Social Science OutlineAn Introduction to the History of Modern India

I. INDIA BEFORE EUROPE (15%) [p. 8]A. Introduction: Visva Bharati and the quest for an Indian identity1

1. Geographic Features of Indiaa. population patterns

1) India proper: 1.2 billion2) Pakistan: 196 million3) Nepal: 31 m4) Bangladesh (166 m)5) Bhutan (734,000)6) Sri Lanka (22 m)7) Maldives (394,000)

b. Three geographic zones1) Deccan Plateau

a) formed when Indian tectonic plate hit Asiab) granite base provides limited agriculture in comparison to coastal regionsc) separated from coast by ghats 2

i. western Coromandal Coast with Bombay at northern end along Arabian Seaii. eastern Malabar Coast with Chennai (Madras) linking India to SE Asia

2) Indo-Gangetic Plaina) between the two river systems of its nameb) passable mountain range allowed for expansive trans-Asian trade

i. Kirtharii. Sulaiman

iii. Khyber Passc) the doab region of two rivers as locus of Delhi

i. Gangesii. Yamuna

iii. confluence of Yamuna and Ganges at Allahabad/Prayag (in Hinduism)3

iv. the mouth of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers it at Calcutta (Kolkata)4

3) Himalayan Mountainsa) Tibetan Plateau to the Northb) source of many river systems for Indian heartland with rich agricultural plain

4) rainfall patternsa) two yearly monsoons shape

i. conditions of agricultureii. long-distance shipping and trade

b) monsoons in June and July driven by Indian Ocean air currentsi. starts in SE

ii. travels through NWiii. “retreat” provides additional dose of rainfall for additional growing season

c) 1st monsoon blows from W to E allowing long-distance shipping across Indian Oceand) 2nd monsoon blows E to W allowing for eastward travel from Malabar Coaste) contributed to two broad social patterns

i. coastal regions developed large, settled agrarian empires and shipping entrepôts such as Calcuttaii. arid, desert regions like Rajasthan tended toward unsettled tribal forms

2. The Term “India”a. Prior to independence reference is to the entire area of the subcontinentb. After independence, India refers to the contemporarynation-statec. South Asia refers to the collection of states in the subcontinent (I,P,B,N S,B, M)

1 It is apparent that this expansive introduction intends to frame modern Indian identity in the context of both Asian identities and the long legacy of ties to Europe that entails not only British influence, but the broader patterns of culture affiliated with the Indo-European linguistic and cultural sphere. The references to Subash Chandra Bose is clearly an effort to portray the diversity of identities that had emerged on the eve of independence. Here’s the thesis explicitly: “India’s history and culture cannot be reduced to simple dichotomies of native and outside. Rather India’s culture has developed as a composite culture with multiple interwoven influences braided together.” (p. 7)2 long granite mountain ranges along coastal India3 The Allahabad reference appears to link this toponym to Islam (Allah). Prayag would thus appear to be the more common toponym for Hindus and is probably the most historically based term. The guide appears to be throwing you an intentional curveball here!4 There appears to be a concerted effort as well to make you aware of colonial and postcolonial toponyms. Here are a few examples, with colonial listed first: Bombay/Mumbai; Calcutta/Kolkata; and Madras/Chennai. There will certainly be others as we move through the text; but these would appear to be three of the major toponym challenges.

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d. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation also includes Afghanistane. post-colonial toponyms

1) Bombay to Mumbai in 19952) Calcutta to Kolkata in 20013) Bangalore to Bengaluru in 2014

B. Approaches to Indian History [p. 10]1. Keywords: Colonialism, Nation, Modernity

a. Colonialism1) defined

a) rule of one people by anotherb) lacks complete consentc) unequal and often exploitative

2) periodizationa) Iberian phase of 16th and 17th centuries

i. Spainii. Portugal

iii. Netherlands (spices)b) 17th and 18th centuries

i. Holland in Javaii. Britain in India

c) 19th centuryi. scramble for

a. Africab. Asia

ii. world divided betweena. Franceb. Britainc. Germanyd. Holland

iii. twentieth century nationalist movements3) primary motive: economics

b. nation-state1) defined

a) group of peoplei. in common territory

ii. shared bonds of identity ina. cultureb. homelandc. languaged. historye. ethnicf. religious

b) state as political unit encompassing nation2) nation-state ideal emerged in relation to European model

a) Franceb) Italy

3) nation-state idea facilitated by communication technologiesa) telegraphb) newspapersc) railways and mail serviced) radio by 1920s

