Villawood area in the municipalities of Bankstown and Fairfield. In addition, there is another old manufacturing area just north of the Botany Bay region along the upper reaches of the Parramatta River. These
16
Built-up area
Sandbeds
Botany Bay drainage basin boundary
Figure. 1 The B otany Bay R egion
17
centres of manufacturing have moved outwards along with urban development, a trend expected to continue with the considerable manufacturing development planned for Campbelltown. Manufacturing around the Botany area is likely to be influenced by the current massive port development along the northern shores of the Bay where some 600 hectares of land are being reclaimed for a major bulk loading and container port. The southern shores of the Bay along the Kurnell peninsular may also become a major industrial and manufacturing area in the future.As a consequence of the existing urban and industrial
development, the Botany Bay region is currently a major source of Sydney's liquid, solid and atmospheric wastes, a trend that is likely to continue and accelerate in the future. Thus, from the point of view of both existing and future problems, waste management and its effects on the amenity of the urban environmental and on human aspirations is likely to remain a basic social, economic and political issue in the region.
3.2 Liquid Waste GenerationThe generation of liquid wastes is, in fact, only part of the larger process by which water moves into, through and out of city areas. The volumes of water involved in this overall 'water balance' for the 12 month period to the end of June 1973, are shown in Fig. 2. (At the time of writing, this period was the most recent for which water consumption figures were available.) The volumes of water consumed for various purposes, wastewater generated by various activities and wastewater removed by various means are estimates by the Botany Bay Project staff. The volumes of precipitation onto the study area and subsequent removal by evapotranspiration and as surface run-off are based on estimates of mean annual values for the Botany Bay drainage basin.15 Missing data and uncertainties in existing data have required a number of simplifications and assumptions in obtaining these estimates.
From Fig. 2, it is seen that precipitation is the major source of water moving into the study area - it accounts for some 85% of the total amount. The remaining 15% is reticulate water from the Sydney water supply system, the bulk of which originates from catchments outside the Botany Bay region. (Woronora reservoir, the sole storage reservoir within the Botany Bay region, provides about 3% of the total storage capacity of the Sydney supply system.) Groundwater from the Botany sand beds, the other important source of reticulated
18
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z <r —• I <r <1 H v |H
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u a; <u cdco Vl s4J CO CO ^ CO S COU *H
J - H P< U U CO CO _ <D 3 a. E -o
C/3 o c f-t Q H-t
•HCOO COa -uVJ U O 3o -a c o
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t ciJ *H W*D
19
w a t e r s u p p l y , i s u sed e x t e n s i v e l y f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t f o r i r r i g a t i o n p u r p o s e s ( o t h e r s m a l l e r g r o u n d w a te r s u p p l i e s e x i s t e l s e w h e r e i n t h e r e g i o n ) .
Most o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o n t o t h e r e g i o n does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f we t w e a t h e r w a s t e s : some t h r e e - q u a r t e r s , i n f a c t , i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e a tm o s p h e re as w a t e r v a p o u r by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n . Most o f t h e r e m a in i n g q u a r t e r becomes s u r f a c e r u n - o f f and p o t e n t i a l l i q u i d w a s t e . Because o f t h e l a r g e r u r a l and b u s h l a n d a r e a s i n t h e o u t e r f r i n g e s o f t h e r e g i o n , p r o b a b l y l e s s t han h a l f o f t h e r u n - o f f a c t u a l l y o r i g i n a t e s f rom u rb an a r e a s . P r e c i p i t a t i o n a l s o r e p l e n i s h e s g r o u n d w a te r consum pt ion from t h e Bo tany sand b e d s . Small ' q u a n t i t i e s o f r a i n w a t e r i n f i l t r a t e i n t o s ew ers and c a u s e them t o o v e r f l o w and p e r c o l a t e t h ro u g h l a n d f i l l s i t e s t o p ro d u ce l e a c h a t e . ( F i g u r e s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e volumes o f s e w e r o v e r f l o w s and l e a c h a t e . )
F i g u r e 2 a l s o shows t h e e s t i m a t e d c onsum pt ion o f r e t i c u l a t e d w a t e r i n t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n by r e s i d e n t i a l p r o p e r t i e s ; i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t i e s ; b u s i n e s s p r o p e r t i e s ( su c h as h o t e l s and o f f i c e b l o c k s ) ; m i s c e l l a n e o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s ( s u c h as s c h o o l s and h o s p i t a l s ) ; f o r t h e i r r i g a t i o n o f p u b l i c p a r k s and p r im a r y p r o d u c t i o n ; and f o r s ew er f l u s h i n g p u r p o s e s . The b u l k o f t h i s w a t e r ( o v e r 90%) o r i g i n a t e s f rom t h e Sydney s u p p ly s y s te m w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r f rom t h e Botany sa n d b e d s . T a b le I shows t h e p e r c e n t a g e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s components t o t h e t o t a l w a t e r c onsum pt ion .
T a b le I E s t i m a t e d W ate r Consumption i n t h e Botany Bay Region f o r t h e 12 Month P e r i o d t o t h e End o f J u n e , 1973
Component Consumption ( 1 ,0 0 0 m. l i t r e s ) P e r c e n t a g e
R e s i d e n t i a l P r o p e r t i e s 100 51%I n d u s t r i a l P r o p e r t i e s A9 25%B u s i n e s s P r o p e r t i e s 16 8%M i s c e l l a n e o u s I n s t i t u t i o n s P u b l i c P a r k s and P r im a ry
10 5%
P r o d u c t i o n 10 5%Sewer F l u s h i n g 12 6%
100%
I t i s s e e n t h a t c onsum pt ion f o r r e s i d e n t i a l and i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s a c c o u n t s f o r o v e r t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e t o t a l w a t e r
20
c o n su m p tio n . A p p ro x im a te ly o n e - t h i r d o f t h e r e s i d e n t i a l cons u m p tio n i s u sed f o r th e w a te r in g o f d o m e s t ic g a rd e n s and i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e a tm osphe re by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n . The o t h e r two—t h i r d s i s u sed f o r h o u s e h o ld p u rp o s e s and s u b s e q u e n t ly becomes d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r , as does t h e w a t e r consumed by b u s i n e s s e s and m is c e l l a n e o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . About 95% o f t h e w a t e r consumed f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u rp o se s becomes i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r ; t h e r e m a in d e r i s a b s o rb e d i n i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s o r i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o m a n u fa c tu re d p r o d u c t s . I n t o t a l , a b o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f th e r e t i c u l a t e d w a t e r consumed w i t h i n t h e s tu d y a r e a - some 150 th o u sa n d m i l l i o n l i t r e s i n 1972/73 - becomes w a s te w a te r a f t e r u s e .
O v e r a l l , ab o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l volume o f w a t e r moving th ro u g h th e s tu d y a r e a becomes an a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l l i q u i d w a s t e . The o t h e r t w o - t h i r d s i s l o s t by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to l i q u i d w a s te g e n e r a t i o n . The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s l i q u i d w a s te s t o t h e t o t a l l i q u i d w a s te volume i s shown i n T a b le I I .
T ab le I I E s t im a te d L iq u id W aste G e n e r a t io n i n t h e Botany Bay Region f o r th e 12 Month P e r io d to t h e End o f J u n e , 1973 ~
Component
S u r fa c e R u n -o f f D om estic W aste w a te r I n d u s t r i a l W astew a te r Sewer O verflow s L a n d f i l l L e a c h a te
404 100%
As w e l l as t h e above v o lu m es , an e s t i m a t e d 12 th o u sa n d m i l l i o n l i t r e s o f w a te r w ere u se d to f l u s h sew ers i n t h e Botany Bay r e g io n d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d o f t im e .
As f a r as volume i s c o n c e rn e d , s u r f a c e r u n - o f f i s th e l a r g e s t l i q u i d w a s t e , f o l lo w e d i n o r d e r by d o m e s t ic w a s t e - w a t e r , i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r , sew er o v e r f lo w s and l a n d f i l l l e a c h a t e . But a s f a r as c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w a s t e m a t e r i a l s i s c o n c e rn e d , t h e r a n k i s a p p ro x im a te ly t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r ; th e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n l a n d f i l l l e a c h a t e , fo l lo w e d by i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r , d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r , sew er o v e r f lo w s and s u r f a c e r u n - o f f . The t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f w a s te
21
Volume( 1 ,000 m. l i t r e s )
2649347
s m a l ls m a l l
P e r c e n ta g e
65%2 3%12%
m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n e d i n each l i q u i d w a s t e , w h ich i s a m easu re o f i t s w a t e r p o l l u t i o n p o t e n t i a l , c a n n o t be a s s e s s e d b e c a u s e o f l a c k o f q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a c o n c e r n i n g w a s t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . However , each o f t h e s e l i q u i d w a s t e s has c a u s e d w a t e r p o l l u t i o n p rob lem s i n Sydney and t h e s e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.
3 .3 L i q u i d Waste D i s p o s a l
By f a r t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e l i q u i d w a s t e s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e Bo tany Bay r e g i o n a r e ’ d i s p o s e d o f ' by d i s c h a r g e i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s . Wet w e a t h e r w a s t e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h a bou t h a l f t h e volume o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r , d i s c h a r g e d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r d r a i n a g e sy s te m . About 85% o f t h e d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r p l u s t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e i n d u s t r i a lI £w a s t e w a t e r 10 a r e f i r s t d i s c h a r g e d t o sewer b e f o r e f i n a l d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e w a t e r b o d i e s o f t h e r e g i o n . Small q u a n t i t i e s o f d o m e s t i c and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a r e d i s p o s e d o f by o t h e r means, g e n e r a l l y by some form o f l a n d d i s p o s a l . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e s e w a s t e s i n some d e t a i l , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e t h e w a t e r b o d i e s o f t h e r e g i o n .
The main n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e o f t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n i s p r o v i d e d by G e o r g e ' s R i v e r , which d r a i n s some 85% o f t h e a r e a , and to a l e s s e r e x t e n t by Cook ' s R i v e r , wh ich d r a i n s a b o u t 10% o f t h e r e g i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r e a t o t h e n o r t h w e s t o f Botany Bay. Both t h e s e r i v e r s y s t e m s d i s c h a r g e i n t o Bo tany Bay, wh ich i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e oc e an w a t e r s t o t h e e a s t t h r o u g h a r e l a t i v e l y n a r ro w e n t r a n c e . T he re i s a l s o m inor n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e from t h e r e g i o n i n t o t h e Bay i t s e l f , i n t o t h e ocean w a t e r s t o t h e e a s t , i n t o t h e P a r r a m a t t a - P o r t J a c k s o n s y s t e m t o t h e n o r t h , and i n t o t h e Nepean - Hawkesbury R i v e r to t h e w e s t . These w a t e r b o d i e s and t h e i r o u t l e t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e x t e n t o f t h e Sydney u r b a n a r e a , a r e shown i n F ig . 3.
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to a s s i m i l a t e w a s t e s , t h e s e w a t e r b o d i e s f a l l i n t o two b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s : ' i n l a n d w a t e r s ' , su c h as t h e G e o r g e ' s , C o o k ' s , P a r r a m a t t a and Nepean - Hawkesbury R i v e r s , t o t h e w e s t and ' o c e a n w a t e r s ' t o t h e e a s t . The c a p a c i t y o f t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s t o a s s i m i l a t e w a s t e m a t e r i a l s depends p r i n c i p a l l y on t h e i r f r e s h w a t e r d i s c h a r g e ( f l o w ) . I f t h e f low i s h i g h , a l a r g e r volume o f w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e t o f l u s h w a s t e s downst ream and o u t o f t h e d i s c h a r g e zone . However , b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f Sydney w e a t h e r , wh ich t e n d s to c o n s i s t o f r e l a t i v e l y long dry s p e l l s p u n c t u a t e d by s h o r t i n t e n s e s t o r m s , t h e f r e s h w a t e r d i s c h a r g e and a s s i m i l a t i v e
22
capacity of inland waterways is highly variable. For example, storms that occur on only about 20 days of the year are responsible for about 95% of the total average annual river- flow of George's River.^ During dry spells, the flow in inland waterbodies tends to dry up and their capacity to dilute and flush wastes downstream becomes minimal.The ocean waters of Sydney are much greater in extent and
depth and much less confined by land masses than the inland waters. Consequently they have a much greater capacity to assimilate waste materials. The assimilative capacity of the two major ocean inlets, Port Jackson and Botany Bay, is intermediate between that of the inland and ocean waters.' Although the lower reaches of a number of the inland water- bodies are affected by ocean tides, tidal action is generally much less effective than riverflow in the flushing and dilution of wastes, especially in the narrow inland waterways that are characteristic of much of the Sydney region.
Figure 4 shows the extent of the six major sewerage systems that serve the study area, the location of their outfalls, and the volumes of the domestic and industrial wastewater generated in the study area that are discharged into them. Four of these major systems - the North Head Ocean Outfall System, the Bondi Ocean Outfall System, the Malabar Ocean Outfall System and the Cronulla Ocean Outfall System - discharge effluent into the ocean waters. The other two systems - the Glenfield System and the Liverpool System - discharge effluent into George's River. (Minor sewage systems serving Holsworthy and Ingleburn Army Camps and Bankstown Aerodrome also discharge effluent into George's River and its tributaries but because their extent and the population they serve are much smaller than the six major systems, they are not shown.)
Figure 4 also shows the volumes of industrial wastewater that are discharged directly into the surface waters of the area and the volumes of surface run-off that enter the various surface water drainage systems. Table III summarizes the information of Fig. 4.A broad picture of liquid waste disposal emerges, with most
of the run-off discharging into the inland waters and most of the sewage into the ocean waters. Some 90% of the surface run-off flushes its wastes into inland waters before flowing on to the sea; the remaining 10% discharges directly into the ocean. Of the domestic wastewater discharged into surface waters, by far the greatest volume - some 95% - is discharged into ocean waters from the ocean outfall sewers, especially from the Malabar outfall; the small remnant is discharged into24
i
F ig u re 4 D i s p o s a l o f L iq u id W astes G e n e ra te d in th e B otany Bay D ra in a g e B a s in
25
t h e G e o r g e 's R iv e r from t h e two i n l a n d s y s te m s . Of t h e i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r , some 40% i s d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y to s e w e r , n e a r l y a l l o f w hich f i n a l l y d i s c h a r g e s i n t o t h e ocean w a t e r s . The r e m a in in g 60% i s d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y i n t o w a t e r - b o d i e s , p r e d o m in a t e ly t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s . However, t h i s p a t t e r n i s c h a n g in g . The W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B ranch o f t h e S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Commission i s r e q u i r i n g many i n d u s t r i a l f i r m s d i s c h a r g i n g t h e i r w a s te s d i r e c t l y i n t o w a t e r - b o d ie s to d i v e r t them to s e w e r . As most o f t h e e x i s t i n g i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s a r e s e r v e d by o cean o u t f a l l s e w e r s , t h i s s t r a t e g y i s d i v e r t i n g i n d u s t r i a l w a s te s o u t o f t h e i n l a n d w a te r s and i n t o t h e ocean w a t e r s . Much o f S y d n e y 's f u t u r e , m a n u f a c tu r in g and u rb a n deve lopm en t w i l l be i n a r e a s su c h as Cam pbelltow n which l i e o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s o f t h e o cean o u t f a l l s y s te m s . C o n s e q u e n t ly , an i n c r e a s i n g volume o f sewage e f f l u e n t , b o th i n r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e t e r m s , can be e x p e c te d to be d i s c h a r g e d i n t o i n l a n d w a te rw ays i n t h e f u t u r e .
A lthough n o t shown i n F ig . 4 and T a b le I I I , n e a r l y a l l o f t h e sew er o v e r f lo w s and t h e l e a c h a t e from g a rb a g e dumps d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e i n l a n d w a te rw ay s . Sm all q u a n t i t i e s o f d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r a r e d i s p o s e d o f by o t h e r m eans, p r i n c i p a l l y by la n d b u r i a l . An e s t i m a t e d 14 ,000 m i l l i o n l i t r e s o f d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r was d i s p o s e d o f by s e p t i c t a n k sy s tem s o r as s u l l a g e i n t h e unsew ered a r e a s o f t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n . I n unsew ered a r e a s o f s u i t a b l e s o i l , t h e e f f l u e n t from s e p t i c t a n k s i s d i s p o s e d o f by i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e g round .
T a b le I I I The D is c h a rg e o f Botany Bay R egion L iq u id W astes I n t o I n l a n d and Ocean W ate rs (1 ,0 0 0 m. l i t r e s )
W aste Type I n l a n d W aters Ocean W ate rs T o t a l
S u r f a c e R u n -o f f 236 32 268D om estic W aste w a te r
to Sewer 4 .7 75 .6 80I n d u s t r i a l W a s te w a te r
to Sewer 0 .3 19 .3 20Sewer F lu sh 0 .5 11 .5 12I n d u s t r i a l W as te w a te r
to W a te rc o u rs e 25 .9 1.1 27
267 140 407
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However, because of rocky ground or clay soil, many areas of Sydney are unsuitable for this type of disposal. In these areas, septic tank effluent is collected at regular intervals by tanker trucks for subsequent disposal by land burial or by discharge to sewer. Sullage, which consists of the domestic wastewater from all sanitary fittings other than toilets, is disposed of by infiltration into the soil (sullage pits) or by discharge into watercourses. The accompanying faecal matter and urine is collected at regular intervals for subsequent disposal by land burial at ’night soil’ depots.A relatively small volume of industrial sludge, estimated
to be less than 1,000 million litres, is disposed of by burial or by dumping on land. These residues, which are removed from industrial wastewater before its discharge to sewer or watercourse, are typically very concentrated wastes and are often toxic as well. They are, in fact, the really nasty fraction of liquid wastes. In Sydney, the disposal of these materials was effectively uncontrolled in the past and their resultant indiscriminate dumping in secluded bushland areas and creeks around the city did considerable localized damage to the environment. At present the major proportion of these materials are disposed of by controlled burial at the Castlereagh Liquid Waste Depot, a landfill site specifically designed and operated for their disposal by the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority. However, the Depot supposedly only accepts non-toxic wastes. It is not clear how toxic residues are disposed of in Sydney at present, but illegal dumping, illegal discharge to sewer and illegal disposal at the Castlereagh Depot all appear to be possibilities.All of Sydney’s sewered wastes receive some form of treat
ment before they are finally discharged into waterbodies. For many years, treatment at the ocean outfall systems consisted only of the removal of the coarsest type of solid matter by screening and capture of floatables. However, the treatment
major ocean outfall systems is currently being upgraded to full primary level. This involves the removal of wastes by physical processes such as sedimentation, skimming and screening and should capture about half the B.O.D. and suspended solids and most of the grease and other floatables. Sewage from Sydney's inland systems is typically treated to the tertiary level before discharge.This higher level of treatment includes secondary and
tertiary biological processes as well as primary treatment processes and reflects the much smaller assimilative capacity of the inland waters. However, while tertiary treatment
27
p r o c e s s e s remove o v e r 90% o f t h e B.O.D. and su spended s o l i d m a t t e r , t h e y a r e n o t e f f e c t i v e i n remov ing a q u a t i c n u t r i e n t s . These n u t r i e n t s a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e u n d e s i r a b l e l e v e l s o f a q u a t i c p l a n t growth a lo n g a number o f t h e i n l a n d w a t e r ways , e s p e c i a l l y t h e G e o r g e ' s R i v e r . The s l u d g e of w a s t e m a t e r i a l s removed from t h e sewage a t b o t h t h e ocean o u t f a l l and i n l a n d sy s te m s i s d i s p o s e d o f by s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n , a complex b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g breakdown by a n a e r o b i c b a c t e r i a . The r e s i d u a l m a t t e r i s b u r i e d on l a n d .
By f a r t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e w a s t e m a t e r i a l s cont a i n e d i n wet w e a t h e r w a s t e s a r e d i s p o s e d o f by d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e s t o r m w a t e r d r a i n a g e sys tem . Because o f t h e i r i n t e r m i t t e n t and h i g h l y v a r i a b l e n a t u r e , t h e s e w a s t e s a r e n o t amenab le t o e f f i c i e n t t r e a t m e n t . Few a t t e m p t s have been made t o t r e a t them i n Sydney: no form o f t r e a t m e n t i s y e t p r o v i d e d f o r s e w e r o v e r f l o w s , and w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , l e a c h a t e and s u r f a c e r u n - o f f a l s o r e c e i v e no t r e a t m e n t . Trea tment f a c i l i t i e s have been i n s t a l l e d to d e a l w i t h l e a c h a t e f rom t h e B e l r o s e Tip ( i n t h e S h i r e o f W arr ingah) and v a r i o u s l e a c h a t e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a r e b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d a t t h e Menai T ip ( i n t h e S h i r e o f S u t h e r l a n d ) . G e n e r a l l y , no t r e a t m e n t i s p r o v i d e d f o r s u r f a c e r u n - o f f , a l t h o u g h i n t h e newly d e v e l o p i n g a r e a s such as Cam pbe l l to w n , s c r e e n s and s i l t t r a p s ha v e been i n s t a l l e d i n s t o r m w a t e r d r a i n s i n an a t t e m p t t o remove t h e c o a r s e r s o l i d s b e f o r e t h e r u n - o f f d i s c h a r g e s i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s .
4. WATER RESOURCE CONFLICTS IN THE BOTANY BAY REGION
The l a s t s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e d where and how l i q u i d w a s t e s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n were d i s p o s e d . I t was se en t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f d o m e s t i c and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d t o sewer was u l t i m a t e l y d i s c h a r g e d , a f t e r e l e m e n t a r y t r e a t m e n t , i n t o ocean w a t e r s . I n c o n t r a s t , o n ly a s m a l l amount o f h i g h l y t r e a t e d sewage was d i s c h a r g e d i n t o i n l a n d w a te rw ays . But a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a lo n g w i t h n e a r l y a l l o f t h e s u r f a c e r u n - o f f , se w e r o v e r f l o w s and l e a c h a t e were a l s o d i s c h a r g e d i n t o t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s . W e l l , how have t h e s e w a s t e s i n t e r f e r e d w i t h o t h e r u s e s and u s e r s o f t h e s e w a t e r s ?
E ve r s i n c e Sydney was s e t t l e d , t h e r e have been a v a r i e t y o f c o n f l i c t s be tw een t h e u s e r s and u s e s o f w a t e r b o d i e s . A common f a c t o r i n many o f t h e s e has been w a t e r p o l l u t i o n r e s u l t i n g from l i q u i d w a s t e d i s p o s a l . But f rom t h e o u t s e t ,
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i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e a l i s e t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e . L i m i t e d p u b l i c a c c e s s t o w a t e r b o d i e s , t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f w a t e r b o d y f r i n g e s by man-made s t r u c t u r e s , p o o r w a t e r s i d e p l a n n i n g i n g e n e r a l , s a n d m in in g e t c , a l l r e d u c e t h e a m en i ty o f w a t e r b o d i e s i n t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n and make them l e s s p l e a s a n t and l e s s s u i t a b l e f o r o t h e r u s e r s . Thus , w h i l e l i q u i d w a s t e management rem a ins a c e n t r a l c o n c e rn i n t h e e f f i c i e n t and e f f e c t i v e management o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t , o f t e n e q u a l l y s o . From an o v e r a l l management p o i n t o f v iew , i t i s w a s t e f u l o f r e s o u r c e s t o a m e l i o r a t e t h e p o l l u t i o n c a u se d by l i q u i d w a s t e s i f o t h e r f a c t o r s p r e v e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n a m e n i ty and u s e .
T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s a number o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t c o n f l i c t s t h a t have a r i s e n i n t h e w a t e r s o f t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n . Because o f a l a c k o f d a t a , much o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s d e s c r i p t i v e . F i r s t , t h e r e i s a l a c k o f d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y p e s o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n . For many y e a r s t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s i n Sydney’ s w a t e r w a y s , i f u n d e r t a k e n a t a l l , was l i m i t e d i n s cope and c a r r i e d o u t on a s p o r a d i c b a s i s by v a r i o u s p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s f o r t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l p u r p o s e s . I t i s on ly i n t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s t h a t any s o r t o f an i n t e g r a t e d and r e g u l a r m o n i t o r i n g p rogram h a s be e n i n i t i a t e d . (A r e v i e w o f t h e q u a l i t y o f Sydney’ s w a t e r - b o d i e s , as a s se m b le d from t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e v a r i o u s p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s , w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d and p r e s e n t e d i n a s e p a r a t e , l a t e r r e p o r t . )
Second, t h e r e i s a l a c k o f d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s l i q u i d w a s t e s t o o v e r a l l l e v e l s o f p o l l u t i o n . U n t i l such d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d , a rgum e n ts o v e r t h e ' r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ' f o r p o l l u t i o n w i l l n o t r i s e a bou t t h e i r p r e s e n t u n c o n s t r u c t i v e , e m o t i o n a l l e v e l , as e x e m p l i f i e d r e c e n t l y by t h e N or th Sydney C ou n c i l a t t r i b u t i n g t h e p o l l u t i o n o f i t s h a r b o u r swimming p o o l s t o sew er o v e r f l o w s , which a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra ina ge Board , and t h e l a t t e r a u t h o r i t y a t t r i b u t i n g t h e c a u se t o u rban r u n - o f f , wh ich i s more t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e C o u n c i l . ^
F i n a l l y , and most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r e i s a l a c k o f m ea s u res c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e u se o f Sydney’ s w a t e r b o d i e s , t h e am en i ty t h a t u s e r s a t t a c h t o them, and t h e d e g r e e t o wh ich w a s t e d i s p o s a l h a s r e d u c e d a m e n i ty , i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l t o any e f f e c t i v e and e f f i c i e n t p rog ra m o f l i q u i d w a s t e d i s p o s a l and w a t e r r e s o u r c e management .
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4.1 Water Resource Uses and UsersThe surrounding waterbodies and the hilly nature of Sydney enhances the beauty and character of the city. Because of this, certain areas of the Botany Bay region, with attractive river, bay and ocean aspects, are highly desirable residential locations. Apart from this aesthetic aspect and the waste disposal uses referred to earlier, the water resources of the region are principally used for recreational purposes, for navigation, and as a commercial source of seafood and construction sand.During periods of warm weather, many of the waterbodies of
the region are centres of active and passive recreational pursuits. Swimming, surfing, yachting, power-boating, and fishing are popular activities. Many areas are used for picnicing. The ocean beaches are extensively used for swimming and surfing; sections of Botany Bay and the George's River are popular bathing, boating, yachting and recreational fishing areas. Because of its poor water quality, the Cook's River is not used for swimming, but its lower reaches provide sheltered moorage for a considerable number of small boats.Botany Bay, the largest oil port in New South Wales, is a
major centre for the refining and distribution of oil products. Currently, some 400-500 vessels use the port each y e a r , a number that is likely to swell considerably when the massive, new container and bulk loading port on the northern shores of the Bay is completed.
The waters of George's River and Botany Bay support a moderate, commercial fishery, the most important component being oyster production. In the 12 months to June 1973, about 27 per cent of the total commercial oyster yield of N.S.W. was produced from leases in the George's River and Botany Bay. The value of this seafood production was estimated at $1.7 million dollars.20 The waters of Botany Bay also make a small contribution to the commercial finfish and prawn catch of N.S.W.
Sand mining operations on the Kurnell peninsular and in the George's River at Chipping Norton currently supply about one-half of the total amount of construction sand used in Sydney.21 Both of these operations are in close proximity to waterbodies. Sand is mined from beach dunes close to the ocean at Kurnell, and the flood plain of the George's River itself is being dug away at Chipping Norton, the legacy of which will be a lake of some 160 hectares extent in the middle reaches of the George's River.
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4.2 Health Threats - Domestic WastewaterTwo periods can be distinguished in which the improper disposal of domestic wastewater from unsewered properties contributed to the widespread public health threats in Sydney. Outbreaks of typhoid, cholera and the plague in the final two decades of last century marked the peak of the problems of the first period. Domestic wastewater from unsewered properties found its way into stormwater channels and creeks where it led to the development of insanitary conditions, an important contributory factor in these outbreaks.
In response to these problems, a water supply and sewerage authority - the forerunner of the present Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board - was established to extend the sewerage network. In the 10 years to 1900, the proportion of sewered properties in Sydney increased from about one-third to some three-quarters, an achievement that contributed greatly to the eventual control of the health threats of this first period.The second period of health threats extended from about
1950 to 1970, during which domestic wastewater from the unsewered properties in the municipalities of Bankstown, Liverpool and Fairfield caused extensive problems in the George's River and its tributaries. While many of the problems were more of an aesthetic nature - namely black and stinking tributary streams that were unpleasant to live nearby - the level of faecal bacteria in the George's River was judged to be a threat to the health of swimmers in 1962, and four public river baths in the Bankstown area were closed. In the light of the discussion of Section 2.3, the actual threats to the health of the swimmers may not have been as significant as believed or alleged. However, irrespective of their significance, the baths were closed and the public denied the use of them. The major sources of this bacterial contamination were domestic wastewater from unsewered properties and sewage effluent from the Liverpool, Fairfield and the several other minor treatment works in the area.Two factors that contributed to the problems of this second
period were the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board concentrating its resources on the construction of Warragamba Dam22 rather than the provision of sewerage, and the fact that much of the soil of the area is clayey and rocky in nature and is unsuitable for the large scale disposal of septic tank effluent on residential allotments.Since the time of closure of the baths, many of the unsewered
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p r o p e r t i e s have been c o n n e c te d t o s e w e r , e f f l u e n t from t h e F a i r f i e l d T re a tm e n t Works h a s b een d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e M alabar Ocean O u t f a l l S ys tem , and c h l o r i n a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a t t h e o t h e r t r e a tm e n t w orks have b e e n im proved . T hese a c t i o n s have m arked ly r e d u c e d th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f f a e c a l b a c t e r i a i n t h e r i v e r w i th t h e r e s u l t t h a t d u r in g p e r i o d s o f dry w e a t h e r , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s th a n th e l e v e l s c o n s id e r e d by most a u t h o r i t i e s to r e p r e s e n t u n a c c e p t a b l e h e a l t h r i s k s . F o l lo w in g p e r i o d s o f w et w e a t h e r , how ever , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t e n e x ceed t h e s e l e v e l s c o n s id e r a b l y b e c a u s e t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f s to rm w a te r i n t o t h e se w e rs r e d u c e s t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f sewage t r e a t m e n t , and b e c a u s e o f t h e b a c t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s from sew er o v e r f lo w s and o v e r f lo w in g s e p t i c t a n k s . T hus , w i th t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t io n o f p e r i o d s f o l l o w in g wet w e a th e r c o n d i t i o n s , G eo rge ’ s R iv e r a p p e a r s to be s u i t a b l e f o r b a t h i n g p u rp o s e s - a t l e a s t a s f a r as t h e l e v e l o f b a c t e r i a l c o n ta m in a t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d - b u t , as y e t , t h e r i v e r - b a t h s have n o t been r e - o p e n e d .
As w e l l as c a u s in g th e c l o s u r e o f r i v e r - b a t h s , t h e l e v e l o f f a e c a l b a c t e r i a i n G eo rge ’ s R iv e r a l s o s p o r a d i c a l l y i n t e r f e r e d w i t h com m erc ial o y s t e r c u l t i v a t i o n a ro u n d t h e mouth o f t h e R iv e r d u r in g t h e 1960s. A s u rv e y o f G eo rge ’ s R iv e r o y s t e r s i n 1967 found t h a t b a c t e r i a l l e v e l s o f t e n e x c ee d e d t h e maximum p e r m i s s a b l e l i m i t a d o p te d i n a number o f o v e r s e a s c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r p e r i o d s o f r a i n , and i t a p p e a re d t h a t g row ers would have to c l e a n s e o y s t e r s p r i o r t o s e l l i n g th e m .23 However, t h i s p ro b lem was a l l e v i a t e d by th e p r o v i s i o n and u p g r a d in g o f s ew erag e f a c i l i t i e s r e f e r r e d to e a r l i e r , and c u r r e n t l y o t h e r f a c t o r s , su ch as t h e deve lopm en t o f t h e new p o r t complex i n Botany Bay, a p p e a r to p r e s e n t a more s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e i n d u s t r y .
4 .3 H e a l th T h r e a t s - T ox ic M a t e r i a l s
As n o te d e a r l i e r , t o x i c m a t e r i a l s o f i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y and v a r i e t y a r e an im p o r ta n t raw m a t e r i a l and end p r o d u c t o f modern m a n u f a c tu r in g . S i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s a r e d i s c h a r g e d i n t h e form o f l i q u i d w a s te and t h e i r a c c u m u la t io n i n f i s h and s h e l l f i s h can p r e s e n t a h e a l t h t h r e a t to p e o p le e a t i n g t h e s e f o o d s . R ecen t s u rv e y s have shown t h a t t h e l e v e l o f t o x i c s u b s ta n c e s i n t h e f l e s h o f f i s h and s h e l l f i s h from Sydney w a te r b o d ie s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s th a n t h e c u r r e n t l y a c c e p te d i n t e r n a t i o n a l ’ s a f e ’ l i m i t s , and t h a t t h e consum ption o f t h e s e foods does n o t p r e s e n t a t h r e a t t o human h e a l t h . 24 ,25 However, i t a p p e a r s t h a t no o rg an ism s from A le x a n d e r C anal
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o r t h e Cook’ s R i v e r , th e two w a t e r b o d i e s most p o l l u t e d by t o x i c m a t e r i a l s , w ere t e s t e d - o rg an ism s t h a t may p r e s e n t a h e a l t h t h r e a t i n v iew o f t h e am a teu r f i s h e rm e n who t r y t h e i r l u c k a ro u n d th e mouth o f Cook’ s R iv e r .
