2 Civilisation, Early Land Use Development and Trade · cheap small versatile vehicle for handling produce and tools of the trade. Whereas other car makers employed craftsmanship,

The development of transport and changing

attitudes

C.M. Peters

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Portsmouth,

Portsmouth, UK

Abstract

The development of transport is inextricably linked to the general developmentof civilisation as we understand it today, and this paper examines theseconnections through a review of the development of transport. The reviewspecifically investigates transport with regard to trade, land-use, the developmentof the car and the transport infrastructure and their impact on the environment.

1 Introduction

The Twentieth Century: in 1916 Henri Dieterding^ of Royal Dutch Shellanticipated 'A Century of Travel \ in 1973 Galbraith^ identified 'An Age ofUncertainty', in 1992 Yergin described 'The Century of Oil', more recentlyHobsbawm^ reflected upon 'An Age of Extremes'. The twentieth century hasindeed been all of these. The quest for travel and the power to do it hasdominated the century. The results of this appear to be bringing the world of the21st century to the brink of possible destruction, but in a very different way tothe military threat at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Whether the current environmental debate is seen as exaggerated by massmedia and vociferous minorities or as a problem of truly global proportions, therecan be little doubt that despite all the widespread efforts the overall pollutionproblems are getting worse, and calls for action are quite justified.

This paper presents a personal view of the development of travel andtransport with respect to the political, economic, social and cultural changes ofmodern civilisation from before the industrial revolution to the present time.

Transactions on the Built Environment vol 16, © 1995 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3509

156 Urban Transport and the Environment

2 Civilisation, Early Land Use Development and Trade

Ever since the beginning of civilisation mankind has learned to take advantageof his environment by changing or modifying its use to develop its potential. Theearly stages of civilisation entailed the transformation from a 'hunter-gatherer'lifestyle to a nomadic and then settled existence. Bronowski^ identifies that"early nomadic peoples would have needed to follow the natural migration ofwild herds - but that sheep and goats (the first animals to be domesticated) haveno natural migrations". He thus suggests that "when man domesticated theanimals he assumed the responsibility of nature for them". This would imply thatit is important how society transports and cares for its domestic animals. Earlydevelopment of agriculture in some areas was also accompanied with mineral andtimber development.

As populations became more settled and less warlike their numbers grew,villages grew to towns and towns developed to cities. This settled form ofexistence also encouraged the development of specialisation skills (e.g theblacksmith, carpenter), so that individual households would be no longerindependent and self sufficient but more inter-dependent upon each other.

Towards the end of the dark ages of European history (circa 1300-1400)there emerged two main centres of industry and trade. To the south were theMediterranean ports and city states (dominated by Barcelona, Genoa and Venice)- and in Northern Europe the Hanseatic League, dominated by Lubeck, Hamburgand Cologne . Both these trading centres reached out to much of the then knownworld, but there also existed considerable north-south trade between the twoareas. In 1453 the fall of Constantinople (now Istanbul) to the Ottoman Empireeffectively closed off access to the east for the Mediterranean city states. Thisstimulated the western Europeans (particularly Spain and Portugal) to investigatealternative routes to the east. It was mainly those countries with an Atlanticseaboard which had developed the larger ships capable of venturing across thedeep oceans. As history records the Americas were discovered in 1492, andfollowing the circumnavigation of the world, thereafter the main trade routeswere to be east-west rather than north-south.

In Great Britain through the first phase of the industrial revolution (1760-1870), the location of industry revolved around location of natural resources, forexample textile mills were located near water power, with housing constructedlocally by mill owners and the population moved in. The canals were the primemovers of both raw materials 'in' and the shipment of manufactured goods 'out'to towns and ports for sale and export. At this time overseas interests byEuropeans was more a trading and missionary venture.

As the industrial revolution spread across western Europe towards the eastand to North America it brought dramatic land-use changes together with manyinvestment and employment opportunities. Clearly there was a general tacitacceptance to this industrial development. After some two hundred years, and atthe peak of industrial output of the 1960s-1970s it was inconceivable to thoseinvolved that the sunset of many of these traditional industries was to be just twodecades away.