4) developed notion of shared historical experience5

5) India as nation-state developed in 19th and 20th centuriesa) gradualb) complex array of nationalist groupings demanding separate states6

i. languageii. religion

iii. tribal affiliation/kinship networkiv. shared history

c) Indian nationalism as a unifying force in the face of divisions ofi. caste

ii. gender

5 note that the guide does not reference a common literature or a political notion of citizenship separate from personal allegiance to a lord/ruler6 In HuG, we referred to these as centrifugal forces

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iii. religioniv. class

c. modern Indian history, various interpretive approaches to dating1) 1757 Battle of Plassey puts British at center of Indian modernity2) 1885 with Sumit Sankar’s thesis that the Indian National Congress is birth of Indian nation3) general historical consensus that 16th century defines modernity

2. Indian Societya. Religions: diversity, toleration, and constant change

1) Hinduism (80.5%)a) knowledge, practices, and belief systemb) temple worship: darshan (vision)

i. propitiation of deity (appeasing god through some form of sacrifice)ii. blessing through “seeing” the deity

c) polytheistic and accommodatingi. dieties

a. Pan-Indianb. local

ii. ancestor propitiation as part of worshipd) ritual facilitated by priest as centrale) scriptures as basis for religious understanding and ethics, most famously in the Vedas’ two great epics

i. the Mahahharataii. the Ramayana

f) Unity of Hinduism as product of British?i. previously defined in relation to particular deity or saint

ii. key deities includea. Brahma, the creatorb. Vishnu, the protectorc. Shiva, the destroyer

iii. the three “godhead” deities with many avatars doing work of gods among humansg) cosmology contributes to

i. flexibilityii. adaptability

2) renouncer religions of Buddhism (.8%) and Jainism (.4%) emerged in 6th century BCEa) Ashoka (304-232 BCE)

i. converted to Buddhismii. adopted Ahimsa (non-violence) as penance for conquest of Orissa

b) Buddhism died out in India in medieval periodc) Jainism as small but continuous presence in Indiad) renouncer religions both criticized Hindu notion of karma7 correlation to status in next lifee) both challenged adherents to detach from desire, including advance within caste system

i. Buddhism saw desire as the root of sufferingii. Jainism encouraged

a. non-action8

b. asceticism (renunciation of material possessions)c. fasting (Gandhi from Jain center of Gujarat)d. strictly non-violent in all things, including root vegatablese. Jainism diffused primcipally among

i. merchantsii. capitalists

f) British treated both as variants of Hinduism 3) Islam (13.4%)

a) India as 2nd largest Muslim countryi. Indonesia

ii. Pakistan as 3rd

iii. combined with Pakistan and Bangladesh, the largest Muslim populationb) diffusion of modern Islam to India

i. hearth in 632 and spread through Umayyad Caliphate in 7th and 8th centuriesa. to Spain in Westb. Central Asiac. Sindh in East

ii. Islam as conduit for Sindhi culture to Arab world and Europea. mathematicsb. astronomyc. fable literature

7 karma as moral causation or the consequences of ethical behavior or lack thereof.8 this would appear to have some similarities to Taoism

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d. medicinal practicesiii. diffusion

a. contagious to Sindh in NEb. hierarchical to ports along coasts

iv. Mappila Muslims near Cochin, Kerala claim to have converted in era of Mohammeda. did not observe caste rigidities and thus intermarried with Arabsb. spoke Malayalamc. dredded like neighborsd. retained matrilineal organization of societye. built the Cheraman Jasjid in 7th century as wooden structure different from Umayyad mosques and 1st

central mosque (Jama Masjid) in Indiav. The Labbais on Coromandel Coast

a. 16th century hagiography of Mohammed blended Hindu genresi. written in Tamil of Tamil Nadu state

ii. description of Mecca reflected Tamil landscapeb. reflects Islam’s adaptability as global religion encouraging local expression

i. artistic ii. cultural

c) 14th and 15th expansion of Islam under Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empirei. diffusion among frontier peasants

ii. peasants attracted toa. simple tenetsb. radical message of equality

iii. particular expansion among Bengals in Eastern Indiaiv. the role of shrines and holy men

a. mystic Sufis encouraged devotion to saintsb. Sufism merged mosque and shrine-based practicesc. most S Asian Muslims are Sunni adherents of Hanafi legal schoold. substantial Shia population located near

i. Lucknow in Northii. Hyderabad in South

e. Indian Muslims shaped Islam throughout SE Asia4) Christianity

a) Thomas allegedly brought Christianity to India, in the form of Syrian Christian traditionb) Portuguese efforts to promote Catholicismc) British missionaries with some success in northeast