The l e v e l o f t o x i c c o n ta m in a t io n i n o y s t e r s from th e G e o r g e 's R iv e r was g e n e r a l l y found t o i n c r e a s e t h e f u r t h e r u p - r i v e r t h e o y s t e r l i v e d , t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s b e in g found i n o y s t e r s from S a l t Pan C r e e k .^6 T hese f i n d i n g s p ro b a b ly r e f l e c t t h e d i s c h a r g e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r and u rb an ru n o f f i n t o S a l t Pan Creek and th e i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e lo w e r r e a c h e s o f G e o r g e 's R iv e r .
4 .4 S ic k W aterways - I n a d e q u a te D is s o lv e d Oxygen
The o r g a n i c c o n te n t o f l i q u i d w a s te s h a s r e d u c e d th e l e v e l o f d i s s o l v e d oxygen i n m o st , i f n o t a l l , o f t h e i n l a n d w a t e r - b o d i e s a ro u n d Sydney, and i n e x tre m e c a s e s , h as r e n d e r e d them a n a e r o b i c , l i f e l e s s and s t i n k i n g . D uring t h e two p e r i o d s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a w id e s p re a d l a c k o f se w e ra g e f a c i l i t i e s , d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r from unsew ered p r o p e r t i e s deo x y g en a ted many o f th e s m a l l e r i n l a n d w a t e r c o u r s e s and r e n d e r e d them o f f e n s i v e t o l i v e n e a rb y . D ur ing t h e p e r i o d o f p o s t - w a r d e v e lo p m e n t , on o c c a s io n s even th e m id d le r e a c h e s o f G e o rg e 's R iv e r i t s e l f w ere d e o x y g e n a te d down to M i l p e r r a B r id g e by i n a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t e d d o m e s t ic w a s te w a te r .^ - ' These p ro b le m s , a lo n g w i th h ig h l e v e l o f f a e c a l b a c t e r i a i n t h e R i v e r , w ere l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d by th e p r o v i s i o n and u p g r a d in g o f sew erage f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f Bankstow n, L iv e r p o o l and F a i r f i e l d .
The d i s c h a r g e o f o r g a n i c i n d u s t r i a l w a s te s has d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d th e l e v e l o f d i s s o l v e d oxygen i n w a t e r b o d i e s c lo s e to t h e m a jo r i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s o f Sydney. The most n o t o r i o u s example i s A le x a n d ra C a n a l , w hich f o r many y e a r s was c o m p le te ly d e o x y g e n a te d and r e n d e r e d d ev o id o f l i f e by th e d i s c h a r g e o f b o th o r g a n i c and t o x i c i n d u s t r i a l l i q u i d w a s t e s . As f a r b a c k a s 1906, t h e d i s c h a r g e o f o r g a n i c w a s te s from th e many w oo lw ash ing w orks and t a n n e r i e s i n t h e a r e a c a u se d a f i s h k i l l in th e lo w e r r e a c h e s o f Cook s R iv e r . ° O rg a n ic i n d u s t r i a l w a s te s have a l s o red u c e d d i s s o l v e d oxygen l e v e l s i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e u p p e r P a r r a m a t t a R i v e r , su c h as Duck R i v e r , i n t h e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f S a l t Pan C reek , and i n t h e low er r e a c h e s o f P r o s p e c t Creek (w hich d r a i n s much o f t h e V il law o o d i n d u s t r i a l a r e a ) . A m a jo r f a c t o r i n t h i s d e g r a d a t i o n , q u i t e a p a r t from r e l a t i v e r a t e s a t w hich w a s te s a r e d i s c h a r g e d i n t o and a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e s e w a t e r b o d i e s , a p p e a r s to b e t h e t im e
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o f deve lopm en t o f i n d u s t r y i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a , t h e e a r l i e r t h e d e v e lo p m en t , t h e few e r t h e c o n t r o l s on w a s t e w a te r d i s c h a r g e s .
Most l a n d f i l l s i t e s i n Sydney p r o b a b ly p ro d u ce l e a c h a t e w h ic e s c a p e s i n t o n e a rb y w a t e r c o u r s e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l e a c h a t e i s a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e d e g r a d a t i o n o c c u r r i n g , b u t i n s e v e r a l c a s e s w a t e r c o u r s e s such as M idd le H arbou r C reek and M i l l C reek have b e e n d e o x y g e n a te d and t u r n e d a n a e r o b ic by t h e ; l e a c h a t e from p u t r e s c i b l e l a n d f i l l s i t e s . I n t h e p a s t , l e a c h a t e from th e C r o z i e r Road Tip ( i n t h e S h i r e o f W arr in g ah ) c a u se d s e c t i o n s o f M iddle H arbou r C reek to become a n a e r o b ic and s t i n k i n g . C o m p la in ts by r e s i d e n t s and a c t i o n by t h e . W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B ranch o f t h e S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l Commission l e d t o a t r e a t m e n t works b e in g i n s t a l l e d . Fo r a number o f y e a r s now, M i l l C reek has b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y deo x y g e n a te d , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r p e r i o d s o f w et w e a t h e r , by l e a c h a t e from Menai T i p , t h e S u t h e r l a n d C o u n c i l N ig h t S o i l Depot and a p r i v a t e t i p f o r i n d u s t r i a l l i q u i d w a s t e s . The M e t r o p o l i t a n W aste D is p o s a l A u t h o r i t y , t h e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y now r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f l e a c h a t e , i s c u r r e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g ways f o r t r e a t i n g th e l e a c h a t e from Menai T ip .
4 .5 N u t r i e n t R ich R iv e r s - U n d e s i r a b l e A q u a t ic P l a n t Growth
The e x c e s s i v e g row th o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s h a s become an i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t p ro b le m i n t h e G e o rg e 's R iv e r and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s i n r e c e n t t im e s . The g row th o f a l l i g a t o r weed a lo n g t h e b r a c k i s h and f r e s h w a t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e R iv e r h a s r e a c h e d n u i s a n c e p r o p o r t i o n s i n th e p a s t f i v e y e a r s o r so . T h is w eed, w hich r o o t s i n t h e bank b u t grows o v e r t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e as an e x t e n s i v e f l o a t i n g m a t , h a s a t t im e s c o m p le te ly b l a n k e t e d s h o r t s e c t i o n s o f t h e n a rro w t r i b u t a r i e s . High r i v e r f lo w s e a r l y i n 1974 u p r o o te d l a r g e m asses o f w eed , w ashed them dow nstream o n to r i v e r b e a c h e s i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y o f Kogarah w here th e y r o t t e d to p ro d u ce a s t i n k i n g mess th a n was o f f e n s i v e t o l o c a l r e s i d e n t s and d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l u se o f t h e b e a c h e s . Kogarah C o u n c i l had to employ s e v e r a l dump t r u c k s and f r o n t end l o a d e r s f o r a p e r i o d o f e i g h t weeks t o remove t h e weed and t r a n s p o r t i t to a g a rb a g e t i p .
A p a r t from p rob lem s w i t h a l l i g a t o r w eed , i n t e r m i t t e n t a l g a l blooms have o c c u r r e d a ro u n d th e m id d le r e a c h e s o f th e G eorge 's R iv e r f o r a number o f y e a r s . The c l im a x o f a l a r g e bloom t h a t d e v e lo p e d to w ard s t h e end o f 1972 c o m p le te ly deoxygenatec
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the River around the Liverpool - Bankstown area for a period of four days. Thousands of fish were killed and washed up on the riverbanks along the middle and lower reaches of the River. 9While a variety of factors can influence the growth of
aquatic plants, nutrient inflow is probably the single most important factor in the George’s River. During dry weather conditions, the major source of nutrients is the effluent from the two major and several minor sewage treatment works on the upper and middle sections of the River. During periods of wet-weather, surface run-off, sewer overflows and land-fill leachate also carry nutrients and- of these, sewage effluent is probably the more significant. But to date, little work has been done to quantify the relative contributions of either dry or wet weather nutrient sources.
Sewage discharged into the river receives conventional treatment to the tertiary level, but as noted earlier, this form of treatment is not an effective means of nutrient removal. Consequently, during extended dry weather conditions, the residual level of nutrients in the effluent, coupled with the resultant reduction in assimilative capacity of the river, will tend to lead to the development of high nutrient concentrations in the upper and middle reaches of the river. A recent study aimed at assessing the impact of expected future development on water quality in the George’s River found that existing nutrient levels in the upper and middle reaches of the River were already high during low flow conditions, and that unless effective nutrient removal processes were employed, the expected discharge of sewage effluent into George’s River would cause excessive nutrient levels along the entire length of the River and in Botany Bay itself by the year 2000. ®
Surface run-off also appears to be a significant source of nutrients in the George’s River. A recent study found that nutrient levels increased dramatically during periods of wet weather.However, there did not appear to be a corresponding increase in algal plant growth, and it seems that most of the nutrients were flushed downstream and out of the River by the higher riverflows or were assimilated in some other way. The two major sources of nutrients in the run-off that flows into the George's River are probably unsewered properties and agricultural fertilizers. In the light of studies made in Melbourne, ^ the 10,000 or so unsewered properties in the municipalities of Campbelltown, Liverpool, Fairfield and Bankstown^ would appear to be a significant
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s o u r c e o f n u t r i e n t s . The u s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l f e r t i l i z e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e r u r a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e o u t e r a r e a s o f c a tc h m e n t may be a n o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e .
4 .6 S t i c k y F e e t and G reasy Beaches
S in c e l a t e l a s t c e n t u r y , when t h e Bondi Ocean O u t f a l l System was com m iss ioned , t h e d i s c h a r g e o f d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r from t h e ocean o u t f a l l sy s te m s h a s i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l u se o f S y d n e y 's o c e an b e a c h e s . Under c e r t a i n w ind and t i d a l c o n d i t i o n s , f l o a t i n g sewage rem n an ts su ch as f a t s , g r e a s e s , and o t h e r m a t t e r a r e w ashed back o n to ocean b e a c h e s c l o s e to t h e o u t f a l l s , w here th e y a d h e re to t h e f e e t , b o d i e s , c l o t h e s and to w e ls o f t h e b e a ch u s e r s .W hile a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h i s d e t r i m e n t a l f l o a t i n g m a t t e r o r i g i n a t e s from d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r , t h e m a jo r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e f a t and g r e a s e i n t h e e f f l u e n t from c e r t a i n ocean o u t f a l l s i s i n d u s t r i a l r a t h e r th a n d o m e s t ic i n o r i g i n .
C o n f l i c t s be tw een t h e u s e o f o cean w a t e r s f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l and w a s te d i s p o s a l p u r p o s e s have i n t e n s i f i e d w i th t h e i n c r e a s in g u s e o f b e a c h e s d u r in g th e p a s t 50 y e a r s o r s o . As f a r b ack as t h e 1920s , p u b l i c p r o t e s t s a b o u t th e c o n d i t i o n o f Coogee Beach r e s u l t e d i n e f f l u e n t from t h e Coogee Ocean O u t f a l l System b e in g d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e M a lab a r Ocean O u t f a l l System , w hich was th e n more rem ote from p o p u l a r b a t h i n g b e a c h e s . P u b l i c p r o t e s t s a l s o l e d t o t h e s t a r t o f c o n s t r u c t i o r o f t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s a t Bondi Ocean O u t f a l l i n t h e 1930s, and a l s o a p p e a r to have been an i m p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n th e r e c e n t d e c i s i o n to u p g rad e a l l m a jo r o cean o u t f a l l t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o f u l l p r im a ry l e v e l .
4 .7 C o n ta m in a te d G roundw ater - I n d u s t r y F o u l in g I t s Own N es t
The d i r e c t d i s c h a r g e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r to w a t e r c o u r s e h a s l e d to an u n a c c e p t a b l e c o n ta m in a t io n o f g ro u n d w a te r i n a l o c a l i z e d a r e a o f t h e B otany sand b e d s . For many y e a r s , i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e Banksmeadow a r e a have d i s c h a r g e d w a s te w a te r i n t o open u n l in e d d r a i n s t h a t d i s c h a r g e i n t o Botany Bay. The g ro u n d w a te r has a p p a r e n t l y been c o n ta m in a te d by i n d u s t r i a l w a s te m a t e r i a l s l e a c h i n g o u t o f t h e d r a i n s and down i n t o th e sa n d b e d s . ^ R e c e n t l y , t h e c o n ta m in a t io n h a s r e a c h e d a d e g re e s u f f i c i e n t to r e n d e r th e g ro u n d w a te r from t h i s l o c a t i o n u n s u i t a b l e f o r u s e by s e v e r a l i n d u s t r i e s who have been f o r c e d to i n s t a l l new w e l l p o i n t s o u t s i d e t h e c o n ta m in a te d a r e a .
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4 . 8 Murky R iv e r s - E x c e s s i v e S uspended S o l id s
Commonly, th e i n l a n d w a t e r b o d i e s o f Sydney r e g i o n a r e 'muddy' o r t u r b i d f o r up t o s e v e r a l weeks a f t e r p e r i o d s o f w et w e a t h e r . T h is m u rk in e s s i s c a u se d by c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d m a t t e r and i s more a p p a r e n t i n t h e i n l a n d w a t e r b o d i e s th a n i n t h e o cean w a t e r s b e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l e r a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e fo rm e r , and b e c a u s e t h e m a jo r s o u r c e o f t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d m a t t e r i s s u r f a c e r u n - o f f , t h e g r e a t b u l k o f w h ich f lo w s i n i t i a l l y i n t o i n l a n d w a t e r s . A lth o u g h g e n e r a l l y n o t h a rm fu l i n i t s e l f , t h i s m u rk in e s s t e n d s t o make t h e i n l a n d w a t e r b o d i e s l e s s i n v i t i n g f o r b a t h i n g and o t h e r r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s .
Sewage e f f l u e n t i s a n o t h e r , b u t p r o b a b ly l e s s i m p o r t a n t , s o u r c e o f t h i s s u s p e n d e d s o l i d m a t t e r . W hile t h e t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s u se d a t t h e i n l a n d t r e a t m e n t w orks a r e e f f e c t i v e i n rem oving s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s d u r in g d ry w e a th e r c o n d i t i o n s , t h e y a r e m arked ly l e s s so d u r in g p e r i o d s o f w e t w e a t h e r when, b e c a u s e o f s to r m w a te r i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e s e w e r s , t h e sew age o n ly r e c e i v e s m in im a l l e v e l s o f t r e a t m e n t .
4 .9 A c c i d e n t a l P o l l u t i o n - O i l S p i l l s and O th e r D is c h a rg e s
A c c id e n t s a r e n o t h e r means by w hich i n d u s t r i a l m a t e r i a l s , e s p e c i a l l y l i q u i d s , can p o l l u t e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . The many o i l s p i l l s t h a t o c c u r i n t h e p o r t w a t e r s o f P o r t J a c k s o n and B otany Bay a r e p r o b a b ly t h e m ost common exam ple o f a c c i d e n t a l p o l l u t i o n i n Sydney. T h ese s p i l l s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t from a c c i d e n t s d u r in g b u n k e r in g ( r e - f u e l i n g ) o p e r a t i o n s o f v e s s e l s and d u r in g t h e t r a n s f e r o f o i l and o i l p r o d u c t s be tw een o i l t a n k e r s and s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s . Most a c c i d e n t s i n p o r t a r e a s i n v o l v e o n ly s m a l l amounts o f o i l , commonly l e s s th a n s e v e r a l h u n d re d l i t r e s p e r s p i l l .
O th e r s o u r c e s o f o i l p o l l u t i o n i n S y d n e y 's w a t e r s i n c l u d e a c c i d e n t s and r e g u l a r d i s c h a r g e s from l a n d - b a s e d i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , s u r f a c e r u n - o f f , and t h e e x t e n s i v e u se o f w a te r b o d ie s f o r p o w e r - b o a t in g . R ecen t m a jo r a c c i d e n t s a t l a n d b a s e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n v o lv e d t h e e s c a p e o f some 4 ,0 0 0 l i t r e s o f o i l i n t o P r o s p e c t C reek and t h e e s c a p e o f some 400 ,000 l i t r e s o f o i l i n t o P o r t J a c k s o n , t h e l a t t e r c a t a s t r o p h e b e in g c a u s e d by a r u p t u r e d s t o r a g e t a n k a t t h e B .P . R e f in e r y a t B e r r y ' s Bay. O i l s p i l t o r d i s c h a r g e d on to roadways i s f l u s h e d i n t o w a t e r c o u r s e s by r a i n w a t e r r u n - o f f and i s a p p a r e n t a s a d i s t i n c t o i l y s h e e n on i n l a n d w a t e r - b o d ie s a f t e r a s to rm . Up to o n e - t h i r d o f t h e f u e l consumed by p o w e rb o a ts may be d i s c h a r g e d , u n b u r a t , i n t o a w a te rb o d y
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through the boat's exhaust system.36In Sydney, oil pollution is primarily a minor nuisance
problem that sporadically interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waters in Botany Bay and Port Jackson. Because of the relatively small volumes of oil involved in most pollution events, the major threat to the marine ecology may lie more in the long term - low level effects than in the immediate effects of individual spills.However, under certain wind and tidal conditions, a large
spill in Botany Bay could pose a direct threat to the commercial oyster leases around the mouth of the George's River, which on at least one occasion have been coated with oil. With the re-development of Botany Bay as a major bulk handling and container port, and its increasing importance as an area for the refining and distribution of oil products, the frequency of oil spills must be expected to increase.Accidents result in materials other than oil discharging
into waterbodies around Sydney. A recent major accident involved the escape of some 55,000 litres of potassium cupro- cyanide, a toxic material used in electro-plating operations, into the Cook's River where it rapidly killed fish, birds, eels and other forms of aquatic life and presented a danger to human health. Most industrial accidents, however, involve much smaller quantities of material and their detrimental effects are not nearly as pronounced as this catastrophe.In fact, many so-called 'accidents' simply arise from the flushing of spilt materials down the nearest drain, this being the most convenient way to 'dispose' of them. While the effect of these numerous small scale accidents is generally not great on an individual basis, their collective effects may be an important factor in long term, low levels of pollution.4.10 Erosion and Siltation of WaterwaysErosion and siltation are problems of increasing concern in the George's River and other inland waterways. Overall, the erosion and sedimentation processes attain a constantly adjusting balance of sediment movement, but if the existing patterns of water currents and sediment loads are altered markedly, a significantly different balance is likely to result. This is what is occurring in the George's River and Botany Bay, where the patterns of current movements and the sediment loads have been or are being changed by:
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(a ) The e x t e n s i v e r e c l a m a t i o n and d r e d in g o f l a r g e a r e a s o f B otany Bay u n d e r ta k e n some 10 y e a r s ago f o r t h e e x t e n s i o n s to Sydney A i r p o r t and c u r r e n t l y b e in g u n d e r ta k e n f o r t h e new m ar in e p o r t d e v e lo p m en t .
(b) The e x t e n s i v e sa n d m in in g o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e G e o r g e 's R iv e r a t C h ipp ing N o r to n .
(c ) The f i l l i n g i n o f b a y s , b a c k w a te r s and mangrove swamps a lo n g th e G e o rg e 's R iv e r f o r r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e lo p m e n t , l a n d f i l l s i t e s , p r o v i s i o n o f p l a y i n g f i e l d s e t c . I t h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t some 250 h e c t a r e s o f t i d a l zone a lo n g th e R iv e r has been r e c l a im e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n and , t h a t a lo n g t h e m id d le r e a c h e s , some 3 k i l o m e t r e s o f m angroves have been removed and r e p l a c e d w i th e r o d i b l e s a n d . 37
(d) The g row ing u rb an and i n d u s t r i a l deve lopm en t i n t h e c a tc h m e n t a r e a o f t h e G e o r g e 's R i v e r , w hich has i n c r e a s e d b o th t h e volume and r a t e a t w hich r u n - o f f e n t e r s t h e R iv e r and t h e amount o f s e d im e n t i t c o n t a i n s .
The r a t e o f ban k e r o s i o n a lo n g th e m id d le r e a c h e s o f G e o rg e 's R iv e r a p p e a r s t o be a c c e l e r a t i n g a t p r e s e n t . A p a r t from t h e f a c t o r s m en t io n e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e p ro b le m i s e x a c e r b a t e d by th e h i g h l y e r o d i b l e n a t u r e o f t h e r i v e r b a n k s i n t h i s a r e a , by r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e lopm en t i n c l o s e p r o x im i t y to t h e R iv e r (bank e r o s i o n h as a c t u a l l y t h r e a t e n e d t o underm ine some r iv e r b a n k p r o p e r t i e s ) , and by t h e waves from sp e e d b o a t s .T h is e ro d e d m a t e r i a l , t o g e t h e r w i th s p o i l from t h e sandm in ing o p e r a t i o n s and t h e s e d im e n t l o a d from u rb a n r u n - o f f , i s c a u s in g i n c r e a s e d r a t e s o f s i l t a t i o n i n t h e lo w e r r e a c h e s o f t h e R iv e r , w here t h e mouth o f S a l t Pan C reek and o t h e r b ack w a te r s a r e s i l t i n g up.
E r o s io n h a s a l s o c a u se d p ro b lem s i n B otany Bay i t s e l f .A l t e r e d wave p a t t e r n s , w hich w ere c a u se d by d re d g in g f o r t h e runway e x t e n s i o n s a t Sydney A i r p o r t , w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e heavy e r o s i o n o f b e a c h e s a ro u n d th e B r i g h to n - l e - S a n d s a r e a d u r in g a s to r m i n 1966. Over $1 m i l l i o n was s p e n t by th e Commonwealth Government t o r e s t o r e and p r o t e c t t h e s e b e a c h e s . C u r r e n t l y , e r o s i o n a p p e a r s t o be i n c r e a s i n g a round D o l l s P o in t a r e a i n t h e mouth o f G e o r g e 's R i v e r . B eaches w ere washed away and roadw ays t h r e a t e n e d i n t h i s a r e a d u r in g s to rm s i n 1974. T h ese a l t e r e d c u r r e n t p a t t e r n s c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly
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cause increased levels of salinity in Woolaware Bay, as is thought to be occurring by oyster fishermen. A recent investigation has suggested that altered current patterns caused by the dredging and reclamation program for the new port complex in Botany Bay may threaten Towra Point itself with complete or partial erosion. 38
4.11 The FutureThe waterbodies of Sydney in general and the Botany Bay region in particular have experienced a variety of water resource conflicts in the past. They will continue to do so in the future. As a city grows, its environment must tend to become more degraded. There should be no argument about the ’natural’ direction of this change, but there should be concern about the degree of degradation to be tolerated.City dwellers' perceptions of their environment and the values they attach to its amenity also change with time. As one problem is 'solved’, another emerges to take its place or the original problem re-emerges elsewhere, possibly in a different form. These changing attitudes and problems are reflected to some extent in the type of water resource conflicts experienced in the Botany Bay area over the past 20 years.Problems of the past centred around the traditional and
public health motivated concerns of faecal bacteria and B.O.D. levels. These problems were strongly caused by the lack of sewerage facilities in the newly developing western suburbs of Sydney after World War II. Present and future problems for the region include the undesirable growth of aquatic plants (stimulated by nutrient inflows), oil spills, sand mining and toxic materials. In some cases, this new generation of problems is less extreme, more subtle in their effects, and are often more aesthetic in nature. Factors in the development of these problems include sewage discharges into the George’s River (resulting from the sewering of the previously unsewered properties!), the increasing importance of toxic materials to modern industrial processes, and the development of the new port complex in Botany Bay.As an example of the changing nature of problems, the
sewering of unsewered properties decreased the level of faecal bacteria in the George’s River. But the public baths have still not been re-opened and this improved water quality has not been reflected in increased bathing amenity or use of the river below Liverpool Weir. Other factors, such as
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t u r b i d i t y from sa n d m in in g o p e r a t i o n s and from s u r f a c e ru n o f f , l a c k o f a c c e s s i b i l i t y , t h e dumping o f r u b b i s h a lo n g r i v e r edges a l l r e d u c e a m e n i ty , and w i t h r e g a r d to t h e u s e o f t h e r i v e r f o r b a t h i n g p u r p o s e s , o f f s e t , p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t , t h e a m e n i ty i n c r e a s e d e r i v i n g from re d u c e d l e v e l s o f f a e c a l b a c t e r i a . The l e v e l s o f f a e c a l b a c t e r i a w ere a l s o o f c o n c e rn to o y s t e r g row ers a ro u n d th e mouth o f t h e r i v e r .
T h is p ro b le m has b een c o n t r o l l e d , o n ly to be r e p l a c e d w i th c o n c e rn r e g a r d in g th e e f f e c t s o f t h e new p o r t d e v e lo p m en t , t h e l a t e s t ’ t h r e a t * t o t h e o y s t e r g ro w e rs . The c h a n g in g and in te r w o v e n n a t u r e o f t h e s e p rob lem s t o g e t h e r w i t h c h a n g in g am en i ty v a lu e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n f r o n t i n g th o s e f a c e d w i t h m anaging l i q u i d w a s t e s and w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . I t i s im m e d ia te ly a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s e p a r a t e , u n c o o r d in a te d and ’ i s o l a t e d ’ s o l u t i o n s p r o f f e r e d by t h e m u l t i t u d e o f r e s p o n s i b l e a u t h o r i t i e s i n Sydney must c o n fu s e i s s u e s and te n d to be i n e f f e c t i v e and w a s t e f u l o f r e s o u r c e s .
As w e l l as changes i n t h e ty p e o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n p rob lem s o f c o n c e rn to Sydney, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s l i q u i d w a s t e s to p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s i s a l s o a l t e r i n g . B ecause o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m anag ing s u r f a c e r u n - o f f and sew er o v e r f lo w s ( d i s c u s s e d l a t e r ) , t h e s e two l i q u i d w a s t e s can be e x p e c te d t o c o n t r i b u t e i n c r e a s i n g l y t o r e s i d u a l p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s i n Sydney’ s i n l a n d w a te rw ay s as t h e o t h e r l i q u i d w a s te ty p e s a r e b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l . In w a t e r b o d i e s such as t h e P a r r a m a t t a R i v e r , s u r f a c e r u n - o f f and sew er o v e r f lo w s w i l l be t h e f i n a l a r b i t e r s o f th e l e v e l o f w a t e r q u a l i t y t h a t can be a t t a i n e d .
In t h e l i g h t o f p r e s e n t p ro b lem s and t h o s e t h a t a r e l i k e l y to accompany t h e movement o f up to 500 ,000 a d d i t i o n a l p e o p le i n t o t h e a r e a by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , t h e f u t u r e e n v i r o n m e n ta l q u a l i t y o f t h e G eo rg e ’ s R iv e r a p p e a r s b l e a k .T h is comment a p p l i e s t o t h e w e s t e r n s u b u rb s i n g e n e r a l , w here t h e ex p a n d in g u rb a n a r e a s a r e b e in g i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r v e d by sew ers d r a i n i n g t o i n l a n d w a te rw ay s . The s t r e s s on th e G e o rg e 's and Nepean R iv e r s and t h e i r t r i b u t a r i e s m ust be e x p e c te d to i n c r e a s e m ark ed ly i n t h e f u t u r e w i th c o n s e q u e n t a m en ity r e d u c t i o n .
The u p p e r r e a c h e s o f t h e G e o rg e ’ s R iv e r ( u p s t r e a m o f t h e G l e n f i e l d Sewage T re a tm e n t Works) a r e s t i l l l a r g e l y p r i s t i n e and c o n s t i t u t e a s o c i a l and e n v i r o n m e n ta l r e s o u r c e o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r . As y e t , t h i s s t r e t c h h a s n o t f e l t t h e f u l l im pac t o f u rb an d e v e lo p m en t . The w a t e r s o f t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e R iv e r m o s t ly d r a i n from t h e l a r g e and u n d e v e lo p e d t r a c t o f army la n d t o t h e e a s t . Most o f t h e u rb an deve lopm en t i n Campbelltown i s s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y rem o te from th e R i v e r , b u t
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u r b a n i s a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e R i v e r each y e a r . The army l a n d may be d e v e lo p e d i n t h e f u t u r e as w e l l . W i thou t a d o u b t , t h e p r o t e c t i o n and r a t i o n a l management o f t h e a m en i ty o f t h e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f t h e G e o r g e ' s R i v e r i s one o f t h e b i g c h a l l e n g e s o f S y d n e y ' s f u t u r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l management .
A c om prehens ive and th o r o u g h s t u d y s h o u l d be made now t o a s s e s s t h e econom ic , s o c i a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l im pac t o f t h e e x p e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a r e a , and t o e v a l u a t e t h e l i k e l y p rob lem s i t w i l l g e n e r a t e so t h a t a r a n g e o f p r e v e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n s can be i n v e s t i g a t e d and im plem en ted b e f o r e t h e p rob le m s f u l l y d e v e l o p . I f such a s t u d y i s t o be e f f e c t i v e , i t s sc ope w i l l ne e d t o be f a r b r o a d e r t h a n t h e p e t t y l e v e l s o f b i c k e r i n g t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e p r e s e n t ' d i s c u s s i o n s ' b e tw e en t h e v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o d i e s i n Sydney.
5 . MANAGEMENT : SYDNEY AUTHORITIES AND THEIR ACTIVITIES
The w a t e r r e s o u r c e c o n f l i c t s o f t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n a r e g e n e r a l l y s y m p t o m a t i c , b u t more e x t r e m e , t h a n t h o s e o f Sydney i n g e n e r a l . As we have s e e n , l i q u i d w a s t e s a r e a m ajor c a u se o f a number o f t h e s e p r o b le m s , and i n t h i s s e c t i o n we examine t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f s e v e r a l o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e management o f t h i s w a s t e componenet .
I n Sydney, t h e management o f l i q u i d w a s t e s i s segmented be tw een as many as p e r h a p s 15-20 d i f f e r e n t p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s . Th is d i v e r s i t y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e f l e c t s t h e v a r i e t y o f ways i n which t h e l i q u i d w a s t e p r o c e s s im p inges upon o t h e r f a c e t s o f u rban l i v i n g , as w e l l a s t h e number o f f a c t o r s which a f f e c t t h e l i q u i d w a s t e p r o c e s s i t s e l f . However , i n t e rm s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e x e r t c o n t r o l s , t h e most i m p o r t a n t a u t h o r i t i e s i n Sydney a r e :
The M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e Board ;The S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Commission, and i n p a r t i
c u l a r , i t s W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Branch ;The M e t r o p o l i t a n Waste D i s p o s a l A u t h o r i t y ;The M a r i t im e S e r v i c e s Board;The H e a l t h Commission, andL o c a l C o u n c i l s (17 i n t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n ) .
Two o f t h e s e a u t h o r i t i e s - S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Commissiot and t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Waste D i s p o s a l A u t h o r i t y - a r e r e l a t i v e
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new com ers , b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e 1970s; t h e o t h e r s a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n s o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g , i n some c a s e s e x te n d i n g b ack i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y .
B e fo re exam in ing th e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h r e e o f t h e s e a u t h o r i t i e s - t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e B oard , t h e W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l B ranch and t h e M a r i t im e S e r v i c e s Board - i n some d e t a i l , t h e b r o a d o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f S y d n e y 's l i q u i d w a s te management i s d e s c r i b e d .
5 .1 An O v e r a l l P i c t u r e
F ig u r e 5 shows t h e p o i n t s o f g e n e r a t i o n and d i s p o s a l p a th s o f t h e v a r i o u s l i q u i d w a s te s t r e a m s and w here th e y a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e management a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s i x m a jo r a u t h o r i t i e s .
I n e s s e n c e , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s f a l l i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : ' d i s p o s a l ' a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o v i d i n g t h e means o f d i s p o s a l a n d /o r t r e a t m e n t f o r t h e l i q u i d w a s te s t r e a m s , and ' p o l i c i n g ' a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e n f o r c i n g d i s p o s a l and t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l s . The ' d i s p o s a l ' a u t h o r i t i e s and th e w a s te s f o r w h ich th e y a r e r e s p o n s i b l e a r e :
The M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sew erage : Sewage E f f l u e n t and D ra in a g e Board
: I n d u s t r i a l W a s te w a te rD is c h a r g e d to Sewer and S to rm w a te r C hannel
: Sewer O verflow s
L o ca l C o u n c i ls
L o c a l C o u n c i ls and th e M etrop o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e Board
The M e t r o p o l i t a n W aste D is p o s a l A u t h o r i t y
The M a r i t im e S e r v i c e s Board
: D om estic W a s te w a te r from Unsewered P r o p e r t i e s
: S u r f a c e R u n -o f f
: I n d u s t r i a l L iq u id W aste R e s id u e s
: L e a c h a te from Garbage Dumps
: O i ly W astes i n P o r t W ate rs
The two o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Branch and th e H e a l th Commission a r e s o l e l y ' p o l i c i n g ' a u t h o r i t i e s w i t h no d i s p o s a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . ^
Of t h e d i s p o s a l a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e B oard , w hich i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o v i s i o n and upkeep o f w a t e r s u p p ly and sew erag e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e Sydney r e g i o n , i s by f a r t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t . I t s a r e a o f r e s p o n s i -
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44Figure 5 Major Authorities Responsible for the
Management of Liquid Wastes in Sydney
IDA. &
bility encompasses the planning and construction of the storage, treatment and reticulation facilities necessary to deliver potable water to city consumers, and the reticulation, treatment and outfall facilities necessary to dispose of sewered wastewater from the city. In terms of the volume of liquid waste handled, the Board is the largest disposal authority, and by its legal commitments, the largest polluter also.The Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority is responsible
for the disposal of the highly concentrated and often toxic industrial liquid waste residues that are not suitable for discharge into the sewer system or into watercourses. At the Castlereagh Liquid Waste Depot, operated by the Authority, these wastes are disposed of by controlled land burial.The major concern of the Maritime Services Board is the
provision, maintenance and operation of commercial port facilities in New South Wales. As a second and lesser string to its bow, the Board is also responsible for the prevention and amelioration of oil pollution in the navigable waters of New South Wales.