Urban Transport and the Environment 157

3 Trade and Transport

The opportunities for our forebears to travel were obviously much less thantoday, however in reality the extent of travel in medieval times is generallyunderestimated. England in the middle ages had many markets and fairs - peoplewould often travel 10 to 20 miles to take their goods to market . Both water andland transport were extensively used. England had many navigable rivers whichwere used for travel (and unlike on mainland Europe travellers were not deterredby tolls), but the use of weirs to control water levels did hinder navigation.

In the fifteenth century most roads were merely tracks over the existingground, it was not until the seventeenth century that the designated turnpikeroutes appeared, and the properly constructed roads by Engineers came a centurylater. It was particularly during the rainy season that carts became bogged downand travelling between towns was particularly hazardous.

The key point about transport and trade prior to the twentieth century was

the load carrying capacities of the horse :-One horse could carry up to 150 kg on pannier or 2 tonnes by cartA horse drawn canal barge could carry 100 tonnes (or more)A coastal ship (of the day) would carry 300-400 tonnesThe major factors which would affect trade through the transport

developments of the industrial revolution were:-changes in cost and speed of travel and extensions of marketsFollowing the opening of Bridgewater's canal (Worsley to Manchester)

in 1761 the cost per tonne of transporting coal was reduced from £2 (by road) to

30 pence (by canal) .With regard to the transportation of bulk goods of low value (coal, ores, clay etc)where the transport costs are a significant portion of the overall commodity costs

- then cost of transport is vital.For the transportation of high value goods (e.g silks, gemstones, woollens) wherethe transport costs are relatively low - then speed of transport is vital.

It is significant to note that the steam railways introduced in the earlynineteenth century were able to cater for both high value and low value goods,and that up until that time all land transport was relatively very expensive.

4 The Era of Motor Transport and the New Century

The machine that is most commonly acknowledged as the first motor caris the Benz three-wheeler built in 1883. This was far from the earliest attempt ata form of mechanised road transport; in the nineteenth century many steam drivenroad vehicles were demonstrated *" - but they tended to be big and cumbersome,noisy and emitted clouds of black smoke. The Benz machine was much morecompact but still had all the other liabilities. However the single factor whichgave it distinct advantage that was to maintain its dominance throughindependent use, was the power source: a compact liquid fuel which to this day(bar nuclear fuels) contains more energy per unit mass than any alternative, andit did not require a large copper boiler or a concrete jacket!



As these contraptions were noisy, slow, unreliable and emitted clouds ofnoxious fumes it was difficult to see how they would catch on. They werehowever the playthings of the wealthy and as such over the next two decadesgradual improvements were made, not the least of which was the invention of thepneumatic tyre patented by Dunlop in 1888 . This allowed for improvedsuspensions which gave a much more comfortable ride and allowed higherspeeds, (but not in the UK as higher speeds were illegal ), this in turn gaveadded impetus to further improvements and developments.

Early in the new century two significant events were to happen - a warstarted in Europe in 1914 and Henry Ford was building cars for a new generationof farmers in the USA.

The war swept away or changed the old European Imperial dynastieswhich allowed a greater prosperity for the masses and Ford showed how to makecheaper cars for ordinary people. However the political changes were not fullyeffected until after the Great Depression and World War Two . But by the endof 1945 there was a more determined spirit to build a better future - this time forboth vanquished and victor. There was a real spirit of freedom, and in all thechaos of war torn Europe nothing epitomised this freedom more than the freedomof the open road- which was to be especially significant in western Europe andNorth America. This was consistent with the Great American Dream - justifiedon the premise that there were unlimited resources and opportunities for all whowere prepared to work hard - but no free lunch!