5) Zoroastrianism diffused from Iran, known in India as Parsisa) Zoroastrianism developed in Persia in 2nd millennium BCEb) Parsis settled as merchants along West Coast of India

6) miniscule community of diaspora Jews7) Sikhism (1.9%) to be discussed later

b. Caste (from Portuguese for “lineage” or “breed”)1) Varna: five broad categories derived from religion and occupation

a) Brahmins (priests)b) Kshatriyas (warriors)c) Vaishyas (traders and farmers)d) Shudras (laborers)e) Dalits: as “outcastes” or “untouchables”, has presently assumed notion of “oppressed” as term of empowerment

2) jati: local, specific, and more related to daily life than Varnaa) highly occupation specificb) highly influential in

i. marriage arrangementsii. mobilizing credit

iii. access to political power3) caste as characteristic of all Indian religious expressions4) the historical character of caste

a) some scholars argue that caste made more rigid in context of colonial dominationb) other scholars view caste as deeply structured in Indian societyc) some scholars even argue that British rule had effect of diminishing caste distinctions

c. Gender1) protection of women as legitimizing ideology for colonial rule2) anti-colonial analysts rather argue that Indian women inherently had greater status than women in Britain3) relations complex and rich

a) historical variancesb) social status of Dalits and other social groups

C. The Early Modern Period: The Indian Perspective [p. 14]

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1. Introductiona. traditional view: Mughal Empire as national foundation of greatness whose declined opened the way for the Britishb. second view: India as vital component in regional and world systems of exchange

1) responsive2) dynamic3) capable of incorporating diverse social groups4) socially and politically sophisticated

c. contemporary India as product of history1) inter-mixture2) sharing3) fusion4) tolerance

2. Vijayanagara, 1346-1565 (vijaya: “victory”; nagara: “city”)a. Deccan Plateau fort city of Sangama kings

1) developed as servitors to local kings2) later as lieges of Delhi sultan

b. peaked under Davaraya II (r9. 1432-1447) as a result of accumulating rivals’ assets1) technology2) personnel3) mounted horse warfare

c. later consolidation and expansion under Krishna Deva Raya (r. 1509-1529)1) military strength2) well-timed campaigns3) political marriage alliances subdued

a) Gajapatisb) Bahmanis

d. The end of Vijayanagara greatness in 1565 in Battle of Talikota vs.1) allied enemies

a) Ahmadnagarb) Bijapurc) Golconda

2) Vij continued as kingdom with reduced influencee. legacy of Vijayanagara

1) land revenue collection systema) warrior elites (nayakas) entrusted with suzerainty over immense territoriesb) feudal arrangement of land in exchange of providing troops to Kingc) nayaka status could be revoked by king, limiting threat of regional power accumulation

2) Indian Ocean trade3) domestic trade around eight centers, with Vijayanagara compared to a regional Rome4) small horses symbolize formative interaction between Europe and Asia

a) symbiotic mercenary and military aimsb) increasing sophistication of

i. administrationii. revenue collection

5) bottom line: many foundations of modern India laid long before arrival of British3. The Mughal Empire, 1526-1857

a. as one of India’s best-know exports1) monuments of red sandstone and marble2) basis of tourism3) houses institutions

a) militaryb) cultural

4) the Taj Mahala) Shah Jahan’s monument to wife, Mumtaz Mahalb) Agra in N. India