Local councils play a very much reduced role in the disposal of liquid wastes. They are responsible for the provision of the gutters and drains which form part of the disposal system for surface run-off. (The Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board, as its name implies, also has responsibilities for the upkeep of certain stormwater drains.) Local councils are also responsible for the collection and disposal of human excreta from unsewered dwellings (effluent from septic pumpout systems and ’night soil').The Water Pollution Control Branch (of the State Pollution
Control Commission) is by far the more important of the two policing authorities. The Branch plays a central role in the planning, coordination and implementation of liquid waste management programs in Sydney. Under the provisions of the Clean Waters Act, it has far reaching powers, first, to impose controls on all private and public water polluters such as industrial establishments and public authorities (including the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board), and secondly, to 'classify' waterbodies, which in effect determines the extent to which liquid wastes and other matter is allowed to pollute them.
For many years the Department of Public Health, forerunner of the present Health Commission, was the most important liquid waste management authority in Sydney. Its powers, however, have been largely usurped by the Water Pollution Control
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Branch (which was originally established within the Department of Public Health). Current activities of the Commission are of a much lesser nature and include examining applications to install septic tanks and monitoring ’night soil' depots operated by local councils.The management structure depicted in Fig. 5 has only been
functioning for a few years and most activities to date have consisted of remedial measures aimed at alleviating existing problems. Basically, the structure functions by the Water Pollution Control Branch requiring the other authorities to alleviate pollution problems caused by the waste streams for which they are responsible. Decisions concerning the measures to be taken are basically made by the Branch, but they are usually reached with some degree of mutual consultation with the other authorities affected by them. From Fig. 5, it is seen that this strategy is applicable to all waste streams other than that of industrial wastewater discharged directly to watercourse. No other authority, apart from the Water Pollution control Branch itself, is responsible for the general control of this waste stream. (Lack of this control has been a major factor in the development of pollution problems in waterbodies such as Alexandra Canal and the upper Parramatta River). The Branch has concentrated much of its own initial effort on directing this waste stream within the areas of responsibility of the other authorities. Basically, the policy was to eliminate it as far as possible by requiring that the industries concerned connect their discharge to sewer (if adequate capacity was available). This transferred much of the waste stream and its responsibility to the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board. If sewer capacity was not available, industry was required to treat its wastes to an acceptable level, as determined by the Water Pollution Control Branch, before resuming discharge into stormwater channels or watercourses.Although the current liquid waste management structure in
Sydney is of recent origin, two aspects are already apparent. First, that an increasing proportion of the liquid component of liquid wastes is being diverted to sewer for disposal, and second, that an increasing proportion of the waste component is being disposed of on land. Factors bringing about this shift include:
(a) The diversion of industrial wastewater out of watercourses and stormwater channels and into sewers by directions from the Water Pollution Control Branch.
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(b) The general tightening up of standards for the acceptability of industrial wastes for discharge to sewer is generating increased quantities of industrial waste residues outside the sewer system.
(c) The large difference in the charge levied by the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority for the disposal of liquid wastes at the Castlereagh Depot ($15 per kilolitre) and the charge levied by the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board for the discharge of wastes into the sewer system (a basic 9c per kilolitre). This difference, plus the cost of cartage to transport waste residues to the liquid waste depot at Castlereagh provides a strong financial incentive for industry to separate the liquid and waste components as completely as possible, and to dispose of most of the liquid down the sewer and most of the waste residue at Castlereagh. In effect, this means that the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority will have to deal with increasingly concentrated waste residues.Together, all of these factors plus the general upgrading of
sewage treatment works result in the transfer of waste materials out of waterbodies and onto the land. While this alleviates water pollution problems, the disposal practices of the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority will become of increasing importance in the overall scheme of things.Let us now examine the activities of the two most important
authorities - the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board and the Water Pollution Control Branch. The oil pollution control activities of the Maritime Services Board are also briefly mentioned because they will become increasingly important with the development of the new port complex in Botany Bay.
5.2 The Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage BoardThrough its vested responsibilities, the Board straddles the two major urban waste streams of domestic and industrial waste- water discharged to sewer. But its potential for control is even greater than its treatment and disposal activities suggest. Because the Board is also responsible for Sydney’s water supply - most of which ends up as domestic and industrial wastewater - there is the potential, through financial incentives and other means, for the Board to exert controls on the actual quantities of wastewater generated. This is discussed elsewhere by Hickson.
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The Board's activities concerning water supply are of importance for another reason. The relative allocation of funds between the competing requirements of water supply and sewerage has a major effect on the rate at which additional sewerage facilities can be provided and existir.g works upgraded. It appears that the diversion of fur.ds towards the provision of a reliable water supply system was a major factor contributing to the increasing backlog of unsevered properties that developed in the western suburbs of Sydney up to the 1960s. The activities of the Board are now discussed under the two headings of Water Supply and Sewered Wastes. (The drainage responsibilities of the Board are miner relative to these two and are not discussed.)5.2.1 Water SupplyA reliable water supply system is an obvious essential of any modern city. Reliability, or the ability of the supply system to meet the consumers' demands for water without the imposition of water restrictions during times of drought, is principally dependent on the demand of water, the capacity of the storage reservoirs, and the likelihood of occurrence and the length of droughts. If a water supply authority is risk- averse, it provides a large storage capacity in relation to the demand for water and the likelihood of droughts. Such a policy results in large capital expenditures on reservoirs in return for minimal water supply restrictions during times of drought. Thus, a basic policy question is the balance to be struck between capital expenditures for additional reservoirs on the one hand, and the supply restrictions acceptable to consumers on the other.The estimated future demand for water from the area served
by the Sydney supply system is shown in Table IV and details of the major reservoirs of the system are shown in Table V.With the completion of Warragamba reservoir in 1959, the
'safe-draft' of the Sydney supply system, or the demand that could be met for the critical duration of the worst recorded drought plus a further year on top of that, was some 1,600 million litres per day. The demand for water is expected to exceed this safe draft around 1975, and the Board has adopted the Shoalhaven Scheme as Sydney's next source of supply. The first stage of this scheme, due for completion in 1976, will allow water to be diverted from Shoalhaven River into either the Warragamba or Nepean Rivers and thus into the existing supply system. The second stage is scheduled for completion in 1984 and will increase the safe draft of the total supply
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system to some 3,184 megalitres per day - sufficient to meet the forecasted water demand until around the end of this century.
Table IV Future Demand of the Sydney Water Supply System
YearPopulation
Served(Millions)
Average Daily Consumption
Megalitres/day Litres/capita/day
1965 2.66 1,210 4551975 3. 18 1,650 5181985 3.70 2,150 5821995 4.23 2,730 645
Source: M.W.S. & D.B., ’Estimation of Water SupplyDemand' , in International Training Course in Public Health Engineering (Department of Foreign Affairs, 1970) Vol. I, Subsection 6.1.
The Board bases its future supply estimates on the 7 critical years of the 1934-42 drought, currently the worst on record for Sydney. This drought has been estimated to recur, on the average, once in every period of 300 to 3,000 years.39 If even the lower of these estimates is approximately correct, it indicates that the capacity of the current supply system is somewhat ’over-designed'. In other words the Board appears to be risk-averse and tends to provide a large storage capacity, with attendant high capital expenditures on reservoirs and other headworks, to ensure there are minimal supply restrictions during times of drought. To a certain extent, this is understandable in the light of the severity with which droughts have disrupted the Sydney supply system in the past. However, it does seem that the degree of reliability may be excessive. The second stage of the Shoalhaven Scheme should be examined again to determine whether it would not be better to adopt a lesser degree of reliability by deferring its construction to a later date. In this way funds for the construction of the second stage would be freed for other purposes, most importantly for the sewerage backlog program.
Independently of the degree of risk to be tolerated in the Sydney supply system, water conservation measures are yet another means of reducing the capital outlays for additional storages and headworks. However, as far as liquid waste
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Tab
le V
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ajor
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erv
oir
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f th
e Sy
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up
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c j a) o 4fr < f < r r-4 CM r »co J --4 CTv CTv »-4 0 0 r - ' i n
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50
management i s c o n c e rn e d , such m ea su res may p ro v e to be a mixed b l e s s i n g . U n less w a s te g e n e r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s th e m s e lv e s a r e a l t e r e d , t h e same q u a n t i t y o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s w i l l be cont a i n e d i n a s m a l l e r volume o f w a t e r .
I n o t h e r w o rd s , w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n i s l i k e l y to l e a d to more c o n c e n t r a t e d d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r s . T h is w i l l be o f l i t t l e con seq u en ce w i th r e g a r d to d o m e s t ic w a s t e w a te r , b u t may be o f c o n s i d e r a b l e im p o r ta n c e t o t h e management o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s . The l a t t e r may w e l l r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t b e f o r e d i s c h a r g e to sew er o r i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s .W hile t h i s a d d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t w i l l keep more o f th e w a s te m a t e r i a l s o u t o f w a t e r b o d i e s , i t w i l l a l s o g e n e r a t e i n c r e a s e d amounts o f t r e a t m e n t s lu d g e s whose s u b s e q u e n t d i s p o s a l may c a u se y e t a d d i t i o n a l p ro b le m s . I n a d d i t i o n , any r e d u c t i o n i n w a t e r consum ption i s l i k e l y t o be o f f s e t , p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t , by i n c r e a s e d volumes o f w a t e r f o r f l u s h i n g Sydney’ s sew er s y s te m s . In t h e 12 months t o J u n e 1974, some 28 ,000 m i l l i o n l i t r e s o f d r in k i n g w a t e r w ere u se d f o r sew er f l u s h i n g , w hich amounted t o a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f Sydney’ s i n d u s t r i a l w a te r consum ption f o r th e same p e r i o d . These n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s would h av e to be b a la n c e d a g a i n s t t h e p o s i t i v e s a v in g s i n c a p i t a l o u t l a y s r e s u l t i n g from w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n .
5 . 2 . 2 Sewered W astes
T a b le VI shows th e p o p u l a t i o n s e r v e d by th e v a r i o u s sew er sy s te m s o f t h e Sydney r e g i o n . (The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s ew erag e s e r v i c e s be tw een v a r i o u s l o c a l governm ent a r e a s i s d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e . ) As n o te d p r e v i o u s l y , o v e r 90% o f t h e sew ered p o p u l a t i o n i s s e r v e d by sy s te m s d r a i n i n g to ocean o u t f a l l s .The r e m a in d e r i s s e r v e d by s m a l l e r i n l a n d sy s te m s t h a t d r a i n e i t h e r i n t o t h e Nepean R iv e r - Hawkesbury R iv e r sy s te m o r i n t o t h e G e o rg e 's R iv e r .
However, th e a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e numbers s e r v e d by i n l a n d sy s te m s must i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e f u t u r e w es tw ard e x p a n s io n o f Sydney. These sewage d i s c h a r g e s w i l l r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s on th e s e n s i t i v e i n l a n d w a te rw ays r e c e i v i n g sewage e f f l u e n t .
5 . 2 . 3 Sewage T re a tm e n t
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , sewage t r e a t m e n t h a s b een c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s : p r im a r y , s e c o n d a ry and t e r t i a r y . P r im a ry t r e a tm e n tc o n s i s t s o f t h e m e c h a n ic a l rem ova l o f g r o s s s o l i d s , g r i t and s e t t e a b l e m a t t e r by s c r e e n i n g and s e d im e n ta t i o n and t y p i c a l l y removes 30-40% o f t h e B.O.D. and s o l i d m a t t e r . Secondary and t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l rem oval (by
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Table VI Details of Sewer Systems Serving the Sydney Region
* Length of Sewers (km)
EstimatedSewered
Population
Major Ocean OutfallsSouthern and Western Suburbs 3,925 1,029,000Northern Suburbs 5,059 890,000Bondi 670 225,000Cronulla 603 100,000Warriewood (under construction) 12 -
10,268 2,244,000 (90.2%) •
Minor Ocean OutfallsDiamond Bay 8 2,500Vaucluse 34 6,000
Inland Plants(i) Draining to George's River
42 8,500(0.3%)
- Liverpool 324 27,000- Glenfield-Campbelltown 309 26,000
— —
633 53,000 (2.1%)
(ii) Draining to Nepean-Hawkesbury Rivers- St Marys 371 70,500- Quakers Hill 229 34,000- Hornsby 58 15,000- Richmond 37 7,000- Camden 31 4,000- West Thornleigh 16 2,500- Warragamba 19 2,000- Castle Hill 28 500
789 135,500(5.4%)
(iii) Draining to Malabar Ocean Outfall System- Fairfield 417 51,000
(2.0%)(iv) Under Construction
- Kellyville 2 -
- West Hornsby 7 -- West Camden 2
11
Totals 12,160 2,492,000(100.0%)
Source Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board Annual Report for the year ended 30th June, 1974.
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5
bacteria and other micro-organisms) of additional amounts of residual organic and other matter. When used together, all three forms of treatment remove some 95% of the B.O.D. and solid matter.
It is the Board's policy to provide full primary treatment on all ocean outfall systems and treatment to the tertiary level plus effluent chlorination on all inland systems. To this end, the level of treatment provided at most of the sewage treatment works in Sydney is currently being upgraded.
As far as the inland waterways are concerned, this policy will satisfactorily control the traditional concerns of B.O.D. and faecal bacterial levels. It will not, however, markedly reduce nutrient levels in the sewage effluent, and this source of nutrients will remain a major stimulant to aquatic plant growth, especially in the George’s River. To achieve effective nutrient removal requires 'advanced wastewater treatment processes', but these are considerably more expensive than the traditional forms of treatment. In view of the current level of aquatic plant growth in the George's River and the likely intensification of this problem with future settlement, a thorough study is required to determine the relative contribution of the various liquid wastes to nutrient levels, and the feasibility, costs and benefits of control.The provision of primary treatment at all ocean outfall
systems should greatly alleviate nuisance problems on the ocean beaches. As a means of further controlling these problems, the Board is currently investigating the feasibility and effectiveness of extended ocean outfalls which discharge effluent into the colder, deeper layers of coastal waters such that it tends to remain submerged and not wash back on beaches. However, such outfalls are likely to be very costly. Initial investigations suggested that the North Head Ocean Outfall would need to be some 3 kilometres long and discharge into a 60 metre depth of water to effectively minimise beach c o n t a m i n a t i o n . a comprehensive two-year study of the feasibility and effectiveness of extended ocean outfalls at six sites on the Sydney coastline has recently been completed, but to date, no decision has been made on whether or not they are to be constructed. Again, the prime need is for a careful assessment of the balance between the added costs (large) and the additional benefits.
Disposal on land is often mentioned as a possible means of controlling the detrimental effects of sewage discharges on Sydney's waterbodies. This form of disposal has a number of
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a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s . H arm fu l w a s te m a t e r i a l s a r e k e p t o u t o f w a t e r b o d i e s , o n ly l i m i t e d l e v e l s o f t r e a t m e n t a r e r e q u i r e d i f t h e d i s p o s a l a r e a s a r e n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e p u b l i c , and a f i n a n c i a l r e t u r n can be r e a l i s e d by th e u s e o f t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s . ( I n t h i s way, n u t r i e n t s t h a t would o th e r w i s e s t i m u l a t e t h e grow th o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s s e r v e t o i n c r e a s e c rop y i e l d s . ) However, few b i g c i t i e s o p e r a t e l a r g e s c a l e sewage farm s b e c a u s e t h e s e a d v a n ta g e s a r e more th a n o f f s e t by th e p rob lem s o f o b t a i n i n g s u f f i c i e n t a r e a s o f l a n d to d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i th th e l a r g e volum es o f w a s te w a te r g e n e r a te d by c i t y d w e l l e r s . Q u i te a p a r t f rom t h i s , t h e r e a d y a c c e s s o f Sydney to c o a s t a l w a te r s makes l a n d d i s p o s a l an uneconomic a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m ost o f t h e u rb a n a r e a . R easonab ly l a r g e s c a l e l a n d d i s p o s a l was p r a c t i s e d i n Sydney a t th e Botany - R ockdale sewage farm f o r a b o u t 30 y e a r s a ro u n d th e t u r n o f t h e c e n tu r y . However, t h e volume o f sewage o u t s t r i p p e c t h e c a p a c i ty o f t h e fa rm , and c o m p la in t s by n e a rb y r e s i d e n t s a b o u t o f f e n s i v e o d o u rs l e d to d i v e r s i o n o f sewage i n t o th e M alabar Ocean O u t f a l l sew er sy s te m and c l o s u r e o f t h e farm . M elbourne i s one o f t h e few l a r g e c i t i e s t h a t d i s p o s e s o f most (o v e r 90%) o f i t s sewage by la n d i r r i g a t i o n . However, grow th o f t h e c i t y h as o u t s t r i p p e d even th e c a p a c i t y o f t h e 10,000 h e c t a r e sewage farm a t W e rr ib e e and f u t u r e d i s p o s a l schemes i n v o lv e d i s c h a r g e i n t o c o a s t a l w a t e r s r a t h e r th an la n d d i s p o s a l .
B ecause o f t h e p ro b lem s and r e m e d ia l c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i th sewage d i s c h a r g e s i n t o t h e s e n s i t i v e i n l a n d w a te rw ays such as t h e G eorge’ s R i v e r , t h e r e c o u ld be m e r i t i n ex am in in g th e l a n d d i s p o s a l o f sewage from t h e s e l i m i t e d a r e a s . I t may p ro v e c h e a p e r and more e f f e c t i v e th a n n u t r i e n t rem oval p r o c e s s e s o r o t h e r c o n t r o l m e a su re s .
A n o th e r means o f l a n d d i s p o s a l i s t o u se t r e a t e d sewage f o r t h e i r r i g a t i o n o f g o l f c o u r s e s and p u b l i c p a r k s and g a rd e n s .To d a t e , how ever , t h e r e u s e o f sewage e f f l u e n t h a s been r e g a r d e d more as a means o f c o n s e r v in g w a t e r th a n a s a means o f m anaging l i q u i d w a s t e s . In c i t i e s such as Sydney, which c u r r e n t l y a r e w e l l , i f n o t e x c e s s i v e l y , s u p p l i e d w i th w a t e r , few a t t e m p t s have b e e n made t o r e - u s e sewage e f f l u e n t f o r i r r i g a t i o n p u r p o s e s . However, A d e la id e , w h ic h h a s a much more l i m i t e d w a t e r s u p p ly , h a s e x t e n s i v e l y r e - u s e d sewage e f f l u e n t f o r th e i r r i g a t i o n o f p u b l i c p a rk s and g a r d e n s . Q u i te a p a r t from th e c o s t s o f a d u a l r e t i c u l a t i o n n e tw o rk , t h e m a jo r drawback o f t h i s m ethod i s t h e l i m i t e d d i s p o s a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e a r e a s a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n . T h is i s a p p a r e n t from F ig . 2 , w hich shows t h a t w hereas some 111 ,000 m i l l i o n l i t r e s
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of w a t e r was d i s c h a r g e d i n t o t h e sew ers s e r v i n g t h e Botany Bay r e g i o n i n 1 972 -73 , o n ly 10 ,000 m i l l i o n l i t r e s w ere used f o r t h e i r r i g a t i o n o f p u b l i c p a rk s and g a rd e n s and f o r p r im a ry p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s a r e a . T hus , i r r i g a t i o n w i th t r e a t e d sewage e f f l u e n t m ust rem ain a t b e s t a m ino r a d ju n c t t o d i s c h a r g e i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a t l e a s t one g o l f c o u r s e i n Sydney i s i r r i g a t e d w i t h t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t .
5 . 2 . 4 I n d u s t r i a l W a s te w a te r
As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e d i s c h a r g e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s te w a te r to se w e r i s a key f a c t o r i n t h e management o f l i q u i d w a s te s i n Sydney. However, t h e s e w a s te s can c a u se a v a r i e t y o f p ro b le m s . M a t e r i a l s o f an in f la m m a b le , t o x i c o r e x p lo s i v e n a t u r e a r e a t h r e a t t o t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y o f workmen i n t h e s e w e r s ; o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c a c i d s c o r r o d e c e m e n t-b a s e d m a t e r i a l s u se d i n t h e sew er s y s te m ; f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l and o t h e r ty p e s o f g r o s s s o l i d m a t t e r can b l o c k sew ers and c a u se them to o v e r f lo w ; g r i t and s i l t e ro d e se w e r p i p e s and pumps; and e x c e s s i v e t e m p e r a t u r e , g r e a s e , o i l , d e t e r g e n t s and t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s i n t e r f e r e w i th sewage t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s . I n an a t t e m p t to combat t h e s e p r o b le m s , t h e Board im poses s t r i c t c o n d i t i o n s , o r s t a n d a r d s , on t h e d i s c h a r g e o f ’ t r a d e w a s t e s ’ i n t o i t s sew er and s to rm w a te r s y s te m s . These d i s c h a r g e s t a n d a r d s a r e shown i n T a b le V II .
The s t a n d a r d s w ere l a s t r e v i s e d i n t h e l a t e 1960s, t h e s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n b e in g th e i n c l u s i o n o f r e s t r i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e d i s c h a r g e o f t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s and s u l p h i d e s .W ith t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g im p o r ta n c e i n modern m a n u f a c tu r in g p r o c e s s e s , t h e d i s c h a r g e o f t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s i n t o t h e sew er s y s te m i s l i k e l y to become a c o n s i d e r a b l e p ro b lem i n t h e f u t u r e . B ecause t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f i n l a n d w orks a r e more s e n s i t i v e t h a n t h o s e a t o cean o u t f a l l w o rk s , t h e Board a t t e m p t s t o e n c o u ra g e i n d u s t r i e s w i t h p o t e n t i a l l y t ro u b le s o m e w a s te s to e s t a b l i s h t h e i r p r e m is e s i n a r e a s d r a i n i n g to ocean r a t h e r th a n i n l a n d o u t f a l l s . However, b e c a u s e o f c h e a p e r and more a v a i l a b l e l a n d , many i n d u s t r i e s a r e t r a n s f e r r i n g t o o r e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t h e w e s t e r n s u b u r b s , and i t seems s t r i c t e r p l a n n in g c o n t r o l s p l u s some form o f c o m p e n sa t io n w i l l be n e e d e d i f th e B oard i s t o s h e p h e r d p o t e n t i a l l y h a z a rd o u s i n d u s t r i e s i n t o a r e a s d r a i n e d by o c e an o u t f a l l s .
To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e s t a n d a r d s shown i n T a b le V II a r e u se d o n ly as g u i d e l i n e s , e ach a p p l i c a t i o n t o d i s c h a r g e t r a d e w a s t e s to sew er b e in g t r e a t e d on i t s own m e r i t s . Fo r exam p le , r e s i d u a l h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y may d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t l a r g e volumes o f w a s te o f an ’ a c c e p t a b l e ’ c o n c e n t r a t i o n can be
55
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discharged into a sewer. Alternatively, the dilutional capacity of the sewage itself may determine whether or not a small volume of highly concentrated waste is acceptable for discharge. Quite apart from these aspects, the Board is prepared to accept ’over-strength’ wastes to sewer if the firm is prepared to meet a reasonable proportion of the operating costs involved in accepting such wastes.^ (The charges the M.W.S. & D.B. levies for accepting the discharge of industrial wastes to sewer and stormwater channel are discussed elsewhere by Hickson.)It is one thing to have a set of discharge standards; it is
quite another to be able to police them properly so that they are effective. The illegal discharge of industrial wastes to sewer has remained !a major curse in the operation of sewage treatment works and ocean outfalls'.^ Firms have been detected discharging as much as half a ton of sulphuric acid, hundreds of gallons of fuel oil, spoiled batches of paint resins, fats in amounts of a ton or more, the wastes with suspended solids measured in percentages rather than parts per million. And despite precautions such as protectiveclothing and forced ventilation, sewer workmen ’....havebeen overcome by hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and trichloroethylene. They have been burned by white phosphorus, intoxicated by^volatile solvents and had their eyes seared by acrolein’.The Board attempts to control these illegal discharges
through regular inspection of premises discharging industrial wastes to sewer or stormwater channel. Trade waste inspectors may enter premises discharging wastes into the Board’s systems for inspection purposes or to collect samples for analysis.They are equipped with simple field kits which give approximate indications of the acidity, alkalinity and concentration of heavy metals in the wastes. If these approximate results indicate that the trade waste standards may be being violated, an additional sample is collected for more exact analysis by the Board’s Chemical Laboratory.The frequency with which an individual firm is inspected
depends upon both the quantity and type of wastes being discharged: several large industrial undertakings are inspected up to several times weekly, while smaller installations are checked once every three months, where possible, and at least once every six months. The number of inspections and trade waste samples analysed by the Board’s Chemical Laboratory over a three-year period are shown in Table VIII.
57
Table VIII The Control of Illegal Industrial Waste Discharges by the M.W.S. & D.B.
Activity 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74Factory inspections 24,395 30,000 33,102Samples analysed over 600 over 3,500 4,901Number of violations
requiring reprimand letters 105 62 194Number of prosecutions 4 3 19Reimbursement for 'damage to
sewers on treatment works $3,359 $9,390 $19,872Source: M.W.S. & D.B. Annual Reports for the
respective years.The Board uses a variety of measures to gain a*n offending
firm's cooperation in rectifying waste violations. In order of increasing severity, these include a verbal request to rectify the matter, the~sending of a reprimand letter, prosecution for breaches of the trade waste by-laws, and as a last resort, disconnection of an offending firm from the sewer. (Disconnection has only been necessary on 1 or 2 occasions, and then only for a matter of several hours to 'gain' the offending firm's cooperation.) Fines and recovery of clean-up and maintenance costs are other means by which the Board controls trade waste violations. If prosecuted, a firm can be fined up to a maximum of $100 for each breach of the trade waste by-laws. (Firms are often prosecuted for a number of simultaneous breaches of the by-laws, the current record standing at 39.)While these penalties are inadequate the threat of prose
cution is often enough to obtain a firm's cooperation in correcting the violation. When an illegal trade waste discharge interferes with the normal operation of sewerage facilities and the offending fiipn can be identified (this is often difficult), the Board sues for recovery of costs necessary to repair damage to the system. Table VIII also shows the extent of these activities. There are, however, some organisations, such as public authorities that cannot be penalised in this manner.
There are a number of obvious difficulties in attempting to
58
c o n t r o l i l l e g a l d i s c h a r g e s i n t h i s f a s h i o n . R e g u la r i n s p e c t i o n s m ig h t h e lp c o n t r o l r e g u l a r i l l e g a l d i s c h a r g e s , b u t th e y p r o b a b ly do l i t t l e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i r r e g u l a r dumping o f s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d w a s t e r e s i d u e s i n t o t h e se w e r sys tem . And, g iv e n t h e h ig h c h a rg e s l e v i e d by t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W aste D is p o s a l A u t h o r i t y f o r t h e u se o f t h e C a s t l e r e a g h L iq u id W aste D epo t , t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e f o r t h e s m a l l e r i n d u s t r i e s to d i s c h a r g e t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t e d r e s i d u e s down t h e sew er 'when n o -o n e i s l o o k i n g ' . A l th o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e Board to c o n t r o l t h e s e s p o r a d i c dum pings , a move i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n c o u ld , how ever , be i n i t i a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e maximum f i n e from i t s p r e s e n t n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y l e v e l t o a f i g u r e more i n k e e p in g w i t h modern t im e s .
5 . 2 . 5 Sewer O verf low s
F i n a l l y , sew er o v e r f l o w s , a r e g u l a r o c c u r r e n c e i n Sydney d u r in g p e r io d s o f w et w e a t h e r , a r e y e t a n o th e r a s p e c t o f t h e B o a r d 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r se w e re d w a s t e s . The main s o u r c e s o f s to rm w a te r i n g r e s s a r e t h e c o n n e c t io n o f h o u se r o o f d r a i n a g e t o sew er and c r a c k e d and l e a k i n g p i p e s i n t h e c o n n e c t io n be tw een p r o p e r t y and m ains se w e r . B ecause i t i s v i r t u a l l y im p o s s ib le t o e x c lu d e s to rm w a te r from t h e sew er s y s te m , o v e r f low s cannot be e l i m i n a t e d and th e y s h o u ld be r e c o g n i s e d as a n e c e s s a r y e v i l . I f r e l i e f v a lv e s a r e n o t i n s t a l l e d , o v e r f low s d i s c h a r g e t h ro u g h s a n i t a r y f i t t i n g s i n t o sew ered p r o p e r t i e s and th ro u g h m anholes i n t o t h e s t r e e t s e t c . ( a r e l a t i v e l / f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e up u n t i l q u i t e r e c e n t l y i n Bankstown) .
C o n tro l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Board i n c l u d e th e i n s p e c t i o n o f p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h e i l l e g a l c o n n e c t io n o f r o o f d r a in a g e to sew er and th e e v a l u a t i o n o f more w a t e r t i g h t p i p e s and j o i n t s . A no the r way to m i t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f o v e r f lo w s i s t o cons t r u c t hoLding b a s i n s to s t o r e t h e sewage u n t i l i t can be d i s c h a r g e l b a c k i n t o t h e sew er s y s te m when t h e f lo w s s u b s id e .A number of t h e s e h av e been c o n s t r u c t e d i n M e lbou rne , b u t as y e t none i a v e b e e n b u i l t i n Sydney. Y et a g a i n , b e f o r e em bark ing on su c h a c o n s t r u c t i o n p ro g ra m , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f sew er o v e r f lo w s t o o v e r a l l p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s and a m en ity r e d u c t i o n s h o u ld b e e v a l u a t e d and th e c o s t s and b e n e f i t s o f t h e s e m easures e v a l u a t e d .
5 .3 The V a te r P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l B ranch
The C lean W ate rs A c t , w hich i s a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e W ater
59
Pollution Control Branch of the State Pollution Control Commission, is the keystone of water pollution control legislation in New South Wales. With the exception of the Prevention of Oil Pollution of Navigational Waters Act, 1960, (administered by the Maritime Services Board), The Clean Waters Act overrides all other pieces of water pollution control legislation in the State. Moreover, because of the broad definitions attached to 'waters' and 'pollute', the scope of the Act is encompassing in relation to the waters over which it has jurisdiction and the diversity of ways by which pollutants can enter and impair their usefulness.
The activities of the Water Pollution Control Branch are strongly centred around the provision of the Act. These include:
(a) The classification of waterbodies(b) Pollution control activities(c) Monitoring of water quality.
5.3.1 The Classification of WaterbodiesOne of the most important liquid waste management activities of the Branch is the classification of waterbodies. The classification attached to a waterbody determines, to a large extent, the degree to which it can be legally polluted.Because judgements regarding amenity values, present and future uses, costs and benefits, equity considerations, etc. are implicit in the classification scheme, it is necessary to examine this facet of the Clean Waters Act quite closely to obtain an indication of the likely success of liquid waste management in New South Wales.
According to senior personnel of the Water Pollution Control Branch, the basic object in classifying waters is:
"....to maintain or achieve standards of purity of watersconsistent with their use for domestic, industrial, agricultural and pastoral water supplies, for the protection and propagation of fish, aquatic life and wildlife, and for recreational and other legitimate uses. No waters will be classified to allow their uses as open sewers, although the reasonable and necessary use of waters in the final distribution of the community's water-borne wastes must be recognised. Waste discharges will be required to be treated so as to prevent the unnecessary or unreasonable impairment of natural water quality."^
60
In te rm s o f d i m i n i s h i n g l e v e l s o f a m e n i ty , o r i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e s o f p o l l u t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a r e as f o l l o w s :
C la s s S - S p e c i a l l y P r o t e c t e d W aters C la s s P - P r o t e c t e d W aters C la s s C - C o n t r o l l e d W aters C la s s R - R e s t r i c t e d W aters
T h e re a r e a l s o two a d d i t i o n a l c l a s s e s :
C la s s 0 - Ocean O u t f a l l W atersC la s s U - U nderg round P r o t e c t e d W ate rs
Once w a t e r s have been c l a s s i f i e d , v a ro u s r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e p l a c e d on t h e d i s c h a r g e o f w a s te s i n t o them. C e r t a i n o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r C la s s R, C, P and S w a te r s a r e shown i n T a b le IX. I t i s s e e n t h a t C la s s S w a t e r s , o r w a t e r s o f t h e h i g h e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a r e to r e c e i v e no w a s te d i s c h a r g e s and t h a t o n ly C la s s P w a t e r s , o r w a t e r s o f t h e n e x t h i g h e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a r e to f low i n t o them. The s e v e r i t y o f tB e se r e s t r i c t i o n s can be a p p r e c i a t e d when i t i s r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e S c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s r e s e r v e d f o r d o m e s t ic w a t e r s u p p l i e s . C la s s P , C and R w a t e r s a r e a l lo w e d to b e p o l l u t e d to v a r i o u s d e g r e e s , b u t w a s t e s a r e t o be d i s c h a r g e d to sew er w here c a p a c i t y i s a v a i l a b l e and th e w a s t e s a r e a c c e p t a b l e . Sewer o v e r f lo w s and t h e d i s c h a r g e o f th e r m a l w a s te s a r e e i t h e r banned ( C la s s P) o r s u b j e c t t o a p p r o v a l ( C l a s s e s C and R ) ; minimum d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e t o be m a in ta in e d ( a b o u t 90%, 70% and 60% i n C la s s P , C and R w a t e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y ) ; and th e d i s c h a r g e o f t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s ( ' r e s t r i c t e d s u b s t a n c e s ' ) i s l i m i t e d . T here a r e a l s o p r o v i s i o n s to l i m i t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a q u a t i c n u t r i e n t s i n w a s te d i s c h a r g e s .