5 The Development of the Motor Vehicle

Cars built at the turn of the century were hand made and very expensive. Fordfirst set up his company in 1903 and he saw that American farmers needed acheap small versatile vehicle for handling produce and tools of the trade.Whereas other car makers employed craftsmanship, Ford's innovation wassystems engineering 'know-how' - he used interchangeable parts (known asarmoury practice ) assembled on a conveyor belt system by interchangeableworkers. The main significance was that the company were able to use themoving conveyor belt system to set the pace of the workers. The origins ofarmoury practice were in early nineteenth century government small armsfactories * (possibly France), it was used extensively by Eli Whitney in theUSA<"> and also known as the American System*™*. It is worth noting that Fordis often attributed, quite wrongly, as being the inventor of mass production.Adam Smith described mass production in 1776 and the process is also clearlyillustrated in Diderot's Encyclopedie of the same period^

The significance of Ford's contribution was the simplicity of the partsand his use of the moving conveyor to set the pace of work. Between 1908 and1927 he produced 15 million 'Model-T's, a car for the masses, and over thatperiod he reduced the construction time to one tenth and the price by 2/3rdswhilst doubling the wages of the workers *. Pursell reports a 40-fold increasein production between 1909 to 1916 with a price reduction from $950 to $360.



A further significance of his contribution was that his cars were ruggedly built(essential as there were few good roads outside the towns) and were easilymaintained (most essential for the remote 'DIY' farmers).

The early development of the motor car led to improved (morecomfortable and weatherproof) vehicles with more powerful engines. In Europethe 1920s and 1930s probably represent the peak 'ftm' element of motoring as anovelty for the affluent, 3-litre Bentleys, Bugatti's, Brooklands and rallying toMonte Carlo. Air pollution and noise problems were still not regarded as aserious problem as over here the motoring public were still a minority.

In the USA in the 1930s and 1940s car ownership widened and massmanufacturers produced more useable and refined vehicles. Ford's 'Model-T'was not too different from the original vehicles of the 1890s. However by the1940s the American sedan bore much more resemblance to the modern dayvehicle with flared-in wings which formed part of a 'unitary' car body. Thesevehicles also gained substantial improvements to the mechanical featuresparticularly regarding engine, suspension and brakes, all of which led to greaterreliability and performance. This performance was especially enhanced becauseof the gradual use of larger engines (particularly in Europe) whereas N.Americahad always tended to use large' engines, as fuel consumption was of littleconsequence. The typical production/a/w/7y cars reached their largest size duringthe late 1960s (limousines had always been large!). The next major re-thinkoccurred after the 1973 Oil Crisis when oil supplies to the west were interruptedand the crude oil prices increased four fold™. This led to a general trend backtowards smaller cars, including a smaller family vehicle.

Following this greater awareness of the fuel costs of private motoring the1980-1990s would bring even greater awareness of other, hitherto unseen, costsin terms of pollution and damage to the environment. The consequence of thiswas that manufacturers' attention were directed to producing less pollutingvehicles with the introduction of unleaded petrol, catalytic converters and afurther general trend towards smaller vehicles. Engine design was to be moreimportant with emphasis on better fuel economy with less pollution gases. Butthe unique power/weight ratio advantage of gasoline (as identified in 1880's) isyet to be outperformed by any alternative power source.

However one significant change in the political arena was that in theUnited States' tough legislation against polluting vehicles is now forcing the paceof development and research; rather than the traditional approach ofopportunistic, or 'by chance' new technological developments preceding andthus allowing suitable changes in legislation.

Over the years vehicle design has also improved safety, particularly forvehicle occupants, however the current rising popularity of'off-road' vehicles inthe UK presents a greater risk to pedestrians, as well as concern for thecountryside through inappropriate use. It is only now that safety consciousnessfeatures much more widely in car sales promotions; but performance and style arestill often regarded as very significant. For many young and upwardly mobilepeople the motor car is a very important outward appearance status symbol. Ever



since the motor car was generally available to ordinary households then everyonehas either wanted a better one, a new one or a second one and the overall demandhas ever increased.

6 Transport and the Infrastructure

The early beginnings of the transport infrastructure were trails whichbecame pathways, which in turn became tracks between local settlements. Manyearly civilisations used paved roads within the towns, but the Romans were thefirst to build a designed major road system (across all of Europe).