5) capital either in Delhi or Agra6) Mughal/Mongol/Mogul

a) central Asian horseback, nomadic warriorsb) Genghis/Chengiz Khanc) Timurlane (1336-1405) converted to Islamd) five generations after Timurlane, Timurid Empire divided into emirates

b. Reign of Babur (r. over India, 1526-1530)1) sought control of Timurlane’s Samarkand in lieu of Fergana (Uzbekistan)

a) resented modest patrimonyb) Samarkand as 500 km E of Fergana

9 r = reign5

c) failed to conquer on 2 occasionsi. at age 15

ii. on second attempt lost his base at Fergana2) turned attention to Kabul (conquered in 1504)

a) political intrigueb) built large, agrarian empire

3) defeated Sultan of Delhi at Panipat (110 km N of Delhi) in 15264) two key advantages over Indian Kingdoms

a) sophisticated artilleryb) cavalry advantage over infantry-based armies

i. well-trainedii. large

iii. agileiv. speedy

5) succeeded by son, Humayun (1530-1536), who regained and expanded holdings6) Sher Shah Suri (r. 1538-45) drove Humayun to exile in Iran 10 years after Babur’s death7) the panegyrics10 of Abu al-Fazl, who “grudgingly” acknowledged Sher Shah’s administrative

a) abilitiesb) innovations

c. Reign of Sher Shah Suri (r. 1538-1545)1) list of successes

a) control of economyi. measured land to set tax rates

ii. standardized rupiyab) infrastructure projects

i. mosquesii. rest stops

iii. massive fortsiv. highway across N. India curcial to overland trade

c) ideological ifforts consolidating legitimacyd) military policies

i. ensuringa. loyaltyb. efficiency

ii. viaa. regular salaryb. branding horses

2) Humayun regained control only 10 years after SSS’s d. in 15453) Humayun died the next year (1556) after falling down steps in his library11

d. Reign of Akbar (1556-1605)1) viewed by Indian nationalists as earlier uniter of almost all of India2) reign marked by

a) experimentationb) commitment to knowledgec) expansiveness of spiritd) concern for welfare of subjects

3) expansion under Moghal suzerainty12

a) initially limited to north Indian doabb) augmentation

i. western Indiaii. eastern India

c) efforts to unite Central India largely successful by overcoming fissiparousness13

i. incorporating elitesii. balancing elites of diverse backgrounds

4) incorporation of a) Persian nobles to counter dominant role of Central Asians

i. Persians as exiles from Iranii. sought N. Indian patronage

b) Indian elitesi. Hindu

ii. Muslim

10 a public speech in praise. Gr. pan = all and agora = public/market place.11 Humayun’s stated reign of 1530-1566 was thus actually only 1530-38 and 1556.12 overlordship of subject groupings13 tendency to break apart (as in fission)

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5) use of marriagea) like Krishna Deva Riyab) many other royal houses

6) incorporation of defeated enemies brought in most Rajput14 kingdomsa) through allianceb) through conquest in late 1560s

i. Chittor fortii. Ranthambhor fort

7) turn to Gujarat from Rajasthan15

a) western Indian coastb) Gujarat as crucial depot in global trade networks

8) turn to E. Indiaa) center of agrarian productionb) linked land and sea trade networksc) Akbar controlled through capital of Patnad) Patna as foothold in movement toward Bengal

9) 1570s refinement of SSS’s administration: the mansabdari systema) mansabdari as rank holderb) each mansabdari required to provide men and horses

i. minimally ten horsemenii. up to over 5000 spread across 33 ranks

c) mansabdari compensated either withi. salary

ii. revenue fixed to certain territoryd) mansabdari transferrable

i. highest ranks reserved for royaltyii. varied background could become part of Mughal aristocracy

iii. helped prevent growth of landed, feudal aristocracyiv. cash salaries facilitated by flow of New World silver via Indian Ocean trade

10) cosmopolitan style of rule and political culturea) religious diversityb) universal toleration (sulh-i kul)c) religious experiment: the din-i-ilahi (Religion of G-d)

i. discipleship order binding nobles to emperorii. leadership cult or elite religion?

11) succession never uncontesteda) no strict primogenitureb) claimant reliant on networks of supportc) Jahangir (r. 1605-1628) thus claimed throne

e. The Reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658)1) Jahangir’s favorite to succeed despite being 3rd in birth order2) built solid bases of support

a) success against Rajput Sisodiyas in Chittor, Rajasthanb) early military success complemented by development of empire

3) securing the empire’s basea) shored up control of eastb) captured Sind in Westc) subdued Deccand) moved in more conservative religious direction, with uncertain motives

i. part of natural drift?ii. effort to appease conservatives?

iii. expression of own convictions?iv. combination of all three?

f. Reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707)1) historiographical dispute: apogee of Islamic conservatism or not so clear?2) succession through violence

a) 1657 imprisoned father (Shah Jahan) in Agra Fortb) religious conservatism as effort to restore legitimacy after impious actions?