W astes d i s c h a r g e d i n t o ocean w a t e r s ( C la s s 0) have to u n d e r go t r e a t m e n t to remove f l o a t a b l e s and s e t t l e a b l e m a t t e r , and l i m i t s a r e p l a c e d on t h e d e n s i t y o f f a e c a l c o l i f o r m b a c t e r i a and t h e change i n w a t e r c l a r i t y . E x cep t i n e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e r e a r e no r e s t r i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g B.O.D. l e v e l s o f t h e w a s t e s . A p p l i c a n t s to d i s c h a r g e w a s te s i n t o o cean w a t e r s have t o p r o v id e o c e a n o g r a p h ic d a t a r e g a r d in g t h e movement o f w a t e r s w i t h i n t h e p ro p o s e d d i s c h a r g e a r e a , th e i n i t i a l d i l l u t i o n o f t h e w a s t e s , and th e d im e n s io n s o f t h e zone o f w a t e r i n w h ich most o f t h e d i l u t i o n o f t h e w a s te s o c c u r s .
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c a tc h m e n t a r e a s a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e H u n te r D i s t r i c t W ater B oard ( c l a s s i f i e d S, P and U) and Cook’ s R iv e r and A le x a n d ra C ana l (b o th c l a s s i f i e d R ) .
The r e s t r i c t i o n s im posed on t h e d i s c h a r g e o f w a s te s i n t o c l a s s i f i e d w a te r s a r e a mix o f what a r e known a s ' e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s ’ and ' s t r e a m s t a n d a r d s ’ . An e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i e s t h e a l l o w a b le c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r ty p e o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s i n t h e w a s te i t s e l f , w h e re as a s t r e a m s ta n d a r d s p e c i f i e s t h e a l l o w a b le c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r ty p e o f w a s te m a t e r i a l s i n t h e w a te rb o d y , o r t h e e x t e n t to w hich th e y may c a u se d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s . To d a t e , management a u t h o r i t i e s have te n d e d to a d o p t e x c l u s i v e l y one s t a n d a r d o r t h e o t h e r , and t h e r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n o v e r w hich ty p e i s t h e more a p p r o p r ia te . , 46 In a c t u a l f a c t , t h e s t a n d a r d s a r e n o t in d e p e n d e n t , b u t a r e r e l a t e d by t h e a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e w a te rb o d y , which t r a n s f o r m s e f f l u e n t concent r a t i o n s i n t o s t r e a m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . M oreove r , t h e f l e x i b l e and e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l o f p o l l u t i o n r e q u i r e s a mix o f b o th s t a n d a r d s . A f t e r a l l , we a r e a t t e m p t in g to m a i n t a i n th e am en ity o f t h e w a te rb o d y (hence t h e r e l e v a n c e o f s t r e a m s t a n d a r d s ) b u t t h e mechanism o f d o ing so i s by c o n t r o l l i n g e f f l u e n t d i s c h a r g e s (h e n c e , t h e need f o r e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s ) . Thus, t h e mix o f b o th s t a n d a r d s i m p l i c i t i n t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s on d i s c h a r g e s i n t o c l a s s i f i e d w a t e r s r e p r e s e n t s , as f a r as can be ju d g e d i n t h e s e e a r l y d a y s , a f l e x i b l e and e f f e c t i v e fram ew ork f o r c o n t r o l l i n g w a te r p o l l u t i o n .
Of more im p o r ta n c e , how ever , i s t h e a c t u a l m echanism f o r d e c id i n g how a p a r t i c u l a r w a te rb o d y s h o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d . I n i t i a l l y , t h i s was done th ro u g h th e C lean W a te rs A d v iso ry Com m ittee . The m embership o f t h i s Committee i n c l u d e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f most o f th e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s c o n c e rn e d w i th l i q u i d w a s te management (and whose a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i k e l y to b e a f f e c t e d by th e p ro p o se d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ) , t h e o n ly n o t a b l e e x c e p t io n b e in g th e M e t r o p o l i t a n W aste D i s p o s a l A u t h o r i t y , and a p e r s o n r e p r e s e n t i n g each o f p r im a ry i n d u s t r y , s e c o n d a ry i n d u s t r y , e n v i r o n m e n ta l c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r s u i t s .
The Committee d i s c u s s e d and e v a l u a t e d th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r a p a r t i c u l a r w a te rb o d y , th e p r o p o se d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b e in g , p re su m a b ly , a compromise be tw een t h e i n t e r e s t s and d e s i r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i e s . Once a p ro p o s e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s made p u b l i c , p e r s o n s o r p a r t i e s who o b j e c t t o i t can a p p e a l t o t h e C lean W ate rs Appeal B oard , w hich e i t h e r c o n f i rm s th e p ro p o se d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o r d i r e c t s t h a t some o t h e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n be a s s ig n e d to t h e w a te rb o d y . R e c e n t l y , t h e C lean W aters A dv iso ry Committee has b een d i s b a n d e d and th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
63
f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a p p e a r s t o have d e f a u l t e d to t h e W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l B ranch by i t s e l f .
B ecause o f t h e r e c e n t n e s s o f t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to e v a l u a t e how s u c c e s s f u l t h i s d e c i s io n -m a k in g p r o c e s s w i l l b e . However, c e r t a i n a s p e c t s a r e a p p a r e n t .F i r s t , i t i s a s t e p i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n from t h e ap p ro a c h a d o p te d by U .S .A . E n v iro n m e n ta l P r o t e c t i o n Agency. T h e i r a p p ro a c h i s b a s e d on t h e ' b e s t a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o lo g y econom ic a l l y a c h i e v a b l e ' , w h ich im poses u n i fo rm c o n t r o l s on t h e v a r i o u s s e c t o r s o f i n d u s t r y . W hile t h i s s h o u ld p ro v e a p o w e r fu l and e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l l i n g w a t e r p o l l u t i o n , i t i s l i k e l y t o be e c o n o m ic a l ly e x t r a v a g a n t b e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i v e a s s i m i l a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t w a te r b o d ie s and t h e r e l a t i v e b e n e f i t s t h a t w i l l r e s u l t from im proved w a t e r q u a l i t y a r e n o t e v a l u a t e d . T hus , a l t h o u g h a s t e p i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e New South Wales ap p ro a c h i s c e r t a i n l y a lo n g a l e s s e x t r a v a g a n t ro a d .
A n o th e r a s p e c t o f New South W ales c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schem e, w hich i s s i n g u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e b e c a u s e o f i t s a b s e n c e , i s t h e l a c k o f any s o r t o f c o s t - b e n e f i t a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l p rog ram a s s o c i a t e d w i th v a r i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .T here i s no a t t e m p t t o e v a l u a t e t h e c o s t o f c o n t r o l s , t h e i r l i k e l y b e n e f i t s , o r even th e a m e n i ty v a lu e s t h a t t h e v a r i o u s u s e r s a t t a c h to t h e w a te rb o d y . The m a jo r d i f f i c u l t y w i th t h i s a p p ro a c h , and i t i s a m a jo r o n e , i s to e v a l u a t e t h e b e n e f i t o f ' c l e a n w a t e r ' i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o s t o f c l e a n i n g i t u p . ^ However, t o c o m p le te ly d i s m is s t h i s i n p u t from th e p o l i c y m aking p r o c e s s , and to i g n o r e t h e a m e n i ty v a lu e s o f p r e s e n t and f u t u r e p o t e n t i a l u s e r s , must l e a d t o i n e f f e c t i v e and w a s t e f u l management. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s t h a t a r e ' a c c e p t a b l e ' to u rb an d w e l le r s ( t h a t i s , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f u rb an w a t e r b o d i e s ) i s sh ro u d e d i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . No one ' t e c h n i q u e ' p r o v id e s an e f f e c t i v e , e f f i c i e n t and e q u i t a b l e an sw er . Such an answ er may i n f a c t , n o t e x i s t . N o tw i th s t a n d in g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s and s h o r t c o m in g s , how ever, a u t h o r i t y s h o u ld u se a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n iq u e s to h e lp guage answ ers to t h e s e i m p r e c i s e q u e s t i o n s .
T hus , i n New S outh W ales , t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s im posed on w a s te d i s c h a r g e s i n t o c l a s s i f i e d w a te r b o d ie s a p p e a r to be a r e a s o n a b ly f l e x i b l e and e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l l i n g w a t e r p o l l u t i o n - a l th o u g h t h i s i s y e t to be p ro v e d i n p r a c t i c e .The p r o c e s s o f a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , how ever , has a number o f s e r i o u s s h o r t c o m in g s , n o t t h e l e a s t b e in g th e a b s e n c e o f c o s t - b e n e f i t a n a l y s e s . The f a c t t h a t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s a p p e a r s to have become p a r t o f t h e i n t e r n a l w o rk ings
64
1
o f t h e W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l B ranch i m p l i e s a f u r t h e r ( u n a v o id a b le ) n a r r o w in g o f a p p ro a c h , and t h i s i s y e t a n o th e r w eakness t h a t m ust t e n d to l e a d to i n e f f i c i e n t and i n e f f e c t i v e management.
5 . 3 . 2 P o l l u t i o n C o n t ro l A c t i v i t i e s
T h e re a r e a number o f w a te r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l m ea su res w r i t t e n i n t o t h e C lean W ate rs A c t . As a l r e a d y n o t e d , t h e Branch has b een a c t i v e i n d i r e c t i n g f i r m s t o d i v e r t w a s te s i n t o t h e sew er sy s te m . U l t i m a t e l y , how ever , Sydney’ s d o m e s t ic and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r d i s c h a r g e s i n t o w a t e r b o d i e s , and u n d e r t h e C lean W ate rs A c t , a l l w a s te d i s c h a r g e r s , w h e th e r p r i v a t e f i r m s o r governm ent b o d ie s such as t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sew erage and D ra in a g e B oard , m ust o b t a i n a d i s c h a r g e l i c e n c e from t h e W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B ranch . In g r a n t i n g t h i s l i c e n c e , t h e Board can a t t a c h c o n d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e d e g re e o f t r e a t m e n t w a s t e s a r e to r e c e i v e . P e r s o n s w i t h a g r i e v a n c e a b o u t t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s can a p p ly t o a C lean W ate rs A ppea ls Board to have them rev o k e d o r m o d i f ie d . The p e n a l t y f o r p o l l u t i o n ( w i t h i n t h e m eaning o f t h e A ct) o r f o r d i s c h a r g e s o r c o n t r a v e n in g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a l i c e n c e i s an i n i t i a l f i n e o f up to $10 ,000 p l u s a c o n t i n u in g f i n e o f up to $5 ,000 p e r day o f c o n t in u e d o f f e n c e . I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r w a s te d i s c h a r g e r s t o o b t a i n w r i t t e n a p p ro v a l from t h e Branch b e f o r e i n s t a l l i n g o r m o d ify in g any p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a p p a r a t u s . The p e n a l t y i n t h i s c a s e i s a f i n e o f up to $ 5 ,0 0 0 . To p o l i c e t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C lean W ate rs A c t , o f f i c e r s o f t h e B ranch can e n t e r p r e m is e s d i s c h a r g i n g w a s te s i n t o t h e ’w a t e r s ' o f New S outh Wales f o r i n s p e c t i o n p u r p o s e s o r to t a k e sam p les o r p h o to g ra p h s . They can a l s o r e q u i r e t h e o c c u p i e r to p ro d u c e p l a n s , r e p o r t s , e t c r e l a t i n g to t h e t r a d e p r o c e s s e s . P e n a l t y f o r o b s t r u c t i o n i s a f i n e o f up to $500.
The grow th o f t h e W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B ranch and t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s be tw een 1971 and 1974 a r e sum m arised i n T a b le X. I n i t i a l l y , t h e Branch c o n c e n t r a t e d i t s p o l l u t i o n a b a tem en t e f f o r t to w a rd s t h e c o n t r o l o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a te r d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y to w a t e r c o u r s e and s to r m w a te r c h a n n e l .To t h i s end , 1 ,077 i n d u s t r i a l p r e m is e s w ere i n s p e c t e d d u r in g t h e 12 months to t h e end o f Ju n e 1974. These i n c l u d e d p e t r o le u m r e f i n e r i e s , p e t r o c h e m i c a l and p h a r m a c e u t i c a l p l a n t s , s t e e l and m e ta l m a n u f a c tu r in g p l a n t s , t e x t i l e p l a n t s , c o n c r e t e b a t c h i n g p l a n t s , g l a s s - m a k in g p l a n t s , a b b a t t o i r s , f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e c a n n e r i e s , wool s c o u r e r s , and m e ta l p l a t i n g w o rk s .
E f f o r t has b een c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e m ost p o l l u t e d a r e a s o f t h e S t a t e f i r s t , w i th t h e B ra n c h ’ s o p e r a t i o n s c e n t r e d a ro u n d
65
Table X Activities of the Water Pollution Control Branch in Regard to the Implementation of the Clean Waters Act and Regulations
Item 1971* 1972-73** 1973-74+
Staff 6 31 69
Premises Inspected 52 635 1,0771 |Samples Analysed:
(i) Industrial Wastes 51 - -(ii) Water Quality 300 - -
(iii) Total 351 1,650 1,918
Applications to install or modify pollution control apparatus:(i) Pending (est. cost)
“86 94
($352 million)(ii) Approved (est. cost) “ 23
($1.6 million)33
($2.4 million)(iii) Approved in principle
(est. cost)27
($7.6 million)
Notices served requiring informationof industrial processes etc. - 22 85
Notices served on premises removingexemption from the Act - 27 337
Directions served to:(i) Divert wastes to sewer - 31 -(ii) Install or modify pollution
control apparatus 13
(iii) Total 44 189
Prosecutions under the Act and Regulations:(i) Commenced - - 17(ii) Complete (fines) 14
($8,250)
* Applies for the 12 months to the end of December 1971.Source: Report of the Director General for Public Health, 1971.
** Applies for the 12 months to the end of June 1973.Source: Report of the Clean Waters Advisory Committee for the
Year Ending 30 June, 1973.+ Applies for the 12 months to the end of June 1974.
Sources: Report of the Clean Waters Advisory Committee and Reportof the State Pollution Control Commission for the Year Ending 30 June, 1974.
-H- These are the number of tests performed in the Board's laboratories and do not include bacteriological tests by the Division of Analytical Laboratories.
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the Sydney area in general and the drainage basins of the four major industrial areas in particular. For example, of the 71 notices and directions that were served in the 12 months to June 1973 to remove temporary exemptions from the Act or to treat or divert wastes to sewer, some 68 were in the Sydney metropolitan area and of these, 24 concerned the discharge of industrial wastes into the Parramatta River, 19 concerned discharges into Cook's River and Alexandra Canal,15 concerned discharges in the George's River and 7 concerned discharges into the northern waters of Botany Bay. The effects of these control measures on water quality is slowly emerging: fish are reported to have returned to the Alexandra Canal and most of the residual pollution in the Parramatta Riveris now attributed to surface run-off.The high cost of pollution control is apparent from Table
X, where it is seen that the estimated cost of the 94 applications pending at June 1974 to install or modify apparatus was some $352 million. By far the greatest proportion arises from applications by the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board for the construction and upgrading of sewage treatment works. The primary treatment plants being constructed on the Malabar and North Head Ocean Outfall System are estimated to cost some $80 million by themselves.Up to June 1974, some 14 offenders had been successfully
prosecuted for offences against the Clean Waters Act and its regulations. Of these, the most important case involved the pollution of Cook's River by the Sunbeam Corporation Limited.A cracked valve on a storage tank allowed potassium cupro- cyanide, a toxic substance used in electro-plating operations, to leak into a stormwater channel that drained into Cook's River. The case was heard in the Supreme Court of N.S.W., with the Water Pollution Control Branch alleging that Sunbeam caused the pollution and the defence arguing that the pollution was accidental. The prosecution was successful and Sunbeam was fined $3,000 plus $600 costs, thus setting a precedent whereby a firm is subject to the provisions of the Clean Waters Act even if the pollution is accidental. Although Sunbeam were not fined the maximum amount of $10,000, they reportedly spent over $50,000 installing a ponding system around the tanks to impound the cyanide if such an accident was to occur again.5.3.3 Monitoring of Water QualitySince its formation, the Branch has made regular water quality surveys of waterbodies in the Sydney region. Prior to these,
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any water quality monitoring in Sydney was of a limited and sporadic nature and was carried out in an uncoordinated fashion by a multiplicity of authorities. Thus, the surveys by the Branch represent the first comprehensive attempt to provide a background of baseline data of existing water quality. The data provides a means both of assessing the effectiveness of pollution control measures and assessing the appropriateness-of proposed classifications to be assigned to waters. More than 400 monitoring stations have been established along Sydney’s waterways. These monitoring stations are of two types: ’principal' and ’intermediate’ stations. A greater range of quality parameters is measured at principal stations, the purpose of the intermediate stations being to provide a wider spatial coverage of a more limited number of parameters. Surveys were initially carried out on a monthly, semi-quarterly or quarterly basis, the poor quality sectors generally being surveyed more frequently than those of better quality. Parameters measured at all stations include salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations, all of which can be measured ’in situ' by electronic devices. Additional parameters measured at principal stations include pH (measured in situ), suspended solids, turbidity and B.O.D. (determined in the Branch's laboratory) and bacterial levels (determined at the Division of Analytical Laboratories of the Health Commission). In addition, nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, etc are measured as required. To date, two data reports which include measurements of water quality in Sydney waterbodies have been published:
’Water Quality Surveys of the Waters of New South Wales - An Explanatory Foreword', Water Pollution Control Branch, The New South Wales Department of Health, December 1971; and'Water Quality Surveys of the Waters of New South Wales', Water Pollution Control Branch, The New South Wales Department of Public Health, November 1973.
The Branch has recently completed a detailed study-^ of the origin and possible means of control of pollutants discharging into the Cook's River System.^ The study confirmed what had been apparent for many years, namely that water quality in Cook's River and its tributaries, especially Alexandra Canal, was very poor. The Canal was found to experience extreme dissolved oxygen problems, high concentrations of heavy metals
68
and high concentrations of aquatic nutrients; its sediments were found to be high in organic matter, oil and heavy metals. (The Branch estimated that in the immediate past, some 400 kg of heavy metals and 1,300 kg of oil were discharged daily into the Canal.) The water quality problems in other areas of the system were found to be significant, but less extreme than those of the Canal. Needless to say, a major source of these problems was the liquid waste discharges from the many industries in the area. But the Branch estimates that a significant pollutant load - perhaps equal to that of the industrial discharge - originates from urban run-off. Sewer overflows and landfill leachate also contribute, as does an unsewered area along Alexandra Canal.
On the basis of these findings, the Branch is examining in greater detail the contributions of urban run-off and sewer overflows to pollutant loads. As far as the control of pollution is concerned, the study concludes that industrial wastes should be diverted to sewers where capacity is available or satisfactorily treated before discharge into the drainage system, that highly contaminated liquid wastes and sludges be disposed of at the Castlereagh Liquid Waste Depot, that unsewered areas be sewered, and that certain stormwater drains be enlarged. The study also concludes that the control of the wet weather wastes could be achieved through the construction of three impoundments - one each on the upper Cook’s River,Wolli Creek and Alexandra Canal - to allow the controlled diversion (presumably through tunnels or pipes) of the impounded water into the lower reaches of Cook’s River (or perhaps even Botany Bay itself) where the assimilative capacity is greater.The Cook’s River study is commendable in many ways: in its
recognition and assessment, albeit partial, of the contribution of the various liquid waste types to the overall levels of pollution; in its recognition of other uses of the waterways; and in the fact that the study has not been limited to liquid wastes alone - the problems of dumping and other detrimental activities along the banks of the river system are also recognised. Such an approach indicates that the Water Pollution Control Branch is beginning to take into account the complex and interwoven relationships between the users and uses of a waterbody and the causes and effects of amenity reduction. However, the study does have one major failing - costs and benefits are not assessed. The Cook’s River system is both the most polluted and least-used waterway in Sydney. Before undertaking the ambitious and presumably expensive construction
69
of several impoundments along the waterways, environmental objectives and amenity values should be assessed, the effects of these impoundments on the level of water quality should be estimated, and the costs and benefits evaluated. If this is not done, then in terms of net social welfare, the resource devoted to 'cleaning up' the Cook's River system may be 'wasted' - any improvement in water quality may not be reflected in a higher utility or greater use of the waterways, as has occurred in the Delaware 'clean-up' program in the U.S.A. referred to earlier.5.4 The Maritime Services BoardIn Sydney, the Maritime Services Board is responsible for the prevention and mitigation of oil pollution in the waters of Port Jackson and Botany Bay. The Board's responsibilities in this area actually extend to all navigable waters in N.S.W., but in practice are limited to the waters of the 4 major ports that the Board owns and operates.Prevention activities include the keeping of records of the
movement of oil or oily wastes, the inspection and approval of apparatus for the transfer and disposal of oil, directions to ships and refineries to install treatment facilities and safeguards to prevent the escape of oil, the provision of disposal facilities for oily wastes from ships in pert, and prosecutions and recovery of costs.
The Board has 5 oil inspectors stationed at Sydney Harbour and another 5 at Botany Bay. Notice must be given to them of any operations involving the handling and pumping of oils (both fuel oil and cargo) to and from vessels in port, and in certain cases, the inspectors are actually present to inspect the connection and disconnection of hoses.The number of prosecutions for oil pollution in Sydney and
Botany Bay during the years 1965-74 are shown in Talle XI.The origin of the oil discharge - land source, vessels or oil transfer apparatus - and the number of prosecutions for failure to report oil spills is also shown. The most common sources of oil discharges are seen to be vessels (7C%) and land-based activities (25%). The greater number of prosecutions for oil discharges from vessels reflects the nany small spills that result from accidents during bunkering End ballasting operations. The higher number of spills in Sydney Harbour is due to the greater number of vessels usirg that port.
Although the Board attempts to prevent spills, their
70
T a b le XI P r o s e c u t i o n s * Under t h e P r e v e n t i o n o f O i l P o l l u t i o n o f N a v ig a b le W a te rs Act
L o c a t i o n '6 5 '6 6 '6 7 ’ 68 ’ 69 ' 70 ’ 71 ' 72 '7 3 '7 4 T o t a l
SYDNEY
S o u rce o f O i lD is c h a r g e
- Land 7 1 4 7 4 4 3 30- V e s s e l s 3 3 1 5 5 8 9 20 12 12 78
O i l T r a n s f e r- A p p a ra tu s -
F a i l u r e t o R ep o r tP o l l u t i o n 1 3 1 5
T o t a l 3 3 1 13 6 12 19 24 16 16 113
BOTANY BAY
S o u rce o f O i lD is c h a r g e
- Land 1 5 6- V e s s e l s 1 1 1 5 3 1 1 1 14
O i l T r a n s f e r- A p p a ra tu s 1 1
F a i l u r e t o R ep o r tP o l l u t i o n -
T o t a l 3 1 1 5 8 1 1 1 21
* P r o s e c u t i o n s a r e f o r th e 12 month p e r i o d e n d in g 3 0 th Ju n e o f t h e y e a r shown.
S o u rc e M a r i t im e S e r v i c e s Board ( p r i v a t e c o m m u n ic a t io n ) .
71
occurrence in port waters is inevitable. Once a spill has occurred, the Maritime Services Board is responsible for its mitigation. Clean-up crews are normally employed in the Construction Branch of the Board and are seconded to clean-up operations only as required. In other words, clean-up operations are only a part-time responsibility. A key factor in the successful control of spills is the ability of men and equipment to move quickly to contain them. In Melbourne, the Harbour Trust regards oil spills as port ’emergencies’ and they are dealt with by the Port Emergency Service, a full-time body of trained personnel on duty hours a day. The merit of this approach is obvious, and in light of future increased future volumes of shipping, the Maritime Services Board should consider the worth of a similar scheme for Botany Bay.The Board’s clean-up equipment consists of supplies of
detergent to emulsify and disperse oil, some 1,000-1,500 feet of oil boom to contain spilt oil. The usual method of dealing with small spills is with detergent. (The detergent used by the Board is the least toxic to marine organisms of the types tested by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organisation.) In Sydney Harbour, the detergent is applied from tugs and thoroughly mixed into the oil by jets of water from fire hoses on the tugs. In Botany Bay, the pilot vessel is used to apply and mix the detergent, but if a sufficiently large spill occurs, tugs are sent around from the Harbour. Booms and scavenging blankets are apparently used for larger spills. The blankets are thrown from workboats into spilt oil, retrieved, and apparently taken to shore to remove the oil.The size of a recent spill from the B.P. Refinery at Berrys
Bay - some 400,000 litres - highlighted a number of deficiencies in the Board's equipment. New equipment currently on order includes vessels for skimming oil off the surface of polluted waters and flat bottomed work scours for gaining access to shallow areas. If an oil spill exceeds the capacity of the Board's manpower and equipment, outside contractors are called in to provide men and boats. Other clean-up equipment, apart from that provided by the Board, is also available. Under the National Plan for the Control of Oil Pollutions, the Commonwealth Department of Transport provides an additional stock of detergent, pumps, etc in Sydney. Also, the oil refineries and terminals in Botany Bay and Sydney Harbour have their own supplies of detergent, workboats, oil skimmers, etc.
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6. MANAGEMENT : PROBLEMS AND POSSIBILITIES
The Sydney urban area, and more fundamentally, the people who live there, have two major detrimental effects on the surrounding water environment. First, the natural land surface has been physically replaced with the urban structures such as roads, footpaths, roofs, etc. This impermeable cover, together with the variety and quantity of waste deposited on it, greatly reduces the capacity of the land’s surface to buffer waterbodies against the detrimental effects of surface run-off. Second, Sydney-siders generate huge waste flows in a constrained area that has only a limited capacity to jiSjsimiXate them. This problem is intensified by pressures from the same Sydney residents to use the over-stressed water resources for a variety of conflicting purposes.As far as water resource management is concerned, Sydney is
in a fortunate position. It has the ocean as a readily available sink of high assimilative capacity for its wastes; it is not forced to use the same waterbodies for waste disposal and water supply purposes; and its pollution is of its own making. However, as we have seen, Sydney in general and the Botany Bay region in particular have experienced a number of water resource conflicts. Factors contributing to these problems have included a steadily increasing sewerage backlog (in terms of number of unsewered properties), the previously uncontrolled discharge of industrial wastewater to stormwater channel and watercourse, and a lack of waterside and urban planning in general. While the resulting conflicts are nowhere near as extreme as the more ’celebrated’ cases from overseas, the reduction in water resource amenity has been significant.
The type, location and intensity of water resource conflicts will alter during the future. Already, there is a discemable trend away from the traditional and public health oriented concerns of B.O.D. and faecal bacteria levels. The new generation of problems will increasingly involve nutrients, toxic substances and oil spills. The future westward development of Sydney will result in even higher stresses on the limited assimilative capacity waters of the George’s River and to a lesser extent, the Nepean-Hawkesbury River (the latter is far better flushed than the George’s River).These sensitive inland waterways are likely to be subject to
increasing volumes of sewage effluent, and unless nutrient removal processes are adopted at sewage treatment plants or other control technologies employed, the excessive growth of
73
a q u a t i c p l a n t s w i l l r e a c h u n a c c e p ta b l e l e v e l s . The i n c r e a s e d volume o f s h ip p i n g u s in g B otany Bay m ust f u r t h e r r e d u c e a m e n i ty f o r o t h e r u s e s and u s e r s , and t h e number o f o i l s p i l l s m ust i n c r e a s e .
The c ru x o f w a s te management i n Sydney, and any o t h e r a r e a f o r t h a t m a t t e r , i s t h e b a l a n c e t o be s t r u c k be tw een th e c o n t r o l l e d p o l l u t i o n o f t h e en v iro n m en t f o r w a s te d i s p o s a l p u r p o s e s on t h e one h a n d , and th e d e g re e w i th which t h i s p o l l u t i o n i n t e r f e r e s w i th t h e a m en ity o f o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n ta l u s e r s and u s e s on t h e o t h e r . I n d e te r m in in g an ’ a c c e p t a b l e ' d e g re e o f p o l l u t i o n , t h e w a n ts and d e s i r e s o f a f f e c t e d g roups i n s o c i e t y , t h e v a lu e s th e y a t t a c h to t h e am en ity o f t h e i r ' e n v i r o n m e n t , th e b e n e f i t s o f im proved am en i ty and t h e c o s t s o f a c h i e v i n g and m a i n t a i n in g i t , a l l p r o v id e a b a s i c c a l c u l u s t h a t s h o u ld u n d e r l i e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s .
To d a t e , ho w e v e r , w a s te management i n Sydney - even u n d e r t h e r e c e n t l y revamped management s t r u c t u r e - h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d on p r o v i d i n g t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c p rob lem s cons i d e r e d l a r g e l y i n i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r p rob lem s and f a c t o r s t h a t a l s o a f f e c t a m e n i ty . Sydney’ s a u t h o r i t i e s have t e n d e d to r e g a r d w a s te management n a r r o w ly , as a ' g e t t i n g r i d o f w a s t e s ’ , r a t h e r th a n as a co m p reh en s iv e and e x t e n s i v e p r o c e s s t h a t forms a m a jo r and i n t e g r a l component o f c i t y management. C o n s e q u e n t ly , most o f management e f f o r t h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d on r e m e d ia l r a t h e r th a n p r e v e n t a t i v e m easu res and on ' d i s p o s a l ' c o n t r o l s , such as u p g ra d in g t r e a tm e n t f a c i l i t i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r . No a t t e m p t a p p e a r s to have b e e n made t o re d u c e th e q u a n t i t i e s and ty p e s o f w a s te s th ro u g h ' s o u r c e ' c o n t r o l s , su ch as f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s , more r e a l i s t i c p r i c i n g p o l i c i e s f o r w a t e r e t c . The o v e r a l l management s t r a t e g y c o n s i s t s o f r e l o c a t i n g d i s c h a r g e p o i n t s and d i s p o s a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .(F o r exam ple , t h e s h i f t o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s te r e s i d u e s to t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W aste D is p o s a l A u t h o r i t y . ) W hile t h i s a p p e a rs t o b e s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t h e s h o r t te rm , i t may n o t be so i n th e lo n g te rm . At w o r s t , i t may on ly r e s u l t i n a t r a n s f e r and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p ro b le m s .
At t h e b r o a d e s t l e v e l , t h e v o lum es , t y p e s and g e o g r a p h i c a l s p r e a d o f l i q u i d w a s te s and p rob lem s th e y c a u se a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e b r o a d e r i s s u e s o f u rban p l a n n i n g and u rb an l a n d - u s e a c t i v i t y . S i m i l a r l y , t h e l o c a t i o n o f sewage t r e a t ment p l a n t s and o t h e r w a s te d i s c h a r g e p o i n t s h a s an i m p o r ta n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e u rb an p l a n n in g p r o c e s s as a w hole and on u rb a n a m e n i ty . A b a s i c i s s u e in w a s te management and p o l l u t i o c o n t r o l i s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p r e v e n t a t i v e a c t i o n th ro u g h b e t t e r 'm anagem ent ' o f u rb a n p l a n n in g and la n d u se a c t i v i t i e s
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to constrain the costs of handling liquid wastes, to limit their damage to the physical environment, and to preserve urban amenity and the quality of urban life. To date, however, controls over urban land use in Australian cities have not been successful in preventing, alleviating or even constraining these problems, but theJiigh cost of waste management and pollution control is reason enough to attempt to achieve a more effective urban planning process. To achieve an efficient and effective allocation of resources, it is essential that the objectives of waste management and pollution control policies be specified in terms of the costs, benefits and equity considerations associated with various levels of urban amenity, and that these policies be closely integrated into and constrained by the urban planning process. To this end, the future urban structure of the George’s River in particular, and the western suburbs in general, needs to be carefully examined and re-assessed.The present management structure lacks a ’true’ management
strata. There is no overriding authority to formulate broad policies and to integrate and coordinate the efforts of the existing authorities towards them. Existing authorities are too narrow in their outlook. Often they do not recognise that a variety of other factors, separate and independent of waste disposal, also significantly affect urban amenity. Individual technical solutions, while often successful within the narrow and isolated constraints of an individual authority’s responsibilities, are not being shaped towards overall objectives. Such an approach requires the oversight and guidance of a true ’management’ authority. The State Planning and Environment Commission would appear to be a logical first choice, although for entities such as the George's River Basin, a regional authority of some type may be more appropriate.
Sydney’s authorities have concentrated on evaluating the direct costs of waste management technologies, such as sewerage programs, and have tended to disregard the resulting social and economic costs and benefits imposed on disadvantaged and advantaged groups in society. The latter costs and benefits, while difficult to evaluate in full, are, or should be, the basis on which policy choice between different technological solutions is made. Afterall, waste management is only a means to an end, it is not an end in itself. Currently, there is a real need in Sydney to develop and employ methods such as cost-benefit analysis and cost- effectiveness analysis, to evaluate the social, economic and
75
e n v i r o n m e n ta l c o n seq u e n c e s o f w a s te management p rogram s and p o l i c i e s . T h is does n o t mean t h a t t e c h n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f w a s te d i s p o s a l a r e u n i m p o r t a n t , b u t r a t h e r t h a t e q u a l l y im p o r t a n t a s p e c t s have t e n d e d t o be n e g l e c t e d i n t h e p a s t . T e c h n ic a l s o l u t i o n s w i l l a lw ays be a key p a r t o f a w a s te management p rog ram . I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e d e s i r e s o f s o c i e t y f o r a ' c l e a n e n v i r o n m e n t ' , t h e t e c h n o lo g y o f w a s te management rem a in s a b a s i c c o n s t r a i n t d e te r m in in g t h e a b i l i t y , and even t h e f e a s i b i l i t y , o f a c h i e v in g and m a i n t a i n i n g i t .