In the middle ages the inherited network of tracks and pathways, wereused by travellers on foot (most users), riders on horseback, and by bullock orhorse drawn carts for trade. It was upon this system that the first stirrings of the'new age of industrial development' were to rely. In England in 1555 owing tothe increased use of the roads and subsequent damage, responsibility for theroads was established with the local parishes . It so happened that wheeledcoaches first appeared in Britain at about this time, and as trade and travelincreased the roads got worse again! Passenger coach services (the first publictransport) commenced in 1605, the effect of the increased volume of wheeledtraffic (coaches and carts) was that the rural roads were damaged even more, andcongestion in cities became significant . In 1663 in order to improve thesituation the government initiated the turnpikes which allowed toll charges onmain roads so that the users would contribute to their upkeep. By 1838, some22,000 miles of routes in England were turnpiked, but in 1895 the turnpike trustswere ended and responsibility handed back to local control . By chance thiscoincided with the first display of motor cars in Britain.

However back in the eighteenth century things were soon to improve, thefirst of the new European road builders^ were Tresaguet (in France) and Phillips(in England) but perhaps more well known here were Telford, Macadam andMetcalf It was the efforts of such engineers in building a national network ofmain roads that led to the vital improved communications for easier accessacross the country for transport and trade. Much of this work was continuing atthe same time as the building of canals but because of the bulk carrying capacityof the canals compared to the wider network of roads, the two systems werecomplementary rather than in competition^.

In Britain, as elsewhere the role of the canals was quickly overtaken in thenineteenth century by the construction of the railways "*, here the main networkwas constructed between 1825-1850; and development on mainland Europefollowed very quickly (particularly in Germany). The development of therailways was particularly significant in that it allowed for speed and it cateredfor people, as well as goods. In terms of personal travel it allowed the masses,who had flocked to the towns for a living to take a 'day out' to visit the seasideto escape their dreary existence in the factories. The main effect of the railwaysof the nineteenth century was that it took the long haul off the turnpikes (andcanals) but generated extra short haul trips (to get to the railhead from local



origins and destinations) but the turnpikes remained very busy wherever therewas no parallel railway in direct competition^.

The completion of the railway infrastructure led to further urbanexpansion which in turn generated more traffic particularly in major towns andcities. In London where planning regulations prevented the railway routes fromcrossing the central area, traffic congestion was particularly bad, the local publictransport of the day (the horse drawn omnibus) was inadequate but the problemwas solved with the very first underground urban railway. The MetropolitanRailway, a four mile route constructed in cut and cover for steam trains wasopened in 1863. The full inner circle route to connect all main line stations incentral London was completed by 1884 .

In 1879 at the Berlin Exhibition, Siemens * first demonstrated the use ofa small electric train, and the world's first electric powered surface railway wasdeveloped in Berlin in 1881. By 1887 electric tramways (overground) wereexpanding everywhere with 10 systems in the USA and 9 in Europe , (12,500miles of operational tramway in the USA by 1895 ); The world's first use ofelectric trains in an underground bored tunnel (or tube) was in London in 1890,and by 1900 Paris also had started work on its metro system. As with steamtrains the standardisation of gauges was important, but now this also covered thepower supply (DC or AC, voltage and frequency). Such problems are just ascommon today with the Channel Tunnel trains having to operate over fourdifferent signalling systems.

In theory public transport on the roads should have been much simpler.Motor buses (imported) were first operated in the UK from 1899, which led tofeeder services to the railways, but not without regular breakdowns. Eventuallywith improved mechanical reliability the flexibility of the bus system proved veryadvantageous and was also suitable for small towns and country areas. It isnotable that since the 1980s new L.R.T systems are now making a comeback inmany larger cities in the UK- they have always been popular in mainland Europe.

The next major change to the infrastructure in the twentieth century wasa renewed interest in road building in the inter-war years particularly in USA andGermany. In the early years of the twentieth century the limited capability of thespeed of motor vehicles was such that the first needs were to improve the roadsurface and use improved methods for construction - thus extending the work ofnineteenth century engineers. It was not until the late 1930s that HighwayEngineers were more concerned with route capacity (to determine the requirednumber of traffic lanes) and the design of the road alignment using speciallydetermined grades and curvature, with transition curves and carefully appliedsuper-elevation. The so called curvilinear alignment of a modern highway wasbased upon a particular design speed suitable for the traffic using each route.