3) religious conservative policiesa) banned music at court (but not to extent some claim)b) decreased sacral qualities of kingship by stopping darshan16

14 member of dominant military caste 15 Rajasthan is far NW in India, Gujarat is directly south from there along the coast16 practice of viewing deity in devotion as common in Hinduism but most certainly not consistent with strict Muslim prohibition of idolatry

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c) reduced distribution of gold at courtd) re-instituted the jizya poll tax on non-Muslims in 1679

i. initially applied to the Abrahamic religionsa. Christianityb. Judaism

ii. previously and generally applied to Hindus as welliii. even after reinstitution, many exemptions continued

4) the challenge from Shivaji Bhonsle (r. 1630-1680)a) regional base in Western and Central Indiab) Maratha chiefs colonized new agrarian lands as products of

i. hard workii. risk-taking in scarcely populated region

iii. developed close relationships with peasantsiv. military tactics well-suited to hilly, rocky base in western Ghats

c) Shivaji defeated Deccan sultanate of Adil Shahs in 1659d) successfully attacked Mughal port at Surat in 1663e) Aurangzeb sent Rajput Jai Singh to Deccan to capture Shivajif) Shivaji escaped capture and set up fort at Simhagad (1670)g) 1674

i. declared himself an independent rulerii. allied with strongest of Deccan Sultanates

5) 1680 Shivaji’s death led Aurangabzeb to shift capital to Aurangabad in Deccan in order toa) subdue Marathasb) incorporate Deccan Sultanatesc) mission accomplished by 1689 with defeat of

i. two Deccan kingsii. Shambuji, Shivaji’s son

6) Deccan conquests incorporated as crown lands rather than mansabdarsa) allowed for direct extraction of revenue to pay for

i. military demandsii. infrastructure

b) however, Aurangzeb lacked strategy for incorporating rebellious localsc) revenue system also beginning to fail in the Eastd) many Mughal elites refused to move to new capital

7) achievements of Aurangzeba) see time-lapse map of empire17 showing considerable spread under Aurangzebb) maintained cores in Agra and Delhi

8) the legacy of the Marathasa) guerilla, raider cavalry-based tactics similar to what had been used initially by Mughalsb) Marathas now ruled by Brahmin Maharastrians in lineage known as peshwac) Maratha army became professional through military fiscalism sustaining via

i. fiscal policyii. economic policy

g. Muhammad Shah (r. 1719-1748) and the Decline of Mughal Power1) a decade of instability after Aurangzeb’s d. in 17072) Mughal Empire fissured into areas of emerging regional kingdoms

a) Bengalb) Deccanc) south Indiad) Awadh in upper Inidia

3) Mughal successor states did not express economic, social or political declinea) blended Mughal system with regional forms of expressionb) military fiscalism using Mughal structures

h. Women in the Mughal Empire1) strategic marriages of Rajput nobles to Mughal elite women under Akbar2) older women at court acted as power brokers: esp. Akbar’s mother Hamid Banu Begum

a) ousted Akbar’s regentb) reconciled Akbar and his son, Jahangirc) served as Governor in Punjab

3) varied rules in elite cultures of Mughal Empirei. influence of the Mughal Empire

1) great administrative land-based empire over two centuries2) collected revenue and facilitated domestic trade3) mansabdari system mobilized troops needed to build4) culture of loyalty through diversity

17 http://ecai.org/projects/ProjectExamples/SouthAsianAnimations.html8

a) Persianb) Rajputc) Central Asiand) Muslime) Hindu

4. Sikhism (20 million centered in Punjab)a. Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

1) succession of 10 Gurus2) final Guru, Gobind Singh (b. 1666, Guru, 1675-1708)3) holy text established as final authority

a) Guru Granth Sahib aka Adi Granthi. compilation of 3,000 compositions

a. teachings of Sikh Gurusb. teachings of various religious leaders

i. Hinduii. Muslim

ii. text treated as living Guru (cf. Torah in Judaism)b. importance in Indian history and politics