Such an a p p ro a c h to l i q u i d w a s te management r e q u i r e s i n f o r m a t i o n o f a new andv d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r t o t h a t p r e s e n t l y c o l l e c t e d i n Sydney. P o l i c y m akers n eed to know th e v a lu e s t h a t S y d n e y - s id e r s a t t a c h t o v a r i o u s w a t e r b o d i e s , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s ty p e s o f l i q u i d w a s t e s t o t h e i r d e g r a d a t i o n , t h e f e a s i b i l i t y , c o s t s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s e w a s t e s , w hat o t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t w a t e r a m e n i ty and so on . F a i l u r e to e v a l u a t e p o l i c i e s i n t h e s e te rm s must l e a d to i n e f f e c t i v e , i n e f f i c i e n t and i n e q u i t a b l e w a s te m anagement, a h i n t o f w hich i s a p p a r e n t i n t h e r e c e n t p r o p o s a l t o c o n s t r u c t s e v e r a l dams a lo n g C o o k 's R iv e r to im prove w a t e r q u a l i t y . M oreover , u n t i l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s s o r t i s c o l l e c t e d , e m o t iv e and i n e f f e c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p o l l u t i o n , a s b e tw e en th e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e Board and v a r i o u s
The management o f u rb a n a m e n i ty i s an u n c e r t a i n and d i f f i c u l t b u s i n e s s . The n o v e l t y o f t h e c o n c e p t p lu s t h e many in te rw o v e n f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t i t e n s u r e t h i s . T here i s no s i n g l e optimum s o l u t i o n ; t h e r e must a lw ays be ' g a i n e r s ' and ' l o s e r s ' ; many i m p o r ta n t f a c t o r s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o m easu re ; and u l t i m a t e l y d e c e s io n s a r e made i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a . N o t w i t h s t a n d in g t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s and s h o r t c o m in g s , t h e management o f l i q u i d w a s t e s i n Sydney c o u ld b e im proved i n a number o f r e s p e c t s . I f such changes a r e n o t made, management m ust rem a in i n e f f i c i e n t , i n e f f e c t i v e and i n e q u i t a b l e , as i t h a s f o r many y e a r s i n t h e p a s t , and t h e a m e n i ty o f S y d n e y 's u rb a n e n v iro n m en t m ust c o n t i n u e to d e g ra d e .
l o c a l c o u n c i l s , w i l l
76
la
lb
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Footnotes
B. A. Ackerman, et al, The Uncertain Search for Environmental Quality, The Free Press, New York, 1974.J.D. Sartor, G.B. Boyd and F.J. Agardy, 'Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants’, J. Wat. Poll. Control Fed. , 4j>(3) , 458-467, 1974.C. D. Newton, W.W. Shephard and M.S. Coleman, ’Street Run-off as a Source of Lead Pollution’, J. Wat. Poll. Control Fed. , 4j3(5) , 999-1000, 1974.B.T. Hart, ’Urban Stormwater Quality', in Water in the Urban Environment, Aust. Water and Wastewater Assoc., Summer School, Canberra, 1975.B. Moore, 'Sewage Contamination of Coastal Bathing Waters in England and Wales', J. Hyg., 57, 435-472, 1959.M.J. Flynn and D.K.B. Thistlethwayte, 'Sewage Pollution and Sea Bathing', Air and Water Pollution, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 9, 641-653, 1965.H. F. Collins and D.G. Deaner, 'Sewage Chlorination Versus Toxicity - A Dilemma' , J. Env. Eng. Div. , A. S.C.E. , 99_ (EE6), 761-772, 1973.S.J. Thrower and I.J. Eustace, 'Heavy Metals in Tasmanian Oysters in 1972', The Shire and Municipal Record, pp. 962-964, March 1972.R.W. Irukayama, 'The Pollution of Minimata Bay and Minimata Disease', Advance in Water Pollution Research,(3 Vols) Pergamon Press, Oxford, _3, 153-180, 1967.G.W. Fuhs, 'Nutrients and Aquatic Vegetation Effects',J. Env. Eng. Div., A.S.C.E., K)0(EE2), 269-278, 1974.I. C. Smalls, 'Nutrient Effects of Stormwater on Lakes and Rivers', in Water in the Urban Environment, Aust.Water and Wastewater Assoc., Summer School, Canberra,1975.'Water Quality Modelling Study of the Georges River System', Report prepared by Brown and Caldwell, Consulting Engineers, for the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board, Sydney, New South Wales, 1971.
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12 R.C. Aberley, ’Lower Molonglo : A Case for Advanced Wastewater Treatment’, Environment ' 75, Second International Environment Conference, Sydney, July 1-4, II, 61-79, 1975.
13 M. Blumer, 'Oil Pollution of the Ocean', Oil on the Sea, ed. D.P. Hout, Plenum Press, 1969.
14 M. Blumer, ’A Small Oil Spill', Environment, JJ3(2), 1971.15 R. F. Warner, 'Rivers of the Botany Bay Region', A
Handbook of the Botany Bay Region, Botany Bay Project Committee, Sydney, pp. 25-34, 1974.
16 The situation regarding the disposal of industrial wastewater has changed considerably during the last two years. During this period of time, management activities of the Water Pollution Control Branch have resulted in increased quantities of industrial wastewater that was previously discharged to watercourse being diverted to sewer.
17 M. Blumer, 1971, op. cit.18 North Shore Times, May 7, 1975.19 New South Wales, Maritime Services Board, Port Statistics
1969/70-1973/74.20 N.S.W. Annual Report, 1972/73, Chief Secretary for
Fisheries, R. F. Warner, 1974, op. cit.21 The operations at Kurnell supply about one-quarter of
the total amount of construction sand used in Sydney(R.F. Warner, 1974, op. cit.). Chipping Norton probably supplies a similar quantity.
22 The major drought that persisted from 1934 to 1942 exposed the woefully inadequate capacity of the Sydney Water Supply System. Between 1946 and 1959, the M.W.S. and D.B. concentrated a large portion of its financial and other resources towards the construction of Warragamba Dam.
23 C.C. Wells and R.A. Edwards, 'A Survey of Sewage Pollution in George's River Oysters', Department of Food Technology, University of New South Wales, 1967.
24 J.W.G. Neuhaus, et al, 'Mercury and Organochlorine Pesticides in Fish', Med. J. Aust., _1, 107-110, 1973.
78
25 N.J. Mackay, et al, 'Heavy Metals in Cultivated Oysters (Crassostrea commercialis * Saccrostrea cucullata) from the Estuaries of New South Wales', Aust. J. Mar.Freshwat. Res., 26, 31-46, 1975.
26 Ibid.27 Health Surveyor, Report to Bankstown Municipal Council,
1974.28 New South Wales, Department of Public Health, Annual
Report, 1906.29 Health Surveyor, 1974, op. cit.30 'Water Quality Modelling Study of the George's River
System' , Report prepared -by Brown and Caldwell,Consulting Engineers, for the Metropolitan Water,Sewerage and Drainage Board, December 1971.
31 I.C. Smalls, 1975, op. cit.32 B.T. Hart, 1975, op. cit.33 New South Wales, Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and
Drainage Board, Annual Report for the year ended 30 June, 1974.
34 R. J. Griffin, 'The Botany Basin', Department of Mines, Geological Survey of New South Wales, Bulletin No. 18,1964.
35 Health Surveyor, 1974, op. cit.36 T.P.-Vackivicz Jr. and L. Kuzminski, 'A Review of
Outboard Motor Effects on the Aquatic Environment',J. Wat. Poll. Control Fed. , 4_5(8) , 1759-1770, 1973.
37 Health Surveyor, 1974, op. cit.38 'Botany Bay Model: Hydrodynamic Modelling of Dispersion
Processes in Botany Bay and its Tributary Systems',Water Research Laboratory, University of New South Wales, Progress Report September 1975.
39 F.C. Bell, 'The Aquisition, Consumption and Elimination of Water by the Sydney Urban System', The City as a Life System? Ed. H.A. Nix, Proc. Ecol. Soc. of Australia, Canberra, Vol. 7, pp. 161-176.
40 'Northern Suburbs Ocean Outfall Sewer', Report preparedby Brown and Caldwell, for the M.W.S. & D.B., Sydney, 1967.
79
41 E. P i e r c e and C. R a lp h , ' P r i n c i p l e s and P r a c t i c e s R e l a t i n g t o t h e A c c e p ta n c e o f I n d u s t r i a l W astes i n t h e B o a r d ' s S y s t e m s ' , i n I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e w a te r , A Symposium o f R ecen t D e v e lo p m e n ts , U n i v e r s i t y o f New South W ales , 1972.
42 M.J . F l y n n , S e n a t e S e l e c t Commit tee on Water P o l l u t i o n , E v i d e n c e , Vol . 8 , p. 1499.
43 P i e r c e and R a lp h , 1972, op. c i t .
44 D.D. Moore and J . J . W r i g h t , 'W a te r and W a s te -W ate r M o n i t o r i n g i n t h e Sydney E s t u a r i e s ' , i n I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e w a t e r , A Symposium o f Recen t D e v e l o p m e n t s ,U n i v e r s i t y o f New South W a le s , 1972.
45 E . J . C l e a r y , ' E f f l u e n t S t a n d a r d s S t r a t e g y : R e j u v e n a t i o n o f an Old Game P l a n ' , J . Wat. P o l l . C o n t r o l F e d . , 4 6 / 1 ) , 9 - 1 7 , 1974.
46 M.G. Wolman, ' S t r e a m S t a n d a r d s : Dead o r H i d i n g ? ' , _J.Wat. P o l l . C o n t r o l Fed . , 4 6 ( 3 ) , 4 3 1 - 4 3 7 , 1974.
47 B.A. Ackerman, e t a l , 1974, op. c i t .
48 The S u n , Sydney , Sep tem ber 4 , 1975, p. 13.
49 J . J . W r i g h t , ' P r o g r e s s i n W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l i n N . S .W . ' , i n Env i ronm en t ' 7 5 , Sydney , J u l y 1 - 4 , Vol . I I , 1975, pp . 117-131.
50 N.S.W. S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Commission, ' I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e P o l l u t i o n o f C ook 's R i v e r and I t s T r i b u t a r i e s ' , May, 1975.
51 The C o o k ' s R i v e r D r a in a g e B a s i n i s 10 ,000 h e c t a r e s i n e x t e n t , h a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 0 ,0 0 0 , c o n t a i n s 2 ,100 i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ( a b o u t o n e - f i f t h o f t h o s e i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ) which employ 100,000 p e o p l e ( a b o u t o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e Sydney m a n u f a c t u r i n g and i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e ) .
52 L. S a n d e r c o c k , C i t i e s f o r S a l e , Melbourne U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , M e lbou rne , 1975.
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PLANNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEWERAGE FACILITIES IN SYDNEY
M.E. Buchanan
July 1975
1. INTRODUCTION
No service is more important than sewerage in providing the ’environment’ desirable for a major metropolis. Anyone who has lived in an unsewered area will fully appreciate the detrimental effects brought about by the lack of this essential community facility.
(Warrell, 1973, p. 1)^
This quotation emphasises the essential role of a sewerage network in the control of pollution in an urban environment.The closer the subdivision and the denser the population the more essential it becomes that sewerage facilities be made available. Without a sewerage system, the population faces considerable health risks - where climatic conditions are suitable mosquitoes are likely to breed rapidly, odours will be noticeable, street gutters are liable to flow with domestic sullage (washing water) particularly during prolonged periods of rain, gardens and streets become unhealthy for children to play in and outbreaks of typhoid, hepatitis and other diseases are likely to occur. The public authority charged with providing the sewerage network bears a considerable responsibility not only for general environmental amenity but also for public health.
2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEWERAGE SERVICES IN SYDNEY
Concerted effort, as developed in the past few years, to route as much as possible of Sydney's liquid wastes to sewers depends on the ability to sewer new areas particularly in the Botany Bay area and to catch up with the sewerage backlog. Shortfall in either aspect could place severely at risk the basic approach to control of water pollution that has been developed.The rapid and generally low density development of Australian
cities has made it difficult for authorities to provide sewerage facilities for all new housing areas. The difficult nature of the terrain in some cities has added to the problem and Sydney is a good example of this; there are some dwellings, particularly around the harbour, which are never likely to be sewered because of the high installation costs involved. The authority responsible for the development of Sydney's sewerage network is the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board (M.W.S. & D.B.). In 1951, of the total Sydney metropoli-
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tan population of 1.83 million, approximately 530,000 people lived in areas not on main sewers and sewered areas included about 13,000 vacant building lots. By 1961, when the metropolitan population was 2.14 million, the number of people in unsewered areas had increased to 600,000. This was despite the fact that the Board had extended sewerage to an additional 150,000 lots during this 10-year period (1951 to 1961).3 These trends continued throughout the 1960s and by 1971, when the population of the metropolitan area was just over 3 million, the population in unsewered areas was still increasing and the number of sewered building lots remaining vacant was over 14,000.3The first steps towards overcoming the ’backlog’ of unsewered
properties were taken in 1961 when Cumberland County Council proposed that land should be released for development only when detailed planning schemes had been prepared, and that subdividers and developers should be required to contribute on a voluntary basis to the cost of water and sewerage provision in new subdivisions.^»3 In 1964 these steps were not very satisfactory because the Board, for financial reasons and owing to shortages of materials and other resources, was unable to install sewerage reticulation in about 50 per cent of the subdivisions approved during the 1960s. Additionally, subdividers and developers were required to contribute only if sewerage could be supplied within five years.
More recently, the Board has made concerted efforts to coordinate its activities with those of the State Planning Authority (S.P.A.). Current practice is for land to be released by the S.P.A. once it has been serviced by the Board, the latter generally working 3 or 4 years ahead in areas of new release. By 1969, plans had been prepared for the main areas of urban expansion to the south and south-west of Sydney.6 In view of the large projected growth of population in the Campbelltown area in the next decades, the Board has gone ahead with a considerable amount of work in that area. The existing Campbelltown treatment works, designed for 20,000 people, were not suitable for expansion and a new plant has been constructed at Glenfield, designed for 400,000 people.The Campbelltown treatment works are to be phased out eventually. The new plant at Glenfield is connected to Campbelltown by 12-15 km of large diameter sewerage pipe (1.5-1.8 metres on average) to cope with future urban expansion. However, population growth in the area is falling behind the level anticipated by the S.P.A. (1968) and the present population is inadequate to utilise the large scale
84
facilities efficiently. In this instance, the Board has incurred heavy expenditure on a system which has excess capacity at present. The volume of sewage in the main trunk line is not large enough to maintain the flow in the sewer from Campbelltown to the Glenfield treatment works. From the point of view of sewerage provision, it would have been preferable if the region's initial population growth had been at Macquarie Fields adjacent to the new Glenfield treatment works instead of at Campbelltown.The precise methods by which the coordination between the
Water Board and the S.P.A. operated are not very clear.7 As a rule, when a local council received a development application it submitted this to the S.P.A. The S.P.A. then viewed the application in the light of current zoning regulations and, if the application was approved, it was forwarded to the Water Board for an estimate of the costs of water and sewerage reticulation. But the above procedures were sometimes circumvented and development might proceed without sewerage facilities. The council was supposed to undertake to make a 'satisfactory arrangement' for the provision of facilities but this arrangement could be non-provision if the costs were considered to be too high. It is clear that the involvement of a number of groups with different interests results in an unacceptable situation developing from the pollution control viewpoint. A solution to this can probably only come through the introduction of stricter controls on development applications, a rationalisation of the roles of the different authorities concerned and close supervision of their obligations. This is an important part of the integration of metropolitan planning and environmental management that the new Planning and Environment Commission (replacing the old S.P.A.) will need to resolve definitely. In the State of Victoria, some such steps have been taken and the availability of sewerage facilities is now a pre-requisite for development.
The most recent and most significant step towards overcoming the sewerage backlogs, not only in Sydney but throughout the whole of Australia, is the National Sewerage Program which was announced by the Federal Government in the early 1970s. However, before going on to discuss this sewerage program in more detail, some of the other activities of the Board in ' sewerage provision need to be examined.
2.1 Provision of Sewerage to Outlying AreasWater and sewerage systems have been provided to some of the
85
Board’s outlying areas, such as St Mary's and Quakers Hill, with grants from the State Government and from local councils, Proposals for such schemes are usually put to the Board by local councils. The areas covered would not normally be serviced by the Board because of the high costs (defined as more than 80 metres of sewer pipe or more than $1,000 per lot) and because the Board would not receive adequate remuneration (a 10 per cent return) from the scheme. Althougl the system of guaranteed returns on capital expenditure is relaxed in the case of these outlying schemes, the Board does try to ensure that at least 50 per cent of the lots to be serviced will be developed immediately. The State Government generally contributes 50 per cent of the actual costs of construction of the scheme and the council(s) the remaining 50 per cent of the estimated cost prior to construction. The council recovers this money by levying a local rate. The Board contributes the balance required above the estimated cost of the scheme when it is planned. These schemes have facilitated the provision of services to areas which would otherwise not have been served immediately because of the relatively high costs per property and the small size of the population involved.
2.2 Provision of Sewerage for Inner City RedevelopmentNot all of the Board’s resources are employed in the outer urban areas - a considerable amount of work is done in inner areas of the city where high density redevelopment is taking place. In considering the need for amplification of water and sewerage services in areas where redevelopment is taking place, often in a piecemeal way, a distinction must be made between the areas completely rezoned to high-rise or industrial development. In the latter areas, of which The Rocks and Woolloomooloo are examples (8-10 hectares), the Board would be involved in large scale amplification of services. The amount of redevelopment in most of Sydney’s inner suburbs has not been intensive enough to require the Board to amplify its services. Replacement of single family dwellings and gardens with blocks of home units or flats, as has occurred in Randwick and Waverley, for example, does not lead to a demand in excess of the capacity of the existing water and sewerage systems in dry weather. The reduced demand for garden water compensates for increasing household consumption, and the sewerage system has always been of larger capacity than necessary for domestic wastes to allow
86
for storm flows. The ingress of water to sewer pipes is a problem and much of this is thought to occur in the piping between the household and the sewer. When a block is redeveloped, the new pipes should lessen this ingress. Also, the fact that there is more paved surface leads to increased stormwater runoff but decreases the amount of water seeping into the sewers. The Board is currently carrying out research into patterns of water consumption in home units and flats; peak demand may occur, not between the usual hours of3.00 and 7.00 p.m. when garden watering occurs in single family dwellings, but between 7.00 and 8.00 a.m. and 7.00 and8.00 p.m. Within an area or section of the system, spreading of the peak demand over a longer period of the day may alleviate the need to increase the total supply and to augment the sewerage network.If redevelopment continues over large areas, additional
water and sewerage mains may eventually be needed, but areas will be considered individually after a period of time. There are many factors to be assessed - the water pressure in the area, the amount of development, the rate at which development is proceeding and its location. The last is important as many of the older areas of the city have principal mains of very large capacity compared with current requirements. Also, in the older area it may often be possible to tap 3 or 4 different mains for a particular development.Within the City of Sydney itself, it has been the practice
of the Board to lay larger water mains and sewers than elsewhere and to place water mains on both sides of the streets; this gives adequate fire protection and avoids the need to disturb city streets in order to make alterations to the system. These facilities have so far been adequate for any redevelopment and multi-storey structures in the City.A distinction must also be made between the types of ampli
fication for which the Board is responsible and those which are the responsibility of the developers. The Board undertakes to increase and to enlarge water and sewer mains. In some instances the amplification of services may be very costly, but it is difficult to assess precisely the expenditure incurred in amplifying services and to separate this from expenditure on renewal of services. For example, when a main is renewed it may be enlarged in size from 150 to 230 mms as a matter of course. Developers are required to provide all ancillary water and sewerage services and to pay for the amplification of services where:
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(a) An area is rezoned and requires new, larger facilities (pipes etc).
(b) A specific development is planned, such as a factory, which requires a very large amount of water.
(c) The additional water supply or sewerage facilities needed are larger than the Board considers as a 'normal requirement5; for example, in high rise buildings water pipes of 150 mms diameter (compared with the normal size for residential areas of 100 mms) may have to be installed to ensure adequate fire protection.
Developers must also pay for any adjustments due to alterations in street patterns.
3. LABOR'S NATIONAL SEWERAGE PROGRAM 1972-1975
Reference was made earlier in this paper to the large unsewered areas which exist in most of Australia's urban centres The prime responsibility of water and sewerage authorities is to provide water; because sewerage is probably the most costl) of the public utilities and funds have been short (Arnot, 1976 and because sewerage has not always been considered an absolute essential for urban living, authorities have tended to fall behind in the extension of sewerage networks to all residential areas. In the early 1970s, however, the Australi£ Government expressed the view that a sewerage service was a vital element in an improved urban environment. A program was initiated to provide financial assistance to water and sewerage authorities in each State so that sewerage services could be provided for people in the unsewered areas of both major and smaller cities. The program which is known as the National Sewerage Program, is being handled by the Department of Urban and Regional Development. (Subsequently renamed the Department of Environment, Housing and Community Development. Ed.)The objectives of the Program, as started in July 1975, are:
(i) To remove, where feasible, the existing backlog of unsewered premises in the cities by 1982.
(ii) To improve sewerage treatment to adequate standards by 1982.88
( i i i ) To e n s u r e t h a t by 1982 a l l new homes i n u rb an a r e a s a r e c o n n e c te d t o an a d e q u a te s ew erag e sy s te m .
The t o t a l b a c k lo g was d e f i n e d as t h e number o f unsew ered r e s i d e n t i a l d w e l l i n g s t h a t e x i s t e d as a t June 1973 t o g e t h e r w i th t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r u p g ra d in g o f main c a r r i e r s , t r e a tm e n t w orks and pumping s t a t i o n s n e c e s s i t a t e d by r e t i c u l a t i o n p r o v id e d p r i o r to t h a t d a te . T h is h i s t o r i c a l d e f i n i t i o n e x c lu d e d fu n d in g f o r c o n n e c t io n s o f h o u se s to t h e r e t i c u l a t i o n sy s te m .
I t was n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n Government to d i c t a t e w hat s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s t h e P rogram would fund . R a th e r t h e r o l e was s e e n as one o f c o n s u l t a t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n o v e r t h e c a p i t a l works p ro g ram s o f t h e S t a t e s . The P rogram was to o p e r a t e by a m ix tu r e o f g r a n t s and lo a n s ^ to t h e S t a t e s a t t h e lo n g te rm bond r a t e and r e p a y a b le o v e r 40 y e a r s . No c o n d i t i o n s w ere a t t a c h e d to t h e g r a n t s and lo a n s e x c e p t t h a t , b e f o r e t h e A u s t r a l i a n Government a p p ro v e d t h e w orks p ro g ra m s , i t r e q u i r e d a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e works w ere ' n e c e s s a r y ' ; t h a t i s , t h e y had to be a im ed a t e l i m i n a t i n g t h e e x i s t i n g b a c k lo g and n o t to w ard s e x p a n d in g works i n new a r e a s .
In p r a c t i c e , i t i s h a r d to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n , on th e one h a n d , works w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e p a r t o f t h e b a c k lo g from , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , new w orks and w orks aimed to u p g rad e e x i s t i n g s e r v i c e s . The A u s t r a l i a n Government c o n t r i b u t i o n was d e f i n e d as t h e s h o r t f a l l b e tw een th e no rm al s ew erag e p rogram o f t h e S t a t e s and th e a c c e l e r a t e d w orks p rogram w hich would be r e q u i r e d to e l i m i n a t e th e l a c u n a e by 1982. The f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e to b e p r o v id e d by t h e A u s t r a l i a n Government was e x p e c te d to a v e ra g e a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l c a p i t a l o u t l a y s by th e S t a t e s on se w e ra g e .
The a l l o c a t i o n o f funds to t h e S t a t e s was b a s e d on in fo rm a t i o n s u p p l i e d by t h e S t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s r e g a r d in g t h e f o l l o w i n g :
(a ) Numbers o f d w e l l in g s and p o p u l a t i o n w i t h o u t sew erage f a c i l i t i e s .
(b) The c o s t o f p ro p o se d b a c k lo g w orks and t h e r e s u l t a n t s h o r t f a l l o f funds be low th e l e v e l needed t o meet t h e P r o g ra m 's o b j e c t i v e s .
(c ) The p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e i n t h e a r e a .
(d) The e n v i r o n m e n ta l and h e a l t h n eed s o f t h e a r e a .
The Program r e c e i v e d C a b in e t a p p r o v a l and was la u n c h e d i n t h e 1973/74 b u d g e t . As t h e N a t i o n a l Sewerage Program i s i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s , some o f t h e a l l o c a t i o n s have b e e n b a s e d on a
89
minimum of information. The Sewerage Agreements Act, passed in December 1973, gave the Minister power to approve the program proposed by the States. However, under a total program approval approach, the Federal Government has little influence over the actual location of sewerage backlog works; it would like to have power to vary State plans in such a way that they reflect wider pollution control, urban planning and health factors.The Australian Government is also encouraging the States to
plan and co-ordinate releases of land with the provision of basic services. (Budget Paper No. 9, 1975/76.) In 1975, it stated that one aim of the Program is to ensure that by 1982 all new subdivisions will be provided with an ’adequate' sewerage system. The main policy issues about which the Australian Government hopes to obtain more information and in which it wishes to become involved are:
(a) The relationships between the extension of sewerage networks and urban development - of particular interest is the impact on urban development of the availability of sewerage, the types of people attracted to sewered and unsewered areas, the effect on land prices and the effect on the speed of development.
(b) The influence of other authorities, such as the State Pollution Control Commission and the N.S.W, Planning and Environment Commission, on the expansion of sewerage facilities.
(c) The location of industry and the need to amplify water and sewer mains and treatment works to cater for industry - in the case of Sydney, this involves examining the relationships between the M.W.S. &D.B. and industries seeking to expand, to move into an area, or to relocate.
(d) The factors on which water authorities base their decisions whether to extend reticulation systems or to amplify or install new treatment works - the influence of local councils on these decisions is also important.
(e) Trade waste and water pricing policies.(f) The relationship between sewerage services and
health.
90
(g) E q u i ty c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n to t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e b u rd e n b e tw een h o u s e h o ld s u n d e r t h e p r e s e n t r a t i n g sy s te m and t h e l o c a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e s w i th o u t sew erage - t h e A u s t r a l i a n Government h o ld s t h e v iew t h a t i t s p rogram s a r e more p r o g r e s s i v e i n t h e i r i n c i d e n c e th a n p rogram s u n d e r ta k e n a t t h e L o c a l Government l e v e l and t h i s i s t h e r a t i o n a l e b e h in d i t s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n such a r e a s as sew erage p r o v i s i o n and ro ad b u i l d i n g .
(h) The o p e r a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s so f th e N a t i o n a l Sewerage P rogram - em phasis i s b e in g p l a c e d on m o n i to r in g o f e f f l u e n t from t r e a tm e n t w o rk s , on fo rw ard p l a n n in g o f s ew erag e f a c i l i t i e s and on t r a i n i n g o f p e r s o n n e l .
T hus , a l t h o u g h th e A u s t r a l i a n Government was i n v o lv e d i n i t i a l l y o n ly i n t h e f i n a n c i a l s i d e o f t h e s e w erag e p rog ram , t h e g e n e r a l p la n was to move i n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l and m a n a g e r ia l a r e a s , t h e o v e r a l l aim b e in g t o im prove t h e q u a l i t y o f c o n t r o l on sewage d i s p o s a l . R e c o g n i t io n t h a t t h e N a t io n a l Sewerage P rogram may be t r e a t i n g symptoms r a t h e r th a n c a u s e s o f a p ro b lem has l e d to a t r e n d away from a n a rro w b a c k lo g o b j e c t i v e t h a t h a s p ro v ed so d i f f i c u l t to d e f i n e . T h is change i s embodied i n new l e g i s l a t i o n w hich i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e p rogram u n d e r u m b re l la a g re e m e n ts w i th th e S t a t e s ( t h e Urban and R e g io n a l F i n a n c i a l A s s i s t a n c e A c t ) . T h is h a s r e l a x e d any p r e v io u s r e q u i r e m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e b a c k lo g bona f i d e s o f a p r o j e c t .
3 .1 The N a t i o n a l Sewerage Program - Sydney
In t h e 1960s t h e Sydney W ater Board was i n a p o s i t i o n to t r a n s f e r more o f i t s r e s o u r c e s to p r o v id i n g sew erag e s e r v i c e s . P la n s w ere p r e p a r e d f o r a sew erage b a c k lo g p rogram t o be c a r r i e d o u t by t h e Board o v e r a 1 2 - y e a r p e r i o d and i t was e s t i m a t e d i n 1969 t h a t o v e r $200 m i l l i o n would be r e q u i r e d to sew er t h o s e a r e a s w here s u f f i c i e n t r e s i d e n t i a l deve lopm en t had t a k e n p l a c e to make t h i s a v i a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n . ^ The N a t i o n a l Sewerage Program p ro p o se d a 6 - y e a r p e r i o d f o r overcom ing t h e b a c k lo g i n sew erage w ork , b u t t h e 6 - y e a r p e r i o d was cons i d e r e d to o s h o r t by t h e Sydney W ate r Board and a s e r i e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e p l a n s w ere drawn up to overcom e t h e b a c k lo g i n 8 o r 10 y e a r s . The Board c o n s id e r e d t h a t w i th t h e m a t e r i a l and f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s and manpower a v a i l a b l e , 10 y e a r s was t h e m ost p r o b a b le t im e . The A u s t r a l i a n Government s u b s e q u e n t ly
91
e x te n d e d th e t im e span f o r t h e N a t i o n a l Sewerage Program from 1978 to 1983 (an 11 y e a r t e r m ) .
Funds a l l o c a t e d to d a t e t o t h e Sydney Board u n d e r th e N a t i o n a l Sew erage P rogram have b een as f o l l o w s :
1973/4$lm.10 .0
1974/5 32 .41975/6 - 32 .6
The t o t a l amount o f fu n d in g and th e p r e c i s e sums f o r s u c c e s s i v e y e a r s a r e n o t known; i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e a l l o c a t i o n s would i n c r e a s e o v e r t h e t h r e e y e a r s b u t w i th • c u tb a c k s i n F e d e r a l s p e n d in g i n 1 9 7 5 /6 , t h e f u t u r e o f t h e N a t i o n a l Sewerage Program may be i n d o u b t . The amount o f a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e S t a t e s f o r sew erage f e l l by o n ly $ 2 . 7m (2 p e r c e n t ) i n 1975/6 compared w i th 1974/5 b u t t h i s s m a l l d e c r e a s e may n o t be t y p i c a l o f t h e a l l o c a t i o n s w hich a r e fo re sh a d o w e d . Funds may have b e e n a l l o c a t e d f o r 1975/6 on th e b a s i s t h a t p r o j e c t s i n i t i a t e d i n 1974/5 had to be c o n t in u e d .The t o t a l c o s t o f Sydney’ s sew erage b a c k lo g p rogram h as b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t $803 m i l l i o n a t 1973 p r i c e s . E x p e n d i tu r e i s g r e a t e s t i n a r e a s w i th d i f f i c u l t to p o g ra p h y and i n t h o s e a r e a s f u r t h e s t from t h e s e a . W ith t h e m a jo r p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s io n p la n n e d f o r t h e Cam pbelltown a r e a i t was e n v is a g e d t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e ( a p p r o x im a te ly 10 p e r c e n t ) would go to w a rd s sew erag e p ro v is io n ! t h e r e (M.W.S. & D.B. E n g i n e e r s , p e r s . comm.). Appendix B c o n ta i n s a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t io n on S y d n e y 's a l l o c a t i o n s u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l Sewerage P rogram .
The Sydney W ate r Board makes i t s d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n in g th e a r e a s to be sew ered on th e b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w in g f a c t o r s :
(a) The numbers o f p e o p le w hich th e new sew ers w i l l s e r v e - t h e r a t e s d e r i v e d must pay f o r th e sy s te m ; g e n e r a l l y t h e la n d m ust be 80 p e r c e n t s u b d iv id e d and b u i l t on.
(b) The c o s t s o f l a y i n g t h e sew ers - t h i s t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n f a c t o r s such as t h e l o c a t i o n o f p r i v a t e swimming p o o l s ( se w ers a r e g e n e r a l l y l a i d 1 m e tre from th e r e a r fe n c e o f each p r o p e r t y ) and th e d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e t e r r a i n .
(c ) P o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e w hich i s som etim es b r o u g h t t o b e a r by l o c a l c o u n c i l s to e n s u re t h a t t h e work i s p a r c e l l e d o u t amongst d i f f e r e n t c o u n c i l s .
92
(d) The availability of engineers’ plans - some systems are much harder than others to design.
(e) The size of the area to be sewered - the Board prefers to sewer relatively large areas at one time due to economies of scale of operation.