Through the last fifty years of this century the 'motorway' age hascertainly provided for the demand for travel for those countries which have beenable to afford the cost and space for such infrastructure. However since mostjourneys start and end in towns and cities it was when the motorway was takeninto town that the modern urban transport problems really emerged.



7 Transport and the Environment

Major problems of congestion and air pollution now plague most majorcities in all parts of the world - in both the industrialised and the developingworld. Athens, Los Angeles and Mexico City are among the world's mostcongested and polluted cities, some with their particular problems of pollutionexacerbated by local terrain and climatic conditions which prevent the dispersalof noxious fumes. But we now know that dispersal through the wider atmosphereis not a solution, it just moves the problem on to the next locality and adds to theoverall global problem.

Air pollution is nothing new, London of the 1950s was infamous for itssmog but legislation did much to solve the problem in enforcing society to cleanup its 'smoky chimneys'. However quite a number of problems of pollution andcongestion have been recorded much earlier. In ancient Rome the use of chariotsat night was banned because of the noise nuisance and there was also thenuisance of sewage in the streets *.

In 1635 Charles I issued a royal proclamation to restrict the use ofhackney coaches (taxis of the day) because of the nuisance and damage to theroads of London and also because of the effect on prices (extra demand forcingup prices of hay etc); but it would appear the decree was largely ignored .However O'Flaherty comments that two significant points emerge: the publicidentify with their right to use the public highway (irrespective of environmentalconditions); and that if the roads cannot provide the capacity then the trafficshould be changed to suit the roads.

Following the road construction era which began in the late eighteenthcentury one presumed that there was some improvement, at least in the generalcondition of the roads. However by the end of the nineteenth century every majorcity in Europe was teeming with traffic (mostly horse drawn) "the noise andstench assaulted the senses and crossing the road could be very hazardous"™.

The idea of a by-pass to relieve environmental problems of congestionand nuisance of traffic is nothing new. The most recent re-alignment to the Altrunk road at Durham is reputed to be the fifth successive by-pass to that routesince the sixteenth century. The problem is often that once a new by-pass is built,then re-development of land will proceed up to and sometimes beyond that route.In the 1930s in Britain the so called Ribbon Development encourageddevelopment along the new arterial routes radiating from London. This createda mix of local and regional traffic on the routes and also prevented subsequentwidening. Thus thirty years or so later a new route was often required (e.g. M4motorway to replace the A4 trunk road).

The pollution problems of this century and the motor age are often andwell reported, but perhaps the main events*'' which stimulated a world wideresponse were:-* At Chernobyl in 1986 the explosion of a nuclear power generator.

In 1989 the Exxon Valdez oil spillage in Prince William Sound, Alaska..The burning of the Kuwait Oilfields during the 1991 Gulf war.



There is also the problem of the greenhouse effect and global warming,first raised in the mid 1970s but again highlighted by recent reports on climaticchanges in Antarctica. (British Antarctic Survey reports).

Whilst on the one hand the rich northern countries have legislated quitesubstantially regarding most areas of pollution (in industry as well as transport)this has not been the case in the developing world. In the north all new vehicleshave to meet stringent pollution standards, but the question of congestion is stillto be addressed - except in the nouveau riche Singapore where punitive taxeshave (unpopularly) priced most motorists off the road, although slightly cheapermotoring may be enjoyed at weekends!

The dilemma for the newly developing countries is that in order to jointhe club they need to exploit their natural resources. In the 1970s developingcountries still tended to regard the multi-national oil companies (and otherdevelopers) as neo-colonialistic exploiters. However, in the post 1973 OPEC erasuch countries then took a greater interest and role, including nationalisation ofthe local assets. Now in the 1990s international companies are again invited inby governments for exploration and development of the resources, recentexamples are Vietnam and Siberia . Because of rapidly expanding populationsamongst the developing countries it is often seen as particularly important todevelop their natural resources in order to provide for the people.