Both in new sewerage systems and in the backlog programs, collector sewers are designed for the ultimate population expected in the area. A 10 hectare block requires a sewer of a certain diameter but the maximum use of this depends on land use zoning - for example, whether 1 hectare lots are to be subdivided into 0.2 hectare lots. The sewerage system is always too large in aggregate for the maximum predicted population as maximum density of settlement may not occur throughout a whole region. This gives some indication of the need for a close link between the Board and the planners and developers. The report to the Federal Government on progress made under the National Sewerage Program is a continuing one with annual negotiations being made through the Premier’s Department which is acting as the co-ordinator.Appendix C contains a brief description of the main areas
where the Board has been active with sewerage works since 1973. The extent of work remaining to be done can be gauged from an examination of the amount of residential development which lies outside the limit of the sewerage reticulation systems.The large unsewered areas in Sydney, the planned expansion
of urban settlement and the uncertainty of the future of the National Sewerage Program raise a number of important issues in the area of waste management and pollution control.Financed assistance being provided by the Australian Government may be indirectly subsidising industrial and commercial discharges by reducing the sewer charges that might otherwise be imposed upon these users. The overall effect is to weaken the incentive for waste dischargers to seek alternatives to the public treatment of their waste flows. Some writers have also questioned the desirability and practicality of extending a sewerage reticulation system to all parts of a city as extensive as Sydney.H In certain areas, particularly where terrain is difficult, the installation of efficient septic tanks may be equally effective as and less costly than sewerage. Inspection and maintenance of septic tanks will also cost less than the operation of a sewage treatment plant. If the National Sewerage Program cannot go ahead as planned,
93
t h e Sydney W ater B oard may h av e to r e c o n s id e r th e p r o p o s a ls f o r a c o m p le te r e t i c u l a t i o n sy s te m . The r e p o r t o f th e N a t io n a l P o p u la t io n I n q u i r y (1975) h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t , even i f th e p o p u la t io n o f Sydney does n o t grow to th e s i z e a n t i c ip a te d by th e S t a t e P la n n in g A u th o r i ty o f New S ou th W a le s ^ i n th e l a t e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s, c o n s id e r a b le p o p u la t io n in c r e a s e s may s t i l l be e x p e c te d b e tw een now and th e y e a r 2000 (T a b le I ) . I f th e deve lopm en t o f f u r t h e r sew erag e b a c k lo g s i s to b e p r e v e n te d , th e P la n n in g and E nv ironm en t Com m ission and th e M.W.S. and D.B. m ust exam ine a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r e f f i c i e n t w a s te m anagem ent.
4 . CONCLUSION
An a d e q u a te and e f f i c i e n t sew age d i s p o s a l s e r v i c e i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f th e u rb a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . I f h ig h s ta n d a r d s o f l i v i n g a r e to b e m a in ta in e d , s e r io u s h e a l t h h a z a rd s rem oved and e n v iro n m e n ta l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l l e d , i t h a s become g e n e r a l ly a c c e p te d t h a t sew erag e s e r v i c e s m ust be e x te n d e d to a s much o f th e b u i l t - u p a r e a as i s p r a c t i c a b l e . The r e c e n t moves to s h i f t c o n t r o l o f se w e ra g e p rogram s i n A u s t r a l i a from s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s to j o i n t F e d e r a l / S t a t e c o n t r o l r e p r e s e n te d an a t te m p t to rem ove some o f th e econom ic c o n s t r a i n t s on w a te r and sew erag e a u t h o r i t i e s , and a l s o to i n t e g r a t e th e p r o v is io n o f e s s e n t i a l s e r v i c e s w i th u rb an p la n n in g as a w h o le . Econom ic c o n s t r a i n t s and l a c k o f p la n n in g hav e l a r g e l y b een r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e l a r g e b a c k lo g s in se w erag e p r o v is io n in A u s t r a l i a ’ s u rb a n a r e a s ; th e s t e p s ta k e n to rem ove th e s e b a c k lo g s and to p r e v e n t a r e c u r r e n c e o f t h i s p ro b lem r e p r e s e n te d a s i g n i f i c a n t and lo n g o v e rd u e move to w ard s b e t t e r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l and w a s te m anagem ent. I t w i l l be a m a t te r f o r c o n s id e r a b le c o n c e rn f o r w a s te m anagem ent a u t h o r i t i e s and u rb a n p la n n e r s i f th e j o i n t p rog ram s c a n n o t c o n t in u e and a c h ie v e th e i n i t i a l a im s. Once a g a in , an e le m en t o f u n c e r t a i n t y has b een added to th e w a s te m anagement sy s te m ; th e u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f t h i s i s a r e c u r r e n t them e th ro u g h o u t t h i s s e r i e s o f p a p e r s .
(The F r a s e r G overnm ent h a s p ro p o se d to abandon th e N a t io n a l Sew erage P rogram and h a s re d u c e d th e a l l o c a t i o n . I t i s p o s s ib l e t h a t th e e v e n tu a l d i r e c t i o n o f sew erage in v e s tm e n t w i l l depend on th e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f 'New F e d e r a l i s m '. E d .)
94
Table I Projected population of 'major urban areas' of New South Wales, 1971 - 2001 (thousands)
Assuming proportionsas in 1971
0+K+01 0+K+I' I+K+0 I+K+I'
1971 3,486.4
1981 3,772.2 3,904.8 3,735.4 3,866.8
1991 4,011.5 4,333.9 3,917.9 4,235.2
2001 4,196.6 4,731.4 4,034.9 4,557.4
Assuming increases comparable to
experience of 1966-71
0+K+0' 0+K+I' I+K+0' I+K+I'
3,486.4
3,836.8 3,999.3 3,769.9 3,919.5
4,130. 1 4,525.3 3,977.7 4,338.9
4,357.0 5,012.6 4,110.9 4,705.8
0 = No interstate migration1 = With interstate migration O' = No overseas migrationI' = With 50,000 net overseas migrationK = Fertility as at 1973 declining linearly
to NRR = 1,0 by 1975-76 and thereafter remaining constant
Source National Population Inquiry, 1975, p.441.
Appendix A
Sewerage Distribution in the Botany Bay Catchment :1952-1973
An examination was made of the distribution of sewerage facilities in the Botany Bay catchment with data obtained from the following sources:
(a) The annual reports of the M.W.S. & D.B. which list the numbers of properties served by sewerage in each L.G.A.; these figures were used to compute the ratios of sewered properties to those connected to water mains^ over the period 1954 to 1973.
(b) A list obtained from the M.W.S. & D.B. of the numbers of people served by different sections of the sewerage system within the Botany Bay region from 1952 until 1973.
(c) The 1971 Census which provided data on the number of households with sewerage and other facilities in each L.G.A.
In the Water Board records a sewered property is defined as one for which sewerage facilities are available but which is not necessarily connected to the sewer. Properties not connected pay the same sewerage rates as those which are connected (5.25 cents in the dollar of the assessed annual value of the property). However, the cost of connection, which is borne entirely by the householder, may exceed $1,000 depending on the distance between the house and the sewer and the difficulty of the terrain. Hence there is some incentive for people with a septic tank which is still functioning efficiently (defined as not causing a nuisance to neighbours through seepage or smells) to delay connecting to the sewer. A small fee, $2.00 plus an additional $2.00 for eacl installation connected, is charged by the Board for inspection of the job when completed. This is a nominal fee only, its main purpose being to check that the stormwater down-pipes have not been connected to the sewer.
Those L.G.As which may be considered fully sewered now (defined as having ^98 per cent of properties connected to the water main also connected to the sewer) are Ashfield,Auburn, Botany, Burwood, Canterbury, Concord, Drummoyne, Hurstville, Kogarah, Leichhardt, Marrickville, Parramatta,96
Randwick, Rockdale and Strathfield (Figure A.1). In several of these there was a rapid expansion of the sewerage network in the late 1950s and early 1960s to keep pace with increases in residential building (Figure A.1 and Table A.1).
Table A.1 Sewered Properties in 1954Per cent of properties
sewered in 1954
Auburn 81Botany 89Canterbury 81Hurstville 54Kogarah 52Rockdale 80
Source M.W.S. & D.B. Annual Report for the year ended 30th June, 1954.
Areas not fully sewered at present are Bankstown, Campbell- town, Fairfield, Holroyd, Liverpool and Sutherland (Figure A.1). Campbelltown currently has the lowest proportion of sewered properties (52 per cent in 1973) (Figure A.1), as well as the lowest proportion of households with sewerage facilities available (41 per cent) (Table A.2). A series of maps illustrates the expansion of the fully sewered areas over the period 1954 to 1972 and also indicates where a backlog of unsewered areas still remains (Figure A.2 (a) to (d) in following maps).An examination of the expansion of the different sewerage
systems within the Botany Bay area shows the rapid growth of the Fairfield and Liverpool systems in the early 1960s (Figure A.3). In 1965 parts of these systems were transferred to the Southern and Western Suburbs Ocean Outfall System (refer to the accompanying large scale map for areas transferred). Rapid population increase has continued throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s in the areas served by the Fairfield and Liverpool systems and has also occurred in the catchments of the Campbelltown and Cronulla systems (Figure A.3).The number of properties not served by sewerage in each
L.G.A. also gives an indication of quantities of domestic sullage and sewage which have to be removed by tanker (Table A.3) (see paper by C.S. Joy for estimates of these quantities). Some of these properties have septic tanks and some have
97
holding pits. Others have a pan collection service. All of these are potential sources of pollution either from overflow or from direct discharge to gutters and stormwater channels. Much of the terrain in Sydney is unsuitable for disposal by septic tank and there have been many reports of effluent reaching the surface and entering stormwater channels. With a properly designed collection service, the use of holding tanks should present no problems, but there have been many complaints following failures in the collection service. The pan collection service is now socially less acceptable and it too is subject to the vagaries of the collection service.
98
I_Figure A. 1: Per cent of properties sewered: Botany Bay catchment L.G.As: 195*»-1973
-+- ++ + + + + + + ->-
.......'• • • - ■ //
/
1954 1957
Inner Suburbs— --- Marrickville-1- + Strathfield---- Ashfield.... Botany---- Canterbury---- Auburn
1960Year
1963
— -- Hurstville--- Holroyd---- Bankstown.... Liverpool
l?o n ^ ■» «I /I
Outer SuburbsRandwickRockdaleKogarah
Campbelltown Sutherland
1957 1963 1966Year
99
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Boundary of Sydney Statistical Division
Boundary of Local GovernmentAreas /
Boundary of area studied
BAULKHAM
HORNSBY
WINDSOR
HILLS
WARRINGAH
KU-RING-GAIBLACKTOWNPENRITH
IANLY
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AUBURI
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lBANKSTÖWNrLIVERPOOL1
HURSTVILLE-
CAMDEN
SUTHERLAND
“ CAMPBELLTOWN i r
Percent of properties sewered.
1954
kilometres
Figure A.2 (a)
101
Boundary of Sydney Statistical Division
Boundary of Local Government Areas
v Boundary of area studied
kilometres
F i g u r e A . 2 (b)
102
Boundary of Sydney Statistical Division
Boundary of Local Government Areas
15_____ 20
kilometres
Percent of properties sewered.
1966
90
50
20
0
Figure A.2 (c)103
Boundary of Sydney Statistical Division
Boundary of Local G overnm entA reas J
Boundary of area s tudied
BAULKHAM
HORNSBY
WINDSOR
HILLS
KU-RING-GAIBLACKTOWNPENRITH
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iBANKSTOWNLIVERPOOL:
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[KOGARAH
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SUTHERLAND:
CAMPBELLTOWN
lercent ofp ro p e re s sew ered.
1972
kilometres
104
£' igire A. 2 (d)
io<D>*
cn
T a b le A .3 P r o p e r t i e s Not S e rv ed by Sewerage : 1971
L.G .A. S e p a r a t eSystem
S a n i t a r yPan
O the r/ ' Not S t a t e d
A s h f i e l d 129 10 384Auburn 91 11 164Bankstown 1,455 3,301 355B otany 130 33 191Burwood 56 5 213Cam pbelltown 2 ,0 9 4 2 ,8 8 8 157C a n te rb u ry 276 20 473-Concord 41 6 62Drummoyne 61 2 90F a i r f i e l d 1 ,668 5 ,639 705H olroyd 512 2 ,2 8 5 147H u r s t v i l l e 873 252 143Kogarah 198 12 115L e ic h h a r d t 262 22 1,155L i v e r p o o l 2 ,442 1 ,683 839M a r r i c k v i l l e 396 33 1,413P a r r a m a t t a 615 157 280Randwick 321 83 687R ockda le 137 32 367South Sydney 164 11 436S t r a t h f i e l d 38 6 117S u th e r l a n d 14,584 7 ,363 633
T o t a l 26 ,5 4 3 2 3 ,854 9 ,1 2 6
S ource 1971 Census o f P o p u l a t i o n and H ousing .
106
Appendix B
National Sewerage Program : Additional Data on Sydney
Total expenditure 1973-4/1982-3
Total new Connections1973-4/1983-3
Av. expenditure per annum
Av. cost per connection
$1,037.2m 260,000 $103.7m $3,989
Treatment Plants and Connections1973-4 1974-5 1975-6 1976-7
No. of major treatment plants 4 4 2 4
Cost of treatment plants $18.2m $ 25.2m $ 24.5m $ 18.7m
Cost of total works program $89.6m $105.8m $112.Om $110.6m
Additional connectionsresidential non-resident ial
24,0004,000
25,0002,000
31,0002,000
25,0002,000
Backlog of Unsewered Population in 1982-3
- in Absence of Australian Government Assistance : 770 (estimate by Sydney Water Board)
107
S h o r t f a l l o f Funds for A cce lera ted Works
Program ( $m)
(1973 p r i c e s )
1973-4 10
1974-5 32
1975-6 34
1976-7 34
1977-8 5 2 .2
1978-9 5 3 .4
1979-80 66 .8
1980-1 5 5 .8
1981-2 3 7 .6
1982-3 3 0 .6
T o ta l 4 0 6 .4
Sources o f Funds f o r C a p i t a l Works Programs ; 1968-9/1974-5
$m1968-9 1969-70 1970-1 1971-2 1972-3 1973-4 1974-5
( e s t . )
P r i v a t e Funds & D evelopers c o n t r i b u t i o n s 3 .9 4 .8 5 .7 5 .9 7. 1 8 .7 11.4
I n t e r n a l Funds& S t a t e g r a n t s 6.5 6 .4 6.7 14.1 16 .4 9 .2 19.5
Loans 36 .7 42 .3 5 0 .8 61 .2 5 9 .4 61.7 40 .6
Note The p r in c ip a l means o f fin a n c in g new c a p i t a l works remains loan a l lo c a t io n s by the S ta te .
Source Department o f Urban and R egional Developm ent, unpublished r e p o r ts .
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A ppendix C
1. S o u th e rn and W e s te rn Suburbs Ocean O u t f a l l S ys tem :
Most o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n work w i t h i n t h e S o u th e rn and W e s te rn Suburbs Ocean O u t f a l l System to o k p l a c e i n t h e S m i t h f i e l d , Lansdowne and Lugarno a r e a s , w h ich d r a i n to t h e N o r th Georges R iv e r Submain. T h is work h a s in v o lv e d b o th m ain sew ers and r e t i c u l a t i o n a r e a schem es , a s w e l l a s pumping s t a t i o n s .
2. C r o n u l l a Sys tem :
Work i n t h e C r o n u l la System was m a in ly on r e t i c u l a t i o n a r e a schemes a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e S u t h e r l a n d Submain s e r v i n g e x i s t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s a t T a ren P o i n t , S y l v a n ia , O y s t e r Bay and J a n n a l i on t h e s o u th e r n bank o f t h e G eorges R5-ver and a t S u th e r l a n d . Work a l s o c o n t in u e d on t h e m ain sew ers t o s e r v i c e t h e p ro p o se d d e ve lopm en t a t Menai.O th e r r e t i c u l a t i o n schemes w ere co m p le te d d r a i n i n g to t h e P o r t H acking Submain.
3. F a i r f i e l d Sys tem :
W i th in t h e F a i r f i e l d System , work i s b e in g u n d e r t a k e n to s e r v i c e new d ev e lo p m en ts a t Boss le y P a rk and s i x r e t i c u l a t i o n a r e a schemes i n e x i s t i n g r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s a t Mount P r i t c h a r d and F a i r f i e l d W est w ere c o m p le te d .
4. G le n f ie ld -C a m p b e l l to w n S y s tem :
A l a r g e amount o f work has been u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e G le n f ie ld - C a m p b e l l to w n System . T h is has in c lu d e d th e G l e n f i e l d T re a tm e n t W orks, t h e su b m ain , t r i b u t a r y c a r r i e r s and r e t i c u l a t i o n a r e a schemes a t G l e n f i e l d , M acquar ie F i e l d s , I n g l e b u r n , Leumeah and Cam pbelltow n.
5. L iv e r p o o l S ys tem :
Work c o n t in u e d on th e a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e L iv e rp o o l T re a tm e n t Works to i n c r e a s e i t s c a p a c i t y t o 100 ,000 p e r s o n s . A m a jo r pumping s t a t i o n to pump t h e f low from t h e Moorebank i n d u s t r i a l a r e a and t h e E a s t L iv e rp o o 1- Hammondville a r e a s to t h e t r e a t m e n t works was c o m p le te d .
109
Some a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r was c o m p le ted to s e r v i c e t h e new s u b d i v i s i o n s i n t h e C a su la a r e a and th e a r e a o f t h e fo rm e r L iv e r p o o l g o l f c o u r s e . One r e t i c u l a t i o n a r e a scheme was c o m p le te d a t C a s u la .
110
Footnotes
1 E.G. Varrell, 'Sewerage for a Scattered Metropolis’,in Environment '73 Conference, Water Pollution Section, Sydney, 1973.
2 P. Harrison, 'Policy Objectives for Australian Cities', National Population Inquiry, Commissioned Paper No. 10, Canberra: A.G.P.S., 1973.
3 Appendix A contains a description of the distribution of sewerage facilities in the Botany Bay catchment from the early 1950s onwards.
4 The financial contributions of subdividers and developers in the provision of sewerage facilities are discussed by W. Hickson.
5 P. Harrison, 1973, op. cit.6 The Advanced Planning Sub-Branch, part of the Sydney Water
Board's Investigations Branch, is responsible for all forward planning of water and sewerage facilities. Water and sewerage networks are planned for an area on the basis of the size of the projected population in the area and on per capita water consumption. The consumption rates for individual parts of the area are calculated on the basis of the land use zoning and local reticulation systems are designed accordingly. The plans allow for a certain degree of flexibility within a maximum and minimum level of service in any area. Much of the work is carried out in sections which can be readily augmented at later stages of an area's growth. Every effort is made to ensure that newly subdivided areas are contiguous with already sewered areas and that the systems can be linked. If this were not done, additional treatment works to service outlying areas would have to be constructed at considerable cost to the Board.
7 R.P. Gibbons, 'Finance and Planning : The Sydney Water Board and the 1959 Green Belt Releases', unpublished paper, Department of Government, University of Sydney,1974.
8 Towns in the 20,000 - 60,000 population range were included in this group in 1974/75.
9 In 1974/75, 30 per cent of the funds were in the form of non-repayable interest free grants.
Ill
10 E . J . W ä ld e r , 'W a te r Supply and Sewerage i n an E xpanding M e t r o p o l i s ' , P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 2 8 , 171-180 , 1969.
11 T. F o s t e r , 'S e w e ra g e : Are B ig Works Always N e c e s s a r y ? ' ,Community, 13, 1975.
12 Now t h e New S outh Wales P l a n n in g and Environm ent Commission.
13 D i s c u s s io n w i th Mr L o v e t t , Head o f t h e Advanced P l a n n in g S e c t i o n , I n v e s t i g a t i o n s B ra n c h , M.W.S. & D .B . , c o n f i rm e d t h a t t h i s m easu re would g iv e a r e a s o n a b ly r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e amount o f s ew erag e a v a i l a b l e i n a L o c a l Government A rea .
112
SERVICE AND CAPITAL CHARGES FOR SYDNEY’S SEWER WASTES
W.J. Hickson
October 1975
BOTANY BAY DRAINAGE AREAS
North Botany Bay
Cooks river
Lower G eorges river
Upper G eorges river
THE ROYAL
NATIONAL PARK
F i g u r e 3 S ydney’ s W ate r R e s o u r c e s23
1. INTRODUCTION
A v a r i e t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms have e v o lv e d to d e a l w i t h t h e p ro b le m o f sewage d i s p o s a l i n A u s t r a l i a n c i t i e s . I n Sydney a s t a t u t o r y a u t h o r i t y - th e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e B oard - i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r b o th t h e p r o v i s i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f sew erage and d r a in a g e f a c i l i t i e s , a l t h o u g h some l o c a l c o u n c i l s may be in v o lv e d i n t h e m a in te n a n c e o f s to rm w a t e r d r a i n s w i t h i n t h e i r b o r d e r s . The B o a r d ’ s t a s k i s l a r g e and i s grow ing r a p i d l y . I n 1971 some 82 p e r c e n t o f a l l p r i v a t e d w e l l i n g s i n th e Sydney r e g io n w ere c o n n e c te d to a m ains s e w e r , w h i l e n e a r l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a l l l i q u i d w a s te s g e n e r a te d by i n d u s t r y w ere d i s c h a r g e d i n t o the. B o a r d ’s s y s t e m s .
I n o r d e r t o s e r v i c e new deve lopm en t a n d , a t t h e same t im e , p r o g r e s s i v e l y remove a c c u m u la te d b a c k l o g s , th e u rb a n sew erage i n d u s t r y i n A u s t r a l i a h a s b e e n a b s o r b i n g an i n c r e a s i n g s h a r e o f c a p i t a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s o u r c e s . Over t h e d ecade 1964/65 to 1 9 7 3 /74 , t h e p e r c e n ta g e s h a r e o f w a s te d i s p o s a l e x p e n d i t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g s a n i t a t i o n ) i n t o t a l p u b l i c c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e i n c r e a s e d from 3 .5 p e r c e n t t o 8 .1 p e r c e n t , w h i l s t th e p r o p o r t i o n o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e on u rb a n w a te r s u p p l i e s f e l l from 6 .0 p e r c e n t to 5 .0 p e r c e n t (Budget P a p e r No. 9 , 1 9 7 5 -7 6 ) . D e s p i te i t s g row ing im p o r ta n c e , t h e r e have b e e n few a t t e m p t s t o a s s e s s t h e econom ic p e r fo rm a n c e o f t h e i n d u s t r y . T h is n e g l e c t i s p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d by th e p a u c i t y o f d i s a g g r e g a t e d p h y s i c a l and f i n a n c i a l d a t a . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t some a u t h o r i t i e s th e m s e lv e s may be unaware o f t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t b u rd e n s w hich a r e b o rn e by th e v a r i o u s u s e r s o f t h e i r s e r v i c e s . I t a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p ro b le m h a s o n ly v e ry r e c e n t l y c a u g h t th e a t t e n t i o n o f e c o n o m is t s .
The im p o r ta n t p o i n t t o be made i n t h i s p a p e r i s t h a t p r e s e n t c h a rg in g s t r u c t u r e s f o r w a t e r and se w e ra g e s e r v i c e s have e v o lv e d i n an h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s a n d , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , r e f l e c t a mix o f c h a n g in g s o c i a l s e r v i c e a t t i t u d e s amongst w a t e r and se w erag e a u t h o r i t i e s . Fo r i n s t a n c e , many a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e , i n t h e p a s t , a t t a c h e d a h i g h e r p r i o r i t y t o t h e i r w a t e r s u p p ly f u n c t i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e p r e s s i n g need t o remedy sew erage d e f i c i e n c i e s . In j u s t i f y i n g th e h ig h p r i o r i t y a c c o rd e d t o w a t e r p r o v i s i o n , t h e B o a r d 's P r e s i d e n t to o k th e p r a g m a t ic v iew t h a t ’ t h e t h i n g s w hich a r e e a s i e s t t o do f i r s t a r e done f i r s t ’ . F u r t h e r , by t h e a d o p t io n o f p r i c i n g p o l i c i e s w hich have e n c o u ra g e d th e use o f w a t e r a s a c a r r i e r o f w as te m a t e r i a l , many a u t h o r i t i e s a r e ru n n in g up a g a i n s t c o s t l y sew erage t r e a tm e n t p ro b le m s i n an a t t e m p t t o a r r e s t
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t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r - c o u r s e s and s a t i s f y S t a t e w a t e r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s . The a s s u m p t io n o f p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l has p r o d u c e d a s i t u a t i o n o f d i v i d e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and c o n f l i c t . The m a j o r i m p l i c a t i o n f o r p o l i c y i s t h a t w h i l s t a u t h o r i t i e s have been u t i l i s i n g u s e r ( o r b e n e f i c i a r y ) c h a r g e s as a way o f r a t i o n i n g t h e demand f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s , c o n s i d e r a b l e s c o p e may e x i s t f o r t h e e x t e n s i o n o f p e r u n i t p r i c i n g schemes and f o r t h e encouragem en t o f w a s t e d i s p o s a l t e c h n i q u e s which p l a c e l e s s r e l i a n c e on x^ater u s e d as a medium f o r t h e c a r r i a g e o f s o l i d w a s t e s .
The re a r e many i s s u e s t h a t m igh t be r a i s e d i n any cons i d e r a t i o n o f c o n t r o l o p t i o n s f o r sew erage s e r v i c e s . I t ’i s p r o p o s e d i n t h i s p a p e r t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e c o n s t r a i n t s imposed upon i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e f l o w s . I n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s :
(a ) Few o t h e r w a s t e f low s c o n t a i n t h e same r ange o f c o n t a m i n a n t s and t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
(b) I n d u s t r y o f t e n a p p e a r s t o be p a y i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e f u l l c o s t s o f d i s p o s a l and t r e a t ment .
( c ) The p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s f o r r e d u c i n g w a s t e f lows by p o l i c i e s which e n c o u ra g e r e c y c l i n g and ons i t e t r e a t m e n t .
Only f o r e m p i r i c a l exam ple , r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e c r i t e r i a g o v e r n i n g t h e Sydney B o a r d ' s r e g u l a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e f l o w s . T h i s i s n o t , i n any s e n s e , t o s i n g l e ou t t h e Sydney M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D r a in a g e Board .I t a p p e a r s t h a t many o f t h e a p p ro a c h e s r e f e r r e d t o a r e w i d e s p r e a d i n A u s t r a l i a and e l s e w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e a r e g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e s on t h e Sydney Board th a n in o t h e r A u s t r a l i a n c i t i e s , p r e s s i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s more s t r o n g l y on i t and c o n f l i c t i n g i t s t a s k s . The B o a r d ' s p o l i c y tow a rds i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t h a s unde rgone cons i d e r a b l e r e v i s i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s and i t i s , i n some r e s p e c t s moving t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e tow ards some o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s made i n t h i s p a p e r .
2 . APPROACHES TO LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
C o n c e p t u a l l y , one can make a d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s and managed w a s t e t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s e s . The f i r s t a p p ro a c h t e n d s to imply a r e s t r i c t i o n o r r e d u c t i o n of
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e m i s s i o n s , t h e second t e n d s t o a c c e p t w a s t e e m i s s i o n s and t o p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n . P o l i c y p r o p o s a l s would imply s u g g e s t i o n s f o r changes i n t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m o f c o n t r o l s . In o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y and f e a s i b i l i t y o f any c ha nges , t h i s e x i s t i n g c o n t r o l s y s t e m n e e d s t o be r e v i e w e d . The e x i s t i n g w a s t e management s y s te m may, t h e r e f o r e , be t r e a t e d as b a s e d upon:
(a) The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a n a g e m e n t / c o n t r o l obj e c t i v e s .
(b) The a d o p t i o n o f c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s .
(c) Prob lem i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n .
(d) S e l e c t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e s .
(e) A d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i s a t i o n .
( f ) Resource a l l o c a t i o n t o t h e c o n t r o l s y s te m as a whole and t o i t s component p a r t s .
(g) I n s p e c t i o n , t e s t i n g and e v a l u a t i o n .
(h) F o r e c a s t i n g and f o rw a r d p l a n n i n g .
Most sewerage a u t h o r i t i e s , how ever , l a r g e l y by s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t , have l i m i t e d powers o v e r t h e i r w a s t e management f u n c t i o n . The most common a p p ro a c h i s t o e n c o u ra g e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e sew er and t h e n t o a l t e r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d i s c h a rg e so t h a t i t c a u s e s l e s s damage t o t h e a u t h o r i t y ’ s f a c i l i t i e s and c o n s t i t u t e s l e s s o f a d a n g e r t o i t s employees .In some N or th American c i t i e s i t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i n a b i l i t y t o cope a d e q u a t e l y w i t h w a s t e p rob le m s h a s be e n due , i n p a r t , t o a l a c k o f m o t i v a t i o n t o a c t a g r e s s i v e l y enough a g a i n s t p o l l u t e r s a n d , i n p a r t , t o a l a c k o f l e g a l , f i n a n c i a l and a n a l y t i c a l c a p a b i l i t y to s o l v e t h e s e p r o b l e m s . ^ I t w i l l be s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s i m i l a r e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e o b s e r v e d i n a c t i o n may be a p p l i e d i n A u s t r a l i a .
The a d d i t i o n o f new f u n c t i o n s and p rogram s h a s a l s o cons t r a i n e d e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n . The Sydney W ate r B oa rd , f o r exam ple , h a s now a c c u m u la t e d p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o r been s u b j e c t t o i n f l u e n c e by o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n a l l o w i n g a c c e s s o f p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s t o s e w e r s .In many r e s p e c t s , t h e Sydney s y s t e m a p p e a r s t o be a head o f most A u s t r a l i a n c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s . However , t h e r e s o u r c e s d e v o te d t o p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l e n fo r c e m e n t i n Sydney as a whole have been ve ry r e s t r i c t e d i n c om par i son t o t h e a t t e n t i o n g iv e n t o w a s t e t r a n s f e r and t r e a t m e n t . As a r e s u l t , f o r example.
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p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l h a s o f t e n been e q u a t e d , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y by Board c h o ic e , w i th c o n n e c t in g a p re m ise t o th e se w e r ; a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l , i n f a c t , h a s m ea n t , on o c c a s i o n , d i v e r s i o n o f n o rm a l ly a i r - b o r n e w a s te s to d r a i n s and s e w e rs .
Under t h e N.S.W. C lean W aters Act g a z e t t e d i n 1972 th e Sydney Board i s l e g a l l y l i a b l e as a p o l l u t e r once a p o l l u t a n t i s a c c e p te d i n t o i t s sew ers o r s to r m w a te r c h a n n e l s . I t i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e f f l u e n t d i s c h a r g e d from i t s t r e a t ment works and f o r o v e r f lo w s from i t s s e w e rs . The Board h a s a t t e m p te d to d e s ig n i t s sew erage t r e a t m e n t works to e n s u re t h a t r e q u i r e m e n ts u n d e r th e r e g u l a t i o n s can be a t t a i n e d . ^ I n e v i t a b l y , t h i s o b j e c t i v e w i l l t a k e tim e and as r e c e n t l y as 1971, t h e B oard r e c o g n i s e d t h a t e f f l u e n t from i t s i n l a n d t r e a t m e n t w orks ' h a r d l y e v e r m eet th e s t a n d a r d s l a i d down by th e D epar tm en t o f H e a l th f o r su sp e n d e d s o l i d s and B . O . D . ' . ^At t h a t t im e t h e Board i n t e r p r e t e d th e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C lean W aters Act as s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t b e s t p r a c t i c a b l e a n t i - p o l l u t i o n m easu res be a d o p te d 'w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f i t s b u d g e t '
Given t h e s e p rob lem s t h e r e i s a c l e a r need f o r w a s te management t e c h n i q u e s to em brace w id e r e n v i r o n m e n ta l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s th a n s im p ly p u b l i c s a f e t y o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s . M oreover , w i th t h e Board and th e W ater P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B ranch (W .P .C .B .) o f t h e S t a t e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Commission b o th e n c o u ra g in g p o l l u t i n g f i r m s t o c o n n e c t t h e i r w a s te f lo w s to t h e B o a r d 's s e w e r s , t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r c a s e to be made f o r r e - e x a m in in g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s im p le p u b l i c t r a n s f e r and p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n i q u e .^
One o p t io n i s to e n c o u ra g e a change i n th e q u a n t i t y and c o m p o s i t io n o f t h e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m by a l t e r i n g th e mix o f i n p u t s ( f o r e x a m p le , e n c o u ra g in g th e u se o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e s o l v e n t s ) o r by c h a n g in g b a s i c p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s so t h a t w a s te w a t e r i s e i t h e r r e - u s e d o r t r e a t e d o n - s i t e p r i o r to d i s c h a r g e . These m easu res would re d u c e th e demand f o r w a te r u sed as a w a s te c a r r i e r . An a p p r o p r i a t e p r i c i n g p o l i c y , e i t h e r f o r w a s te o r w a t e r , m ig h t be a u s e f u l weapon i n such a r e m e d ia l s t r a t e g y .
A se co n d o p t io n i s t o r e g u l a t e demand d i r e c t l y by a d o p t in g th e more f l e x i b l e a p p ro a c h o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l . I n v iew o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n v o lv e d i n e n f o r c i n g g e n e r a l e n v i r o n m e n ta l s t a n d a r d s ( e i t h e r on w a s te d i s c h a r g e s o r w a t e r q u a l i t y ) , t h e use o f a ' b e s t p r a c t i c a b l e m eans ' s t r a t e g y h a s a p p e a re d a t t r a c t i v e . I t s a p p e a l l i e s i n b y - p a s s i n g th e s e t t i n g o f s t a n d a r d s and a l l o w in g a u t h o r i t i e s to p l a c e c o n t r o l s p r a g m a t i c a l l y on t h e i n d u s t r i a l s o u r c e s . The
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i n d i v i d u a l d i r e c t i o n s would t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y o f r e d u c i n g d i s c h a r g e s and t h e c o s t s t h a t would be im posed . The U.S. F e d e r a l W ate r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Act o f 1972, f o r example , c a l l s f o r a s t a n d a r d o f e f f l u e n t b a s e d on t h e b e s t p r a c t i c a b l e c o n t r o l t e c h n o l o g y c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e ' . 7
Whatever c o n s t i t u t e s t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e o r mix o f p o l i c i e s , i t s h o u ld be e v i d e n t t h a t t h e management o f l i q u i d w a s t e s and t h e usage o f w a t e r r e p r e s e n t an i n t e r r e l a t e d p rob lem . Thus , w h i l s t t h i s p a p e r w i l l be c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f o r m e r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i g n o r e t h e w a t e r s u p p ly f u n c t i o n . P r i c i n g a p p ro a c h e s f o r one f a c i l i t y may d i s t o r t demand f o r a u x i l i a r y s e r v i c e s so t h a t t h e i n e f f i c i e n c y e f f e c t s may be found i n t h e use o f o t h e r i n v e s t m e n t s , n o t j u s t i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e r v i c e i n q u e s t i o n . 8
3. THE ROLE OF PRICES IN DEMAND MANAGEMENT
The use o f u s e r o r b e n e f i c i a r y c h a r g e s a s a demand c o n t r o l i n s t r u m e n t , q u i t e a p a r t f rom i t s r e v e n u e - g e n e r a t i n g f u n c t i o n , h a s r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n by e c o n o m i s t s and e n g i n e e r s . Most o f t h e a rgum ents advanced a r e c o n c e rn e d w i t h p r o m o t in g economic e f f i c i e n c y , a l t h o u g h e q u i t y , i n c l u d i n g income d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i s g iv e n some c o n s i d e r a t i o n . One l i n e o f a rgum ent i s t h a t u s e r c h a r g e s a r e n e c e s s a r y to o b t a i n t h e o p t i m a l l e v e l o f i n v e s t m e n t i n c a p a c i t y ( lo n g run e f f i c i e n c y ) . Consumers would show t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r e x t r a w a t e r o r sew erage f a c i l i t i e s by t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o pay t h e f u l l c o s t s i n v o l v e d . The second and r e l a t e d l i n e o f a rgument i s t h a t u s e r c h a r g e s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o p romote t h e e f f i c i e n t use o f an e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t y ( s h o r t run e f f i c i e n c y ) . The s h a r i n g o f c o s t s among compet in g u s e r s by means o f a p p r o p r i a t e p r i c e s p r o v i d e s v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n t o p o l i c y makers conc e r n i n g t h e demand f o r t h e p u b l i c s e r v i c e . Such p r i c e s a l s o t e n d t o keep t h e c l a i m s o f b e n e f i c i a r i e s i n check by r a t i o n i n g t h e use o f f a c i l i t i e s .
However , two m a jo r d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f such a p r i n c i p l e . The f i r s t i s t h e v i o l a t i o n o f one b a s i c c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m a r g i n a l c o s t p r i c i n g r o l e , namely t h a t c a p a c i t y e x p a n s i o n can be u n d e r t a k e n i n s m a l l d i v i s i b l e u n i t s . I n f a c t , i n v e s t m e n t s i n h y d r a u l i c f a c i l i t i e s a r e o f t e n o f a ' l u m p y ' n a t u r e so t h a t m a r g in a l c o s t s a r e d i s c o n t i n u o u s . For exam ple , o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e Sycney Wate r B o a r d ' s t o t a l w a t e r r e v e n u e i s
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required to meet fixed costs. Thus the variable costs associated with supplying water average only a few cents per kilolitre.^
The second problem relates to the existence of spillover benefits or externalities in the provision of water and sewerage services. Clearly the external effects of a sewerage service exceed those of a water service. A sewerage service can be viewed as an intermediate good in the production of a public good, namely given health standards and quality standards set for receiving waters. In the case of water, the major externalities are the contribution of the service towards fire protection and the enhancement of the value of those properties not connected to the system.10Moreover, the public good to which sewerage services and
public water supplies may be regarded as inputs are characterised by some degree of non-excludability.H It would not be difficult technically to exclude individual consumers from use of water services. For example, water supply could be cut off for non-payment of charges. The possibilities for such sanctions in the case of domestic sewerage are much more limited, although there may be some justification for their use in the case of industrial customers. However, exclusion or non-provision would have the effect of defeating the objective of the service as an input to the provision of a high community environmental standard in public health and aesthetic terms. To the extent that exclusion is non- optimal if environmental objectives are paramount, the sewerage service has more of the character of a public good than is the case for water, which has a greater marketable component.In short, economic efficiency arguments should not be taken
too far in evaluating the pricing policy of a sewerage authority. The other objectives of a pricing policy - namely, the revenue-raising function and an 'equitable* distribution of costs amongst beneficiaries - together with the presence of external benefits and costs, all need to be considered.
4. COMMON TYPES OF SEWERAGE CHARGING SCHEMES
This evaluation of alternative charging mechanisms for sewerage services will address itself to two important questions. First, to what extent does the present pricing formula distribute, in an equitable fashion, the cost burden of waste disposal/control? Second, to what extent does it
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p r o v i d e an i n c e n t i v e t o r e d u c e w a s t e l o a d s ? In o r d e r t o s e t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i n p e r s p e c t i v e , some comment a bou t s ew erage s e r v i c e c h a r g e s which have b e e n a d o p te d o v e r s e a s may be h e l p f u l . I t b e a r s r e p e a t i n g t h a t s i n c e se w e ra ge s e r v i c e p r i c i n g i s t h e f i n a l l i n k i n a c h a i n i n v o l v i n g t h e p u r c h a s e o f w a t e r r i g h t s , t h e p r i c e f o r w a s t e r em o v a l s h o u l d n o t be c o n f i n e d t o t h a t f o r sewerage s e r v i c e s . W ate r p r i c e s and n o n - p r i c e s u p p l y c o n t r o l s have an im p a c t on w a s t e l o a d s and d i l u t i o n f a c t o r s which must be p a r t o f any a s s e s s m e n t o f s ew erage c h a r g e s .
The c o s t s o f sewage c o l l e c t i o n and t r e a t m e n t can be c l a s s i f i e d and a l l o c a t e d to u s e r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h r e e v a r i a b l e s :
(a) A f l a t amount p e r u s e r .
(b) Wate r o r w a s t e volume.
(c ) Waste s t r e n g t h f a c t o r s such as b i o c h e m i c a l oxygen demand.
As a r e s u l t , t h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f sew erage s e r v i c e c h a r g i n g f o rm u la e employed by p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s .
On t h e one h a n d , i n Eng land and W e s te rn Europe many a u t h o r i t i e s b a s e t h e i r r a t e s on t h e m arke t o r r e n t a l v a l u e o f t h e p r o p e r t y o r , l e s s f r e q u e n t l y , on t h e s i z e o f t h e l o t . In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e most f r e q u e n t l y used b a s e f o r d o m e s t i c and i n d u s t r i a l s e w e ra g e s e r v i c e c h a r g e s i s w a t e r u s e . G e n e r a l l y , i n t h e U.S. t h e c h a rg e i s made d i r e c t l y on w a t e r volume o r i s s im p ly a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e w a t e r b i l l . Because o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f g a rd e n w a t e r u s a g e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e number o f i l l e g a l s t o r m w a t e r c o n n e c t i o n s made t o s e w e r s , such a method o f c h a r g i n g i s s u s p e c t a s a m easu re o f t h e use made o f t h e s y s te m . Some a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e r e f o r e , make a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e se w e ra ge s e r v i c e r a t e s t o t a k e a c coun t o f w a t e r u sed b u t n o t d i s c h a r g e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m .
5. INDUSTRIAL WASTE CHARGES IN SYDNEY
The c o m p le x i ty o f t h e p ro b le m i n r e a l i t y may be i l l u s t r a t e d from Sydney e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o draw a t t e n t i o n to Sydney as such o r t o imply c r i t i c i s m . I n d e e d , Sydney a p p e a r s t o be i n advance o f most A u s t r a l i a n c i t i e s f rom which s i m i l a r c o m p l e x i t i e s c o u ld be c i t e d . The e m p i r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s g iv e n on ly t o p r o v i d e some c o n c r e t e n e s s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a d i f f i c u l t and c h a n g in g p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e
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and h e n c e to in fo r m more g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n .In Sydney th e c h a rg in g ' s y s te m f o r d o m e s t ic sewage rem oval i s
c o n f in e d to a f l a t r a t e b a s e d , u n t i l 1975, on th e a s s e s s e d a n n u a l v a lu e o f t h e p r o p e r t y . I n t h e c a s e o f i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t d i s c h a r g e d t o p u b l i c se w e rs and d r a i n s , m ost o f t h e m a jo r a u t h o r i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a now lev y an a d d i t i o n a l ’ t r a d e w a s t e ’ c h a r g e . F o r w a t e r , a s i m i l a r t w o - p a r t t a r i f f e x i s t s , a l t h o u g h t h e v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e i s much more s i g n i f i c a n t , i n te rm s o f r e v e n u e , f o r w a t e r th a n i t i s f o r w a s te rem o v a l . The g e n e r a l s e w erag e r a t e a p p l i c a b l e to a l l c u s to m e rs h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d by o n e - t h i r d o v e r t h e p a s t decad e w i th t h e r e s u l t t h a t sew erage r a t e s have b een p r o v id i n g an i n c r e a s i n g s h a r e o f t h e B o a r d 's r e v e n u e . ^ T here h a s b een o n ly one change i n t h e v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e f o r th e sew er s e r v i c e ( s e e Appendix A ) .
C harges f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s i n t o t h e Sydney W ater B o a r d 's sy s te m s have shown an i n c r e a s i n g te n d e n c y to be r e l a t e d to t h e v a lu e o f s e r v i c e r e c e iv e d by u s e r s , a l th o u g h th e a l l o c a t i o n o f c o s t s amongst b e n e f i c i a r i e s may r a i s e s i g n i f i c a n t e q u i t y i m p l i c a t i o n s . B e fo re 1972 t h e B o a r d 's c h a rg e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l w a s te s a c c e p te d i n t o i t s sy s te m s w ere c o n f in e d t o t h e o r d i n a r y sew erag e r a t e and a v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e . The l a t t e r was a p p l i e d to th e volum es o f w a s te d i s c h a r g e d i n e x c e s s o f a g iv e n a l lo w a n c e c o v e re d by th e o r d in a r y sew erag e r a t e . T h i s d i s c h a r g e a l lo w a n c e was c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f w a te r w hich th e w a t e r r a t e would p u r c h a s e a t t h e c u r r e n t m e te ra g e c h a rg e .I n c a l c u l a t i n g a c t u a l e f f l u e n t v o lum es , an a g re e d d i s c h a r g e f a c t o r i n r e l a t i o n t o w a t e r i n t a k e ( g e n e r a l l y 92 p e r c e n t ) i s a r r i v e d a t .
The c u r r e n t v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e o f 6 .6 q p e r k i l o l i t r e i s i n t e n d e d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s to sew erage t r e a t m e n t w orks from r e c e i v i n g i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s . However, o f f i c e r s o f t h e Board have n o te d t h a t ' i f t r a d e w a s t e c h a rg e s to be l e v i e d by t h e B oard a r e b a s e d on t h e c o s t o f t r e a t m e n t , i t can b e e x p e c te d t h a t many f i r m s d i s c h a r g i n g s t r o n g w a s t e s w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o pay v e ry much more th a n th e p r e s e n t c h a rg e o f 6 .6 c e n t s p e r th o u sa n d l i t r e s ' ( s i c ) . ^ U n t i l 1972 , t h e n , i n d u s t r i a l w a s te t r e a t m e n t a p p e a r s to have b e e n h e a v i l y s u b s i d i s e d and t h e r e was l i t t l e i n c e n t i v e i n t h e r a t e s t r u c t u r e f o r se w e ra g e s e r v i c e s f o r f i r m s t o r e d u c e th e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r w a s t e s .
I n t h e c a s e o f i n d u s t r i a l d i s c h a r g e s t o s to rm w a te r c h a n n e l s , t h e B o a r d 's p o l i c y i s to p e r m i t t h e s e 'w h e re a c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h q u a l i t y w a s te can be g u a r a n t e e d and w here th e sew er w ould
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>e o v e r lo a d e d by th e q u a n t i t i e s i n v o l v e d ' .15 The t w o - p a r t t a r i f f c o n s i s t s o f t h e o r d i n a r y d r a i n a g e r a t e b a s e d on t h e A.A.V. o f t h e r a t e a b l e i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y s u p p le m e n te d by a v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e w h ich i s a p p l i e d t o t h e t o t a l w a s t e volume ( i . e . no a l lo w a n c e i s g i v e n ) . The B oard does a l lo w c e r t a i n c o n c e s s io n s i n i t s s t a n d a r d s f o r d i s c h a r g e t o s to r m w a te r c h a n n e l s f o r w hich i t l e v i e s a h i g h e r v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e o f 6 .6 c p e r 1 ,0 0 0 l i t r e s ( e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t f o r t h e se w e ra g e s e r v i c e ) . Sewer o v e r f lo w s d u r in g w e t w e a t h e r and u rb a n ru n o f f t o s to r m w a te r c h a n n e l s b o t h r e s u l t i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a s te m a t e r i a l and o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s e n t e r i n g t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r s a ro u n d Sydney.
I n 1970, p a r t l y i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n t i p o l l u t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e M.W.S. & D.B. s e t up a T ra d e W aste Committee t o exam ine t h e r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e rn in g t h e d i s c h a r g e o f l i q u i d w a s t e s i n t o i t s s e w e rs and th e c h a rg e s f o r a c c e p ta n c e o f su c h w a s t e s . ^ The B oard was aw are t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a ' s u b s t a n t i a l num ber ' o f i n d u s t r i e s whose d i s c h a r g e s d id n o t comply w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d s . T hese r e s u l t e d i n t h e B oard b e a r i n g a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e o f t h e c o s t o f d i s p o s a l t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o s t o f damage c a u s e d t o t h e s e w e rs by i l l e g a l d i s c h a r g e s . I n 1969 t h e B oard commented t h a t 'o n e l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l u n d e r t a k in g i s c o n t r i b u t i n g a p p ro x im a te ly 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l B.O.D. l o a d t o t h e Bondi Sewerage T re a tm e n t W o r k s ' . ^
The T rad e W aste Comm ittee found t h a t t h e B o a r d 's t r a d e w a s t e s t a n d a r d s w ere n o t u n i f o r m ly o b s e rv e d and e n f o r c e d . I t n o t e d t h a t t h e maximum p e n a l t y f o r b r e a c h e s o f t h e T ra d e W aste By-Laws was i n a d e q u a te and recommended t h a t i t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e C lean W ate rs A c t .A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s te m f o r w a s t e s was d e v i s e d b u t no change was made t o t h e maximum f i n e s f o r b r e a c h e s o f t h e s t a n d a r d s .
By 1972 demands f o r more s t r i n g e n t p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l m e a s u re s , c o u p le d w i t h t h e r i s i n g c o s t s o f se w e ra g e t r e a t m e n t , c a u se d t h e B oard t o r e - e x a m in e i t s t r a d e w a s te p o l i c y . The B o ard , h a v in g e x p e r i e n c e d some d i f f i c u l t y i n p o l i c i n g i t s q u a l i t a t i v e s t a n d a r d s , d e c id e d to a c c e p t r e l a t i v e l y h ig h s t r e n g t h w a s t e s s u b j e c t t o an e x t r a c h a rg e b e i n g p a i d . ° I n J u l y o f t h a t y e a r a s t r e n g t h c h a rg e was i n t r o d u c e d . T h is was t o be l e v i e d on t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e c o n te n t o f g r e a s e , s u s pended s o l i d s and B.O.D. w h ich e x c ee d e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 600 mg/1 ( s e e A ppendix A). The c h a rg e s w e re s e t a t a l e v e l t o r e c o v e r ' a r e a s o n a b le p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s i n v o lv e d ' i n t r e a t m e n t , a l t h o u g h no a t t e m p t was made t o
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a m o r t iz e th e in v e s tm e n t in t r e a tm e n t f a c i l i t i e s . ^The B o a rd ’ s p h i lo s o p h y to w a rd s th e a c c e p ta n c e o f t r a d e
w a s te s re m a in s t h a t o f p r o v id in g ’w here p o s s i b l e a s e r v i c e to th e c o m m u n i t y ^ In d o in g s o , i t h a s b e e n u n d e r i n c r e a s in g p r e s s u r e s from th e l o c a l com m unity and from o th e r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t i e s . G iven th e s e p r e s s u r e s i t i s n o t w i th o u t r e a s o n t h a t th e d e s i r e t o p r o t e c t th e B o a r d 's s e w e rs , t r e a t m ent w orks and w o rk e rs from damage o r h a rm , r a t h e r th a n a com m itm ent to im p ro v in g th e q u a l i t y o f w a te r c o u r s e s , rem a in s an im p o r ta n t d e te rm in a n t o f th e c o n d i t io n s im posed upon th e a c c e p ta n c e o f t r a d e w a s te s .
6 . GENERAL IMPLICATIONS OF TRADE WASTE CHARGES
C o n fro n te d by e s c a l a t i n g t r a d e w a s te c h a rg e s and by a d i s c r im in a t in g p r i c i n g sy s te m f o r d i s c h a r g e , w hat re s p o n s e m ig h t be e x p e c te d from in d u s t r y ? A f i r m fa c e d w ith s t r e n g th c h a rg e s h a s s i x o p t i o n s :
( i ) I t can pay th e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r e n g t h c h a rg e to th e a u th o r i t y f o r p u b l i c t r e a tm e n t .
( i i ) I t can a l t e r i t s te c h n o lo g y i n o r d e r to red u c e th e volum es o f w a s te w a te r d i s c h a r g e d .
( i i i ) I t can re d u c e th e s t r e n g t h o f i t s w a s te w a te r to th e r e q u i r e d s t r e n g t h by m easu res a d o p te d e i t h e r a t th e p r o d u c t io n s ta g e o r a f t e r th e p o in t o f w a s te g e n e r a t i o n . Exam ples o f th e se co n d ty p e o f re s p o n s e w ould b e i n - p l a n t t r e a tm e n t , e f f l u e n t r e - u s e o r b y -p ro d u c t p r o d u c t io n ( e . g . th e u se o f w a s te to g e n e ra te e n e r g y ) . I t may c a r r y su ch i n - p l a n t t r e a tm e n t to th e p o in t w here no e f f l u e n t i s d is c h a r g e d i n t o th e se w e r.
( iv ) I t can d i l u t e i t s w a s te w a te r to th e r e q u i r e d s t r e n g th and th u s i n c u r a h ig h e r w a te r b i l l . I f w a te r i s r e l a t i v e l y cheap i n r e l a t i o n to th e sew age s u r c h a r g e , t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e may be p r e f e r r e d .
(v ) I t may i l l e g a l l y d i s c h a r g e i t s l i q u i d w a s te w i th o u t t r e a tm e n t .
( v i ) I t may b e f o rc e d to s h u t down i t s p l a n t .
The p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n was in te n d e d to p r e s e n t an e m p i r ic a l exam ple o f th e com plex c h a rg in g sy s te m f o r sew erage and an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e em erg in g a c t i o n to d e a l w ith a s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t p ro b lem - b o th f o r sew erag e a u t h o r i t i e s and f o r th e
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environment generally - in industrial wastes. Let us consider the general implications of this type of approach.
If we assume that the firm has only two methods by which to reduce its waste load, say by using in-plant treatment and Authority treatment, then one can represent diagramatically the demand for Authority treatment corresponding to different strength charges. Figure 1 shows the marginal net cost of in-plant treatment where Qt represents total liquid waste removal. In terms of profit maximisation for the individual firm, on-site treatment will be carried to the point where benefits equal the marginal costs. If the Authority sets a waste strength charge at Pi, equal to the long run cost of public waste treatment, then the firm would remove Ql of the waste itself and have the Authority’s facilities remove the rest, Qt-Ql* If the surcharge is greater than Pi, the firm will discharge less waste.
Figure 1 Effect of strength charge on industrial waste discharged
Marginal cost of in- plant treatment ($ per lb of B.O.D.)
Qt Waste Volume
The above relationship is a mirror-image of the firm's demand for collective treatment by a sewerage authority. Figure 2 is derived by inverting Figure 1 and aggregating from the firm to the industry level within a city. With a surcharge equal to R,it would pay industry to send to the Authority the
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q u a n t i ty o f w a s te s p e r y e a r i n d i c a t e d by O Tj. I f i n d u s t r y re d u c e s i t s w a s te flo w be low T i , i t w i l l c o s t i t more th a n i t c o s t s to hav e th e A u th o r i ty do th e j o b ; and v ic e v e r s a to th e r i g h t o f T i . A rea B r e p r e s e n t s i n d u s t r y ’ s added c o s ts o f i n - p l a n t rem oval o f w a s te s and a r e a A r e p r e s e n t s th e t o t a l s o c i a l g a in from th e A u th o r i t y ’ s a d o p tio n o f a s u r c h a r g e .
F ig u re 2 I n d u s t r y ’ s demand c u rv e f o r se w e ra g e t re a tm e n t
D o l la r sp e r lbo f B .O .D .
Pounds D isc h a rg e d
I f se w e ra g e s t r e n g t h c h a rg e s do i n f a c t e n c o u ra g e i n - p l a n t w a s te t r e a tm e n t , one im p o r ta n t r e s u l t may be d e c re a s e d w a te r u s e . L ess w a te r w i l l be r e q u i r e d to c a r r y away th e s m a l le r w a s te l o a d s . F o r ex a m p le , th e w a s te t h a t i s removed o n - s i t e can be h a u le d away to a r e g io n a l d i s p o s a l p l a n t r a t h e r th a n u s in g w a te r to t r a n s p o r t i t . 21 (To r e l a t e th e p o in t t o th e Sydney c a s e , a lth o u g h th e B oard was i n f lu e n c e d p r i n a r i l y by th e need to s e e k a d d i t i o n a l rev e n u e to f in a n c e i t s t r e a tm e n t p ro g ram , one s t a t e d o b j e c t iv e o f th e e x c e s s s t r e n g th c h a rg e was t o e n c o u ra g e p r e - t r e a tm e n t by f i r m s . The p r in c i p l e h a s th u s b een e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t th e f i rm s h o u ld b e a r the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r re d u c in g i t s own s t r o n g w a s t e s . )
Two im p l ic a t i o n s o f a d i f f e r e n t i a l p r i c i n g s y s te n may be m e n tio n e d . The f i r s t i s t h a t u n d e r th e q u a n t i t y - q u a l i t y a p p ro a c h , an i n d u s t r y may h av e l im i t e d i n c e n t iv e to re d u c e i t s w a s te lo a d beyond th e s t r e n g t h s ta n d a r d s s e t by th e A u th o r i ty . N e v e r th e le s s , i t r e p r e s e n t s th e l e a s t - c o s t and most f l e x i b l e m ethod o f in d u c in g r a p id re s p o n s e to m eet th e s ta n d a r d s w h ich
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a r e l a i d down. E f f l u e n t c h a rg e s r e d u c e t h e i n c e n t i v e to d e la y w hich i s o f t e n t h e b e s t p o l i c y f o r i n d u s t r y t o a d o p t when t o t a l r e l i a n c e i s p l a c e d upon a s y s te m o f r e g u l a t i o n by e n f o r c e m e n t .
N o tw i th s t a n d in g t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n , t h e s eco n d comment i s t h a t w a s te s t r e n g t h c h a rg e s a r e n o t a co m p le te s u b s t i t u t e f o r r e g u l a t i o n s w h ich m igh t be (and a r e , i n Sydney) im posed upon u n t r e a t a b l e t o x i c w a s te s and o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t a n t s t h a t c a n n o t be h a n d le d c o n v e n ie n t l y a t p u b l i c se w e ra g e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s . R e s t r i c t i v e r e g u l a t i o n s t o p r e v e n t e n t r y o f some w a s t e s must fo rm p a r t o f t h e p r i c i n g s y s te m (a s th e y do i n S y d n e y ) . But i t f o l lo w s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d in g r e s t r a i n t n e e d s t o be p l a c e d t o r e s t r a i n n o t o n ly i l l e g a l dumping i n sew er b u t a l s o i l l e g a l dumping e l s e w h e r e . Sew erage a u t h o r i t i e s n eed th e a c t i v e l e g a l s u p p o r t o f o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n ta l a u t h o r i t i e s i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p ro b lem as a w h o le .
7. CROSS-SUBSIDISATION THROUGH THE SYDNEY BOARD’ S CHANGING ~ SYSTEM “ “
I n t h e c a se o f Sydney i n d u s t r y , t h e s t r e n g t h c h a rg e s do n o t , as y e t a p p e a r t o h av e e x t r a c t e d a l a r g e c o n t r i b u t i o n to w a rd s w a s te d i s p o s a l c o s t s ( s e e T a b le I ) . T ra d e w a s te r e v e n u e ( i . e . t h e v o l u m e t r i c and s t r e n g t h com ponents) r e c e i v e d from i n d u s t r i a l and com m erc ia l u s e r s t o t a l l e d $ 2 .1 0 m i l l i o n i n t h e y e a r i n w hich s t r e n g t h c h a rg e s w ere i n t r o d u c e d . Two y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 9 7 4 /7 5 , th e y amounted to o n ly $2 .3 5 m i l l i o n o r 2 .9 p e r c e n t o f th e B o a r d 's t o t a l s e w e ra g e and d r a i n a g e r e v e n u e . These d i r e c t p a y - f o r - u s e w a s te c h a rg e s c u r r e n t l y r e p r e s e n t a b o u t o n e - f i f t h o f t h e t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n by i n d u s t r y f o r B o a rd - s u p p l i e d w a s te rem oval s e r v i c e s . T h is p r o p o r t i o n may be e x p e c te d to i n c r e a s e as th e s t r e n g t h c h a rg e i s f u l l y p h a s e d i n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n d u s t r i a l paym ents f o r l i q u i d w a s t e d i s p o s a l i n t o t h e B o a r d 's s e r v i c e s c o n s t i t u t e d o n ly 0 .1 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l f a c t o r y t u r n o v e r i n 1972/73 and 0 .3 p e r c e n t o f v a l u e - ad d ed . Such e v id e n c e t e n d s t o s u g g e s t t h a t even a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r i c e o f s ew erag e s e r v i c e s w i l l h av e o n ly a m a r g in a l e f f e c t upon f i r m s ' t o t a l c o s t s .
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T a b le I T o t a l Revenue From T rade W aste C harges
Sewerage D ra in a g e T o t a lC harges
% o f t o t a l s ew erag e
and d r a in a g e re v e n u e
($m) ($m) ($m)
1970-71 0 .9 2 0 .1 2 1 .04 2 .31971-72 1 .4 3 0 .1 7 1 .6 0 2 .61972-73 1 .9 3 0 .2 0 2 .1 3 3 .01973-74 2 .1 3 0 .1 4 2 .2 6 2 .91974-75 2 .2 3 '0 . 1 2 2 .3 5 2 .9
S ou rce M.W.S. and D.B. A nnual R e p o r t s .
W hile one s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e o f t h e sew er s t r e n g t h c h a rg e i s t o e n c o u ra g e t h e o n - s i t e t r e a t m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s , t h e w a t e r p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e may, i n f a c t , b e e n c o u r a g in g t h e c o n t in u e d r e l i a n c e upon a w a t e r - b a s e d t e c h n o lo g y f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f w a s t e s . The Sydney B o a rd , l i k e m ost s i m i l a r a u t h o r i t i e s , c o n t i n u e s t o s u p p ly w a t e r o f d r i n k i n g q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d t o i n d u s t r y . The u se o f t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t as an a l t e r n a t i v e h a s b een c o n s id e r e d b u t t o d a t e l i m i t e d u t i l i s a t i o n has b e e n a c h i e v e d . ^
F u r t h e r e v id e n c e on t h e l i m i t e d i n c e n t i v e t o w a t e r economy and r e - u s e w hich e x i s t s i n t h e B o a r d 's p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e i s p r o v id e d by th e r e v e n u e and c o n su m p tio n f lo w s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s I I and I I I . A t t e n t i o n i s c o n f in e d to t h e r e l a t i v e a d v a n ta g e a c c r u in g t o m a n u f a c tu r in g u s e r s . I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f s u b s id y u se d h e r e i s n o t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l b e tw e en c o s t o f s u p p ly and p r i c e b u t i s s im p ly an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h ich a c t u a l c o n sum ption i s c h a rg e d f o r a t o t h e r th a n th e a v e ra g e im p u ted p r i c e .
I t a p p e a r s from T a b le I I t h a t b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s cont r i b u t e d v e ry much more p e r p r o p e r t y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r w a t e r u s e th a n d id a l l o t h e r consum ers . The main b e n e f i c i a r y was m a n u f a c tu r in g . M a n u fa c tu r in g c u s to m e rs p a i d , on a v e r a g e , ro u g h ly o n e - t h i r d be low t h e a v e ra g e im p u ted p r i c e o f 15 c e n t s p e r 1 ,000 l i t r e s f o r a l l consum ers . Such a s i t u a t i o n i s cons i s t e n t w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t a s t h e m ain consum ers o f e x c e s s w a te i n e a r l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f w a t e r co n su m p tio n by f a c t o r i e s a t t r a c t e d a c h a rg e o f 9 .9 c e n t s p e r 1 ,000 l i t r e s . T h is i s o n ly t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e i m p l i c i t 15 c e n t s p e r 1 ,000 l i t r e s f o r
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a l l consum ers . R e l a t i v e t o o t h e r u s e r s , t h e r e f o r e , manuf a c t u r i n g r e c e i v e d , so f a r as p r i c i n g was c o n c e r n e d , l e a s t in d u cem en t to econom ise on w a t e r u s e .
W hile t h e r e l a t i v e l y h ig h u s e r c h a rg e e le m e n t f o r i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r consum ption d e p r e s s e s t h e t o t a l e f f e c t i v e p r i c e p a i d , i n t h e c a s e o f s e w erag e and d r a in a g e s e r v i c e s , i t was n o t e d t h a t t h e v o l u m e t r i c and s t r e n g t h c h a rg e s rem a in e d o n ly a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n ( a ro u n d 20 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e t o t a l payment by i n d u s t r y . I t a p p e a r s , t h e n , t h a t t h e p r i c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n f a v o u r o f i n d u s t r y a p p e a r s n o t o n ly a t t h e i n p u t end ( w a te r ) b u t a l s o a t t h e o u t p u t end (w a s te ) w here i n 1972/73 o n ly a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n ( a b o u t 2 p e r c e n t ) o f t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l w a s te d i s c h a r g e a t t r a c t e d a v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e . I n s p i t e o f a h i g h a v e ra g e w a s t e - w a t e r d i s c h a r g e r a t i o , t h e i n d u s t r i a l s h a r e o f t o t a l sew erage and d r a in a g e r e v e n u e i s even l e s s th a n i t s p e r c e n ta g e c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e B o a r d 's r e v e n u e from w a t e r s u p p ly .
T a b le I I A l l P r o p e r t i e s : W ate r Revenue and Consum ption Sydney S t a t i s t i c a l D i v i s i o n , 1972 /73
Revenue r bConsum ption R a t io o f S h a re s
R e s i d e n t i a l
($m)
39 .34
(%)
6 5 .0
( m e g a l i t r e s )
2 3 5 ,125
(%>
5 9 .4 1 .09I n d u s t r i a l 7 .02 11.6 78 ,765 19.9 0 .5 8Commercial 10.52 17 .4 5 4 ,6 4 0 13 .8 1 .26O th e r 3.61 6 .0 2 7 ,3 0 4 6 .9 0 .8 7T o ta l 60 .49 100 .0 3 9 5 ,834C 1 00 .0 1 .0 0
Source M.W.S. and D. B. S t a t i s t i c s o f M e te red P r o p e r t i e s1972/73 , and M.W.S. and D.B . A n a ly s i s o fR evenue , 1972 /73 .
N o tes (a ) A verage r a t e paym ents from u n m ete re dp r o p e r t i e s a r e assum ed t o be a b o u t o n e - h a l f th o s e r e c e i v e d from m e te re d p r o p e r t i e s .
(b ) Unm etered u s e r s a r e assum ed t o consume, on a v e r a g e , t h e same amount o f w a t e r as m e te re d u s e r s .
( c ) T h is e s t i m a t e o f t o t a l co n su m p tio n can be com pared to a r e c o r d e d s u p p ly
129
f i g u r e o f 5 1 8 ,5 1 8 m e g a l i t r e s f o r t h e e n t i r e B oard a r e a , o r 4 7 0 ,7 4 3 f o r t h e Sydney R eg ion . A l lo w in g f o r a t l e a s t a 10 p e r c e n t s u p p ly l o s s due to l e a k a g e s and 18 ,000 m e g a l i t r e s f o r se w e r f l u s h i n g , a c o n sum ption f i g u r e f o r Sydney o f a ro u n d 4 0 0 ,000 m e g a l i t r e s i s o b t a i n e d .
T a b le I I I A n a ly s i s o f Sewerage and D ra in a g e R evenue , Sydney R eg io n , 1972/73
R ateRevenue
T rade W aste Charge
T o t a lW aste
Revenue
% o fT o t a l W aste
Revenue
($m) ($m) ($m)
R e s i d e n t i a l 35 .00 - 35 .0 0 5 1 .9I n d u s t r i a l 8 .8 0 1 .75 10 .55 1 5 .7Commercial 17 .71 0 .2 2 17 .9 3 2 6 .6O th e r 3 .79 0 .1 4 3 .9 3 5 .8T o ta l 65 .3 0 2 .1 0 67 .4 1 100 .0
S ource M.W.S. and D.B. P r o p e r t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , A n a ly s i s o f Revenue 197 2 /7 3 .