Regarding the major congestion in the world's great cities and its effects,it is nothing new but it is getting worse. In Los Angeles severe restraints are nowbeing applied to the motor car, ironically an investigation into such congestion"The Tide of Traffic" a film made by BP as a contribution to the 1972 'UNConference on the Human Environment' highlighted many of the problems, sovery evident more than twenty years ago. The consequences of out of townsuperstore development and the dereliction of traditional town centres in the USAwere also understood more than twenty years ago

8 Urban Transport for the 21st Century - Some Conclusions

All over the world for the past four hundred years or so the ruralpopulations have been migrating to the towns and cities in search of prosperityand a better lifestyle - but in all reality many just exchange one set of difficultiesfor another. At first the rate of migration was determined by the progress ofindustrialisation (i.e. the need for labour in the new industries) however a moresignificant constraint was also the ability of those remaining on the land tosupport (in food supply) those working in industry. In the twentieth centuryowing to the vast improvements in agriculture and world food exports thisdependency no longer occurs and thus mass migration to the cities in the last 50years has been dramatic, particularly in the newly industrialised and developingcountries. Whether looking at cities of the new world or the old world, manywould argue that it is apparent that life in the cities as we know it today isunsustainable as well as inappropriate.

At a time when the individuals' rights are often seen by some as vital



rather than just desirable, the real political dilemma is where the freedom or'rights' of the individual conflict with the rights of another or more particularlywith the utility (or rights) of society as a whole ). The personal use of tobacco,alcohol and drugs as well as allowing dogs in public areas all tend to create suchconflict, where inappropriate or over-use by the individual(s) causes severeproblems to others or to society as a whole. Excessive use of the motor car incities and popular areas of countryside cause similar concern of the conflictbetween individual users and the pollution and loss of amenity to society.

With regard to the problems of air pollution and traffic congestion in ourcities, it is very unlikely that there will be a 'magical' technical fix to allow usto carry on using individual cars, in the next century, the same way as we havein the past. Thus surely the question of attitudes to a generally sustainablelifestyle and public utility will be of paramount importance in reaching a balancebetween freedom of travel for the individual and the problems it causes. Thisbalance will also need to be addressed between the prosperous nations and thepoor nations with regard to the consumption and development of resources, aswell as a balance for each city according to its own needs.

The new technologies and the information superhighway are expected togive some relief to the traditional transportation networks - but just how much,how quickly, and to whom, seems very uncertain at this moment in time.

References

1. YERGIN, D. 'The Prize', BBC Books 19922. GALBRAITH, J.K. 'The Age of Uncertainty', BBC/Andre Deutch, 19773. HOBSBAWM, E.J 'Age of Extremes', Joseph, 1994.4. BRONOWSKI, J 'The Ascent of Man', BBC Books 1973.5. LEIBRAND, K. 'Transportation and Town Planning', Hill, 1970.6. BARKER T.C. and SAVAGE, C.I. 'Economic History of Transport in

Britain'(3rd Edit). Hutchinson, 1974.7. BURKE, J. '7%e Day the Universe Changed', BBC Books 1985.8. SIMMONS, J. 'Transport - 'A Visual History of Modern Britain' Vista.

Books, 1962.9. O'FLAHERTY, C A 'Highways', Vol. 1, (3rd Edit), Arnold, 198610. PURSELL, C. 'White Heat - People and Technology', BBC Books 199411. BRIGGS, A. (Ed), 'The Nineteenth Century' Thames & Hudson, 198512. PARKER, G. (Ed) '7%e World an Illustrated History' Times Book, 198813. 'Engines of Change', produced by Shell Films Ltd. London, 1993.14. ALLEN, G.F. 'Railways Past, Present and Future', Orbis 198215. HALL, P. 'Urban and Regional Planning', Hyman, 1989.16. 'Traffic in Norwich', Open University Broadcast (GB) 197217. WATSON, P. and BARBER, B. 'The Struggle for Democracy', Dennys,

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Documents

2 Civilisation, Early Land Use Development and Trade · cheap small versatile vehicle for handling produce and tools of the trade. Whereas other car makers employed craftsmanship,