I n v iew o f t h e h ig h w a s te d i s c h a r g e r a t i o f o r i n d u s t r y , t h e Sydney Board a p p e a r s t o be c h a r g in g s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e lo w th e a v e ra g e s u p p ly p r i c e f o r d i s c h a r g e s e r v i c e s and a c c o r d in g , d e l i b e r a t e l y o r o t h e r w i s e , a r e l a t i v e a d v a n ta g e t o i n d u s t r y . The e q u i t y i s s u e s i m p l i c i t i n t h e s e ty p e s o f p r o c e d u r e s a r e n o t e a sy t o r e s o l v e e i t h e r i n a p h a s i n g - i n p r o c e s s o r i n a ’ f i n a l ’ p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e . Sewerage a u t h o r i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e com m itted t o l a r g e - s c a l e c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e t a s k s , a r e f a c e d w i th a c o n f l i c t o f o b j e c t i v e s . Revenues m ust be r a i s e d t o c o v e r a n t i c i p a t e d c u r r e n t and c a p i t a l com m itm ents; s e r v i c e s m ust be s u s t a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n a l l y e f f i c i e n t form . To t h e s e ’ i n t e r n a l ’ o b j e c t i v e s t h e a c t i o n s o f sew erage a u t h o r i t i e s i n p r i c i n g e xpose them t o r i s k o f c r i t i c i s m i n i n f l u e n c i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o s t s , p r i c e s and r e s o u r c e s b e tw een community g r o u p s , i n a l l e g e d f a i l u r e t o p r o v id e f o r w a s te and o t h e r r e s o u r c e c o n s e r v a t i o n and i n commitment t o l i m i t e d e n v i r o n m e n ta l p r o t e c t i o n t e c h n o lo g y . These c o n f l i c t s o f o b j e c t i v e s
130
a r e n o t e a sy to r e s o l v e i n r e a l t e r m s .
8. PRICING TO FINANCE CAPITAL OUTLAYS
Complem entary t o t h e u se o f p r i c e s a s a demand c o n t r o l i n s t r u ment i s t h e i r f u n c t i o n as a s o u r c e o f r e v e n u e f o r s e r v i c e e x t e n s i o n s and a s a means o f r e c o v e r i n g c o s t s once an i n v e s t ment h a s b e e n made. T here a r e b a s i c a l l y t h r e e t y p e s o f c h a rg e s w h ich c o u ld be em ployed to g e n e r a t e t h e r e v e n u e r e q u i r e d f o r w a s te d i s p o s a l . T hese form s o f c h a rg e s a r e :
(a ) I n i t i a l p r o v i s i o n c h a rg e s s u c h a s d e v e lo p e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s and c o n n e c t io n c h a r g e s . T hese may v a ry w i t h t h e c o s t o f s e r v i c i n g i n d i v i d u a l p r e m is e s and c o u ld r e f l e c t such f a c t o r s as d i s t a n c e from e x i s t i n g p l a n t , d e n s i t y o f h o u s in g and l a n d fo rm c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
(b) Annual s e r v i c e c h a rg e s o r r a t e s . T hese w ould c o v e r t h e b a s i c c o s t s i n v o lv e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g a m in im al l e v e l o f s e r v i c e t o p r e m i s e s .
(c ) U n i t c h a rg e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d from th e q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y , t im in g and p o s s i b l y t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l i e d and th e w a s te rem oved. As n o te d ab o v e , su c h c h a rg e s a r e a s m a l l b u t i n c r e a s i n g e le m e n t i n t h e Sydney B o a rd ’ s r e v e n u e s o u r c e s .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , p r o p e r t y r a t e s and u n i t c h a rg e s h a v e b e e n employed s im p ly t o r e c o v e r t h e c o s t s o f c u r r e n t o p e r a t i o n s ( a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m a in te n a n c e , e t c ) and t o redeem o u t s t a n d i n g d e b t . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , how ever , an i m p r e s s i v e s h i f t to w a rd s l a r g e - s c a l e s e l f - f i n a n c i n g has o c c u r r e d . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e Sydney B o a rd , c u r r e n t s u r p l u s e s and r e s e r v e s f i n a n c e d a lm o s t o n e - h a l f o f new c a p i t a l w orks c o n s t r u c t e d d u r in g t h e e a r l y 1970s.
T here i s some q u e s t i o n as to t h e most m e a n in g fu l way o f m e a s u r in g th e d e g re e o f s e l f - f i n a n c e o f i n v e s t m e n t . One ap p ro a c h w ould b e t o v iew s e l f - f i n a n c e as b e i n g e q u a l t o t h e s u r p l u s on o p e r a t i o n s p l u s p r o v i s i o n s f o r r e n e w a ls ( d e p r e c i a t i o n ) p l u s d e v e lo p e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h i s m ethod y i e l d s a m easu re f o r 1974/75 o f 33 p e r c e n t ( s e e T a b le IV ) .The r a t i o o f 33 p e r c e n t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lo w e r t h a n t h a t o f 52 p e r c e n t f o r 1970/71 and 48 p e r c e n t f o r 1 9 7 3 /74 . C l e a r l y , i n 1974/75 th e Board r e s o r t e d h e a v i l y t o l o a n s i n o r d e r t o
131
T a b l e IV C a p i t a l F i n a n c e A c c o u n t , M.W.S. & D.B. 1970/71 t o 1974/75 ($ m i l l i o n )
’ 70/71 ’ 71/72 ' 7 2 / 7 3 ' 7 3 / 7 4 ' 7 4 / 7 5
C a p i t a l O u t l a y s
F i x e d a s s e t s 84 .6 108.5 131 .0 149.8 182 .8S to c k s - 0 . 6 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 0 . 3 2 . 4
T o t a l 84 .0 108 .8 130 .3 150.1 185.2
F i n a n c i n g
New l o a n s :B o a r d 1s d e b e n t u r e s 17.1 50 .1 41 .1 6 2 .0 9 8 .7N.S.W. Govt . 9 . 8 11 .3 13 .0 14.2 14 .8Commonwealth 10.0 23 .1
G r a n t s :S t a t e and l o c a l
g o v t . 1 .4 1.9 2 . 8 2 .0 2 .2Commonwealth 1.1 9 .9
C o n t r i b u t i o n s f rom d e v e l o p e r s :Cash 4 .4 7 .4 10 .4 10 .3 12 .4I n - k i n d 3.1 1 .7 3 .1 6 .2 5 .5
O p e r a t i n g s u r p l u s 4 5 .4 5 1 .7 5 8 .0 64 .1 75 .0l e s s i n t e r e s t ( n e t ) - 2 7 . 9 - 3 2 . 0 - 3 6 . 1 - 3 9 . 5 - 4 4 . 8
R e s e rv e f u n d s :D e p r e c i a t i o n 18 .0 2 7 . 3 32 .2 30 .5 11.1O t h e r a 0 .5 0 .7 1 .0 0 . 7 1 .4
D e b t o r s / c r e d i t o r s 1.1 3 .7 7 .0 1 .3 1 .2O t h e r funds - 1 . 8 - 4 . 1 - 6 . 3 - 1 . 6 - 0 . 2Cash and i n v e s t m e n t
movement 13. 1 - 1 1 . 0 2 .9 - 1 0 . 1 - 2 5 . 0
T o t a l 84 .2 108.7 130.2 150.1 185 .3
Source M.W.S. & D .B . , Annual R e p o r t s .
a P r o v i s i o n s f o r lo n g s e r v i c e l e a v e e t c .
132
f in a n c e i t s c a p i t a l p rog ram w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g to a m a jo r i n c r e a s e i n r a t e s i n t h e d o l l a r f o r i t s s e r v i c e s .
A n o th e r i n d i c a t o r o f t h e d e g re e o f f i n a n c i n g o f w orks e x p e n d i t u r e from c u r r e n t r e v e n u e i s p r o v id e d by t h e i t e m i n t h e c u r r e n t a c c o u n t , ' p r o v i s i o n f o r r e n e w a ls and o t h e r p u r p o s e s ’ . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s i t e m i s m i s l e a d i n g s i n c e i t com bines t r a n s f e r s t o r e s e r v e s and a c t u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s . The i n c l u s i o n o f ' o t h e r p u r p o s e s ’ a l s o d e f e a t s e x a c t r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . However, a f a i r l y c l o s e a p p ro x im a t io n i s p o s s i b l e .
U sing th e R e s e rv e s and O th e r P u r p o s e s R e s e rv e A c c o u n t , one can d i s a g g r e g a t e t h e t o t a l f i g u r e p r o v id e d i n t h e B o a rd ’ s c u r r e n t a c c o u n t ( s e e T a b le V ) . The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g s u r p l u s i n v e s t e d i n new w orks i s d e r i v e d as a r e s i d u a l s i n c e t h e i t e m ' t r a n s f e r o f funds f o r new w orks c o n s t r u c t i o n ’ a p p e a r in g i n t h e R e s e rv e A ccount a l s o i n c l u d e s t r a n s f e r s from th e re v e n u e a c c o u n t f o r p r e v i o u s y e a r s . A c c o rd in g to t h i s v ie w , t h e d e g re e o f s e l f - f i n a n c i n g f e l l from 35 .1 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l new c o n s t r u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e i n 1971/72 t o a mere 4 .8 p e r c e n t i n 19 7 4 /7 5 .
T a b le V F in a n c in g o f C a p i t a l Works from th e Renewals andO th e r P u rp o s e s R e se rv e Account - 1970/71 to1974/75 ($ m i l l i o n )
'7 0 /7 1 ’ 71/72 ’ 72 /73 '7 3 / 7 4 '7 4 / 7 5
O u t la y on r e p l a c e - ) ment ) 8 .6 8 .5 10 .8 7 .2
O p e r a t in g s u r p l u s )i n v e s t e d i n new )w orks )
13 .8
2 9 .0 2 3 .0 18.6 1 .4
Net i n c r e a s e i n Account 4 .1 - 1 0 .3 1 .0 1.1 2 .8
T r a n s f e r s fromrev e n u e t o Account 18 .0 2 7 .3 32 .2 30 .5 11 .4
S o u rc e : M.W.S. & D .B . , Annual R e p o r t s .
In s h o r t , t h e B o a r d 's a c c o u n t in g p r e s e n t a t i o n c o n fu s e s t r a n s f e r s to i n t e r n a l r e s e r v e s w i t h a c t u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s and m ixes c a p i t a l w i t h c u r r e n t o u t l a y s , and th u s o b s c u r e s t h e r o l e p la y e d by r a t e s and c h a rg e s i n f i n a n c i n g new w o rk s .
133
9. THE PROFILE OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON SEWER WASTE DISPOSAL IN SYDNEY
Any piped sewerage system is, of course, characterised by a high degree of capital intensity. It was proposed by the Sydney Board in 1969 that over the following decade some 53 per cent of its total capital investment would be absorbed by sewerage works, as compared with 44 per cent during the mid 1960s. xn fact, sewerage construction is now accounting for just over 60 per cent of new works expenditure. In its 10 year program, the Board had also intended to give higher priority to the treatment of sewerage than had hitherto been the case. However, sewer mainlaying continues to outstrip treatment; over the period 1972-75 trunks and reticulation took two-thirds of total works expenditure on sewerage.The tendency to concentrate effort on mainlaying rather than
treatment might be explained by the Board's commitment to remove, where feasible, the existing backlog of unsewered residential properties. At the same time, delays in prescribing standards for inland and ocean waters have allowed the Board to defer its treatment program without violating water quality standards. In pursuing the backlog objective, the Board's efforts have received an impetus since 1973/74 by the provision of financial assistance from the Commonwealth Government. Most of the Commonwealth money has been expended on sewer mains and reticulation (see paper by M. Buchanan).
If, as Neutze suggests, 'the power to influence the course of urban development is proportional to the funds available to the authority concerned'24 then the M.W.S. and D.B. can be, potentially, a powerful agency in the urban planning process. Water supply and sewerage provision can impose a significant constraint upon the pattern, extent and phasing of metropolitan development. Land served with a public sewerage disposal system can generally support a higher density of settlement than land without such a facility. Population densities in septic tank communities are limited by health disbenefits. It has been suggested that by adopting a lease cost approach to its investment planning, the Board has paid insufficient attention to the effect which the availability of its services can exert upon location decisions.25 To retain maximum flexibility, servicing authorities have sometimes left the announcement of definite investment plans as late as possible.
The Board's services, moreover, are a significant element in land costs. It has been estimated that sewerage disposal accounts for about one-quarter of the servicing cost of new
134
Graph 1: Expenditure on New Capital Works, M.W.S. & D. Board, 1965/661974/75 ($m. current prices)
Sewerage
Water
Drainage
74-7573-7472-7371-7268-69 69-70 70-711965-66 66-67 67-68
$m.Graph 2: Capital Expenditure on Major Sewerage Facilities, by Type, 1967/68
1974/75 ($m. current prices)
Mainlaying
Treatment works
“Pumping stations and rising mains74-7573-7472-7370-71 71-7269-701967-68 68-69
135
la n d i n th e o u t e r a r e a s ,of Sydney (M.W.S. & D.B. p r i v . comm. ) . These c o s t s r e l a t e to low d e n s i ty d e ta c h e d d w e llin g b lo c k s and e x c lu d e h e a d w o rk s , i n t e r e s t and s t r e e t l i g h t i n g . More r e c e n t e s t im a te s show th e t o t a l s e r v i c in g c o s t f o r sew erag e to be a t l e a s t $ 2 ,0 0 0 p e r d w e ll in g in c la y - b a s e d a r e a s . The c o s t breakdow n p e r l o t i s as f o l l o w s . °
T runk ( c a r r i e r s and pum ping s t a t i o n s ) R e t i c u l a t i o nT re a tm e n t Works ( c a p i t a l c o s t )
$ 400$ 1,000 $ 400-600
T hese c o s t s w i l l c o n d i t io n f u tu r e c a p i t a l e x p e n d i tu r e s on sew erag e p r o v is io n and may e n c o u ra g e th e a d o p tio n o f o th e r s e r v i c e c h a rg e s , e .g . f o r c o n n e c t in g up b a c k lo g p re m is e s .
S in c e w a te r s u p p ly and sew erage s e r v i c e s in v o lv e such l a r g e in v e s tm e n ts com m itted to p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e r e l e v a n t a u t h o r i t y e s t im a te th e l o c a t io n o f f u tu r e ch an g es in demand f o r th e s e s e r v i c e s . An im p o r ta n t p a r t o f t h i s p la n n in g p r o c e s s in v o lv e s th e e s t im a t io n o f th e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n d - u s e ch an g es on th e demand f o r th e p a r t i c u l a r s e r v i c e . The Sydney W ater B oard h a s q u o te d some f ig u r e s on u se o f w a te r by d i f f e r e n t form s o f h o u s in g . ^ H ow ever, i t was n e c e s s a r y f o r them to c a r r y o u t some q u i t e e x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h to make e s t im a te s o f th e i m p l ic a t i o n s f o r w a te r and sew erag e f a c i l i t i e s to re d e v e lo p m e n t i n in n e r Sydney. T h is te n d s to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e c o n t in u in g a n a ly s i s o f w a te r u se d and w a s te g e n e ra te d by d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f p re m is e s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s p r e s e n te d above m ere ly r e p r e s e n t a f i r s t - and v e ry a p p ro x im a te - s t e p . I t w ould be h e lp f u l i f th e B oard w ere to p u b l is h m ore demand and c o s t d a ta th a n i s p r e s e n t ly a v a i l a b l e i n i t s A nnual R e p o r ts .
10. SUB-DIVIDERS AND DEVELOPERS1 CONTRIBUTIONS
In a d d i t io n to p r o p e r ty r a t e s and u s e r c h a r g e s , m ost sew erage a u t h o r i t i e s now le v y an i n i t i a l p r o v is io n c h a rg e f o r th e e x te n s io n o f w a te r and sew erag e f a c i l i t i e s to new s u b - d iv i s io n s A p a rt from t h e i r f i n a n c i a l im p l i c a t i o n s , t h e s e c h a rg e s have had an im p o r ta n t e f f e c t on th e l o c a t io n o f d e v e lo p m en t. The mode o f d e v e lo p e r c h a rg e s can ta k e th e fo l lo w in g a l t e r n a t i v e fo rm s :
( i ) A o n e - tim e c a sh paym ent may b e made to th e a p p r o p r ia t e s e r v i c in g a u t h o r i t y a t th e tim e o f d ev e lo p m en t. The c o n t r i b u t io n may be a f ix e d sum o r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o rd in g to
136
location and/or size of the area or load involved.(ii) The servicing authority may require an advance from
the developer, the timing and extent of repayment of which depends upon the rate of subsequent development of the land.
(iii) There may be developer provision of the service and dedication to the servicing authority. This mode of payment involves the developer undertaking to install infrastructure to agreed specifications. The facilities are then turned over to the servicing authority at zero (or nominal) cost who subsequently operates and maintains them.
In the case of the Sydney Board, the mode of contribution has taken the last two forms. For service extensions into new areas, the initial developer is charged the total cost by way of an interest-free repayable loan. The developer is then reimbursed in part out of the contributions received from subsequent developers. While the Sydney Board charges for reticulation at full cost to the developer in residential sub-divisions, it incurs a loss in the provision of headworks arguing that sub-division should not be discouraged. The extent of this undercharging of full capital costs in several Sydney municipalities is indicated in Table VI.Table VI Average Servicing Charges and Costs, Outer Sydney
Localgovernment
areaCharge per lot 1973/74
Servicing cost per lot
1973/74Proposedcharge1974/75
$ $ $Campbelltown 250 438 330Fairfield (average) 250 450 322Liverpool (average) 362 832 461Sutherland 475 1,405 600
Source M.W.S. and D.B., private communication.
In contrast, the 'area contribution' required for headworks by the Melbourne Board of Works is an explicit uniform charge. It can be viewed as a lump sum payment since it is invariant with respect to the location or nature of the site being developed. The costs of installing reticulation works are also probably known within a reasonable order of magnitude.
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The Sydney Board’s developer contribution requirements predate those of the Melbourne Board. In 1961 the Sydney Board required sub-dividers and developers to contribute, on a voluntary basis, a share of the cost of amplification or extension of water and sewer mains in new sub-divisions.28 In addition, sub-dividers were to finance all reticulation costs. There was no provision that owners in adjoining areas who would benefit from these works would be required to share in the costs. The resultant administrative difficulties caused many delays in land releases and sewerage provision.Part of the difficulty was overcome through amendments to
the Local Government Act and M.W.S. and D. Act gazetted in- 1964. These amendments gave statutory support to the policy of requiring developers to meet the cost of water and sewerage services in new sub-divisions and required that a proposed sub-division would not be approved until either or both of the Board’s services had been supplied. Sections 34(A) and (B) of the M.W.S. and D. Act introduced in these amendments also gave the Water Board power to recover contributions towards the cost of construction of main and ancillary works from the owners of the land who will be, in the opinion of the Board, capable of being served by these works. Similarly, where drainage has to be provided owners must agree on a sharing of the costs before actual development takes place.One result of such charges, given that they reflect a
significant proportion of the service costs involved, is that they may act to discourage sub-division in areas very expensive to service and may also restrict the scattered division of land far in advance of demand. Given a situation where sewerage authorities have experienced difficulty in meeting the level of demand for their services with the funds available, the introduction of the developer contribution policy has allowed the market mechanism to dictate, to a greater extent, the rate and location of urban development. It has become costly for developers to withhold scattered parcels of land from sale until subsequent development in the area increased their prices.The contributions are also important as a source of revenue
insofar as they reduce the burden imposed on existing ratepayers by the servicing of new sub-divisions. They save the authorities involved from having to raise loans to cover the connection costs. In 1974/75, for example, sub-dividers and developers’ contributions contributed 13.2 per cent of the cost of new sewer mainlaying in Sydney, as compared with 10.5 per cent in 1968/69 (see Table VII).
138
'able VII Operation of Developer Contribution Policy in Sydney, 1962-75
Total Value
of Work
CashContribu
tions
Reimbursement for previous
work done
No. of
WaterLots Served
Sewerage
($m) ($m) ($m)L961/62 2.5 2.5 12,172 3,017L965/66 3.6 3.6 11,242 4,364L968/69 5.9 2.6 12,993 7,6191969/70 5.8 2.6 11,089 6,7751970/71 6.7 3.5 9,631 6,8321971/72 9.9 5.8 0.6 13,515 8,8791972/73 15.7 6.8 3.4 17,694 12,0391973/74 13.6 5.6 2.4 14,169 9,6191974/75 15.2 6.3 3.9 11,934 8,894
Source M.W.S. and D.B. Annual Reports.However, the practice of charging developers for an
increasing share of total servicing costs has had some undesirable side-effects. In the first place, it is argued that they will be passed on to the final home purchaser. Certainly this may tend to occur in a buoyant market situation when developers can delay sub-division until the land appreciates enough to cover this fixed tax.29 Conversely, when the market is depressed, the developers' contributions are more likely to be taken from the developers' profit margins or passed back as a lower price for unserviced land.In any case, one Board officer may be accused of unwarranted optimism when he stated that 'the aim is to create conditions in which land developers can make the financial contributions required for water and sewerage without adding to the market price of the end product'.30
A second problem to arise from large developers' contributions has been the alleged inequitable burdens placed on those householders who purchased their homes after the introduction of the policy. These householders have paid almost the full cost of their connection of the systems, whereas established homeowners (and, incidentally, the beneficiaries under sewer backlog programs) did not bear these
139
Olcosts. A However, this difficulty could be removed by the simple device of having a differential rate for properties where all reticulation costs have already been paid in full by developers.Despite these disadvantages, the developer contribution
policy has probably acted to arrest any further deterioration in the reticulation backlog in new areas and has helped to finance headworks. (It might also be desirable for the Board to make sewerage provision compulsory in all new sub-divisions) By contributing to a more orderly pattern of urban growth, the policy has also tended to check further aggravation of the sullage problem arising from unsewered premises. The Board is now extending its services on an area basis and appears to be coordinating its activities more effectively with land releases by the Planning and Environment Commission.^
11. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
This paper has reviewed some of the criteria underlying the Sydney Water Board’s approach to the pricing of its services.In particular, attention has been devoted to the Board's commitment to pollution control through the pricing mechanism. Whilst recognising that sewerage authorities must face a conflict of objectives which are not easy to resolve, it does appear that the Sydney Board is heavily committed to an officially preferred technology. Its effluent controls are oriented more toward protecting its facilities and the safety of workmen rather than preventing the degradation of waterways and encouraging on-site treatment of industrial wastes.The policy of providing plentiful supplies of water at low
prices for excess usage has acted to encourage the use of water as a waste disposal medium. Alternative disposal mechanisms (e.g. vacuum suction or dual piping) have not received the attention they deserve. One consequence of the Board's technological/engineering 'fix' is that it is faced with the greatly increased cost of treating all wastewater up to the standards currently demanded for discharges into receiving waters. Coupled with volumetric charges for both water and waste flows, which are low even in relation to historic costs, the present rate assessment method penalises small waste generators and premises in highly valued locations, while it tends to favour large waste dischargers. In the absence of detailed cost data, however, it is not possible to
140
go beyond this conclusion.Despite these and other inequities, the Board1s pricing
structure now reflects, to a greater extent than ever before, the direct use of its services. The levy upon developers is a location-specific charge which is related - though not uniformly - to the cost of installation of the service. Similarly, the trade waste strength charge is ultimately designed to reflect a large part of the costs or damages imposed by industrial and commercial generators. However, as both effluent and water quality standards are reviewed, the Board may have to face up to its responsibility to discourage the acceptance of most high strength wastes and to promote the development of alternative means of treatment and disposal by the generators themselves.
141
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142
F o o tn o te s
E .J J . W ä ld e r, ’W ater S upp ly and Sew erage i n an E xpand ing M e t i r o p o l i s ' , P u b l ic A d m in i s t r a t i o n , V o l. 2 8 , No. 2 /3 , J u n a e -S e p te m b e r , 1969.
E .H J. H a s k e l l and V .S . P r i c e , S t a t e E n v iro n m e n ta l M anage- roentit, Case S tu d ie s o f N ine S t a t e s , P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s ,New i Y o rk , 1973, p . 243 .
N.A a. B r o d ie , 'Sew age T re a tm e n t and D is p o s a l P r o p o s a ls f o r Sydiiney* , Symposium on W ater P o l l u t i o n and th e E n v iro n m e n t, U n i w e r s i t y o f N.S.W . , May 1974, p . 7.
C o n n fe ren ce o f E n g in e e r s R e p re s e n t in g A u t h o r i t i e s C o n t r o l l in g ; W ater S upply and Sew erage U n d e r ta k in g s S e rv in g th e C i tx ie s and Towns o f A u s t r a l i a , 1 5 th C o n fe re n c e , 1971, p . :3 9 0 .
I b i i d . , p . 386.
D u rr in g 1973 some 611 n o t i c e s w ere i s s u e d by th e W .P .C .B . to <a p p ro x im a te ly 300 i n d u s t r i e s w i th th e u l t i m a t e aim o f f o r r c i n g them to r e c y c le t h e i r w a s te s o r t o p r e t r e a t and c o n n n e c t to th e s e w e r.
C o u u n c il on E n v iro n m e n ta l Q u a l i t y , 5 th A nnual R e p o r t , E n v v iro n m e n ta l Q u a l i t y , U .S . G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W asb h in g to n , 1974, p . 140.
S . J J . M ushkin ( e d . ) , P u b l ic P r i c e s f o r P u b l ic P r o d u c t s ,The* U rban I n s t i t u t e , W a sh in g to n , 1972 , p p . 4 5 -4 6 .
R ep p o rt o f th e R oyal Com m ission o f E n q u iry i n t o R a t in g , V a l lu a t io n and L o c a l G overnm ent F in a n c e , by E l s e - M i t c h e l l , H a v v ila n d and L uke, G overnm ent P r i n t e r , N .S .W ., 1967, and T r a a n s c r ip t o f E v id e n c e , 1 9 6 5 -6 6 , p . 966 .
G.DD. M cColl ( 'T h e Need f o r E f f i c i e n t W ater R eso u rce M an n ag em en t', P ro c . Symposium on P u b l ic H e a l th and E n v v iro n m e n ta l A sp e c ts o f W ater R eso u rce M anagem ent, W o lllo n g o n g U n iv e r s i ty C o l le g e , J u ly 1973) c o n te n d s t h a t th e e e x t r a c o s t s o f p r o v id in g w a te r f o r f i r e - f i g h t i n g p u r rp o s e s s h o u ld be c o l l e c t e d th ro u g h in s u r a n c e prem ium s r a t t h e r th a n th e w a te r r a t e .
T h a a t i s , th e a s s o c i a t e d s e r v i c e s c a n n o t b e w i th h e ld from th o o s e consum ers who do n o t p a y . Once a u n i t o f s e r v i c e i s made a v a i l a b l e t o one i n d i v i d u a l , i t m ust b e made a v a a i l a b l e to a l l i n d i v i d u a l s .
143
12 The c o n t r ib u t io n o f sew erage r a t e s to th e t o t a l revenue to th e Board was 49 p e r c e n t in 1973 /74 , as compared w ith 62 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l c a p i t a l e x p e n d itu re which new sew erage works few abso rb (M e tro p o li ta n W ater, Sewerage and D rainage Board Annual R e p o r t , 1974).
13 The v o lu m e tr ic charge was in tro d u c e d in 1942 when a su rvey e s tim a te d th a t t r a d e w aste amounted to 17 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l sew erage flo w . I t was th e n f e l t t h a t e x c e ss iv e d is c h a rg e s ' r i g h t l y in v o lv e d some f u r th e r charge and th a t th e charge w ould encourage in d u s try to econom ise on th e u se by i n s t a l l i n g r e c i r c u l a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s ' (M e tro p o lita n W ater, Sewerage and D rainage B oard , Sydney, I n t e r s t a t e C onference o f A d m in is tra tiv e O f f ic e r s , O ctober 1950, p . 1 ). The Board a ls o argued t h a t ’ th e pu rp o se o f th e charge was n o t to o b ta in a d d i t io n a l revenue b u t to p ro v id e a more e q u i ta b le d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e c o s t o f th e sew erage system betw een dom estic and i n d u s t r i a l u s e r s ' ( I b id , p. 2 ) . The e f f ic a c y o f th e v o lu m e tr ic ch arg e was l im i te d by th e d e c is io n to im pose a ch arg e (5q p e r 1,000 g a llo n s ) t h a t d id n o t co v er th e f u l l c o s t o f d is p o s a l . Thus, th e dom estic r a te p a y e r c o n tin u e d , in p a r t , to s u b s id is e th e i n d u s t r i a l d is c h a rg e r .
14 E. P ie rc e and B. P a rk e s , 'T he C o n tro l and T reatm ent o f T rade W astes in Sewerage S y s te m s ', R epo rt on V is i t to E urope, South A f r ic a and S in g a p o re , 1970, p . 10.
15 E. P ie rc e and C. R alph , 'P r i n c i p l e s and P r a c t ic e s R e la tin g to th e A cceptance o f I n d u s t r i a l W astes in th e B o ard 's S y s te m s ', I n d u s t r i a l W aste W ater, A Symposium on R ecent D evelopm ents, U n iv e rs i ty o f N .S .W ., 1972, p . 16.
16 A ccord ing to th e B oard, th e s t r e n g th charge re p re se n te d'a p a r t i a l r e la x a t io n o f th e s ta n d a rd s w hich had p re v io u s ly a p p l ie d ' ( I b id , p . 12 ). In f a c t , th e s e s ta n d a rd s had been b reach ed c o n t in u a l ly b e fo re 1972.
17 C onference o f E n g in e e rs . . . . 1969, op. c i t . , p . 68.
18 In f a c t , i t ap p ea rs t h a t th e ex ce ss i n d u s t r i a l flow s te n d e d , betw een 1943 and 1960, to s h i f t tow ards d isc h a rg e s in to s to rm w ater d r a in s . The revenue from excess charges f o r w astes d isc h a rg e d to th e sew er ro s e to about 3. 7 tim es t h e i r 1943 l e v e l and from d ra in a g e to abou t 6 .5 tim es th e 1943 l e v e l . I t would be w orth e x p lo r in g to determ ine w hether t h i s s h i f t a ro s e from th e movement o f f a c to r ie s to l e s s f u l l y sew ered a r e a s , o r w h eth er th e in t ro d u c t io n o f
144
t r a d e w a s te c h a rg e s p r o v id e d a p o s i t i v e i n c e n t i v e f o r f i r m s to d i s c h a r g e i n t o d r a i n s . The v o l u m e t r i c c h a rg e f o r t h e d i s c h a r g e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s te s t o s to rm w a te r c h a n n e ls h a s been c o n s i s t e n t l y l e s s th a n t h a t f o r s e w e r s , a l t h o u g h i n t h e c a s e o f d i s c h a r g e s t o s to rm w a te r c h a n n e l s , no ’ f r e e ' a l lo w a n c e i s g iv e n .
19 E. P i e r c e and C. R a lp h , 1972, op. c i t . , p. 15.
20 I b i d . , p . 2.
21 O v erseas e x p e r i e n c e v a l i d a t e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f u s e r c h a rg e s im posed on d i s c h a r g e s o f i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t s t o m u n ic ip a l sew erage s y s te m s . In a s tu d y o f 34 U.S. c i t i e s t h a t im pose sew erage s u r c h a r g e s , E l l i o t t found t h a t s u r c h a r g e s do c a u se a r e d u c t i o n i n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s . He a l s o found t h a t s u r c h a r g e s c a u se a r e d u c t i o n i n th e i n d u s t r i a l u se o f w a t e r . (R.D. E l l i o t t , ’Economic S tudy o f t h e E f f e c t o f M u n ic ip a l Sewer S u rc h a rg e s on I n d u s t r i a l W astes and W ater U s a g e ' , W ater R e so u rce s R e s e a r c h ,O c to b e r 1973, p . 1130 .)
22 N.A. B r o d i e , 1974, op . c i t .
23 M .J. F ly n n , E v id e n ce t o S e n a te S e l e c t Committee on W ater P o l l u t i o n , Government P r i n t e r o f A u s t r a l i a , C a n b e r ra ,1969, V ol. 8.
24 G.M. N e u tz e , 'T he P r o c e s s o f Urban D e v e lo p m e n t ' , i n A n a ly s i s o f Urban D eve lopm en t, P r o c . The Tewksbury Symposium, U n i v e r s i t y o f M e lb o u rn e , 1970.
25 I b i d .
26 M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e B oard , p r i v a t e c o m m un ica t ion .
27 N.M. D unlop , ' E f f e c t s on S y d n e y 's W a te r , Sewerage and D ra in a g e S y s t e m s ' , i n T ro y , P .N . ( e d . ) , Urban R edeve lopment i n A u s t r a l i a , R e se a rc h S choo l o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , A u s t r a l i a n N a t io n a l U n i v e r s i t y , C a n b e r ra , 1967.
28 T h i s now i n c l u d e s t h e c o s t o f pumping s t a t i o n s and s u b - m ain s b u t n o t t r e a t m e n t w o rk s .
29 C o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e now r e q u i r e d f o r w a t e r and sew erage s e r v i c e s when th e l a n d i s a c t u a l l y r e l e a s e d r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e tim e t h a t e l a p s e s b e tw e en when t h e la n d i s r e l e a s e d and when s u b - d i v i s i o n a c t u a l l y t a k e s p l a c e .
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Botany Bay Project Series editor: N.G. Butlin
ReportsNo. 1 N.G. Butlin (ed.)
Sydney's environmental amenity 1970-19752 N.G. Butlin (ed.)
Factory waste potential in Sydney3 N.G. Butlin (ed.)
The impact of Port Botany in preparation
4 N.G. Butlin (ed.) Sydney's water bodies
5 People, health and environment in Sydney6 Sydney's environmental policy 1870-1970
Working papersNo. 1 Pamela Coward
Environmental law in Sydney2 C. Joy, W. Hickson and M. Buchanan
Liquid waste management3 W. Ryder
Air pollution control
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