1) exemplifiesa) diversityb) vibrancyc) dialogue

2) simplicity of peace and justice in revelations of Waheguru (G-d)3) social acceptance beyond

a) raceb) castec) gender

4) the langar (common meal) without caste distinction5) represented all caste communities

a) Khattris (Hindu administrative group)b) Jat (agriculturalists)c) merchantsd) artisans

c. The spatial distribution of Sikhism1) hearth adjacent to Mughal hearth2) Guru Nanak founded first community at Karatpur on Ravi River3) Guru Ram Das founded Ramdaspur

a) later known as Amritsar18

b) most important pilgrimage site for Sikhsc) rapid growth angered Jahangir

4) conflict with Mughals led to founding of Khalsa in 1699a) Shah Jahan imprisoned sixth Guru, Hargobindb) Aurangzeb executed Guru Tegh Bahadur for militaristic threats

5) The Khalsaa) militaristic bloc within Sikhism requiring

i. military skillii. initiation

b) the five K’s of initiationi. kesh (uncut hair)

ii. kara (distinctive steel bracelet)iii. kanga (comb)iv. kaccha (cotton undergarments)v. kirpan (steel sword)

c) khalsa initiation not mandatoryd. Punjab as resource-rich region

1) crossroads of overland luxury trade2) mediated ties with rivals in Safavid court in Iran

a) 25,000 camel loads betweeni. Lahore (capital city of Pakistani Punjab)

ii. Isfahan (central Iran)b) more trade between

i. Lahoreii. Qandahar19

3) Punjab thus threatened Mughals as base of regional power it represented18 The site of the infamous 1919 massacre depicted in Gandhi.19 Pastun (Persian) region in East-Central Afghanistan

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D. India and the World [p. 21]1. The World in 1492: Calicut and the Malabar Coast

a. Vasco da Gama 1498b. Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut as coastal rather than territorial king20

c. Calicut as “hinge” city in luxury trade1) diverse merchant community

a) Jewsb) Syrian Christiansc) Muslims

2) intermarriage with local womend. Zamorin as protector of

1) religious identity2) merchant interests

e. the relative location of Calicut: three crucial circuits1) the western-oriented world of

a) Arabian Seab) Mediterraneanc) Europe

2) the eastern Indian Ocean world linkinga) Persian Gulfb) India’s east coast

3) the eastern21 helf of Indian Ocean stretchinga) from India’s east coast tob) SE Asiac) China

f. The link to Portugal (1498)1) da Gama’s route

a) Cape of Good Hopeb) East Africac) along coast of

i. Persiaii. India

d) ultimately, Calicut2) strengths of Portuguese

a) successful navyb) “flinty” willingness to achieve economic goals through

i. forceii. violence

3) the cartaza systema) each vessel required to have cartaza in order to tradeb) certain goods could ONLY be traded with Portugal

4) Portuguese conquests allowed control of global spice tradea) Colombo (Sri Lanka) in 1505b) Malacca in 1511c) Hormuz in 1515

5) established Goa in 1510a) introduced Catholicismb) enforced the Inquisitionc) imposed cartaza on western Indian Ocean trade

g. decline of Portuguese in led to rise of Dutch East India Company by 16051) took Colombo in 16562) Cochin (SW tip of India) in 16633) Portuguese retained Goa until 1961 (sic)4) Dutch strong regional control

a) along Coromandel Coastb) Southeast Asia

5) British strong only in Gujarat2. Gujarat

a. Mughal port Surat benefitted from Portuguese takeover of Diu in 15351) Surat free trade zone contrasted Portuguese protectionism2) Surat’s products

a) textiles

20 cf. the contemporaneous city-states of Italy (Venice, Florence)21 Please NOTE that the guide appears to be incorrect here. It states “western half” of Indian Ocean but then explains in relation to “India’s east coast through Southeast Asia to China.”

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b) indigo3) Surat’s Indian and non-Indian trade partners using Muslim-owned ships

b. Gujarati textiles bartered in SE Asia for spices priced in relation to Indian cloth1) nutmeg2) cloves3) cinnamon

c. Indian Ocean system transported goods1) within India2) within hawala network as regional system for 22

a) money transferb) creditc) compares to electronic money transfer in digital age

d. 1600, Queen Elizabeth established the East India Company23

1) a joint stock company2) held monopoly on English trade in Indies for 15 years3) early manifestation of modern corporation

a) spread riskb) limited liability

4) dependent on Crown for securitya) legalb) diplomatic

e. the expeditions of the EIC1) first two to Sumatra in Indonesia2) 1603 one million pounds of pepper to GB3) third expedition to SUrat in 1608

a) English rep with i. 25,000 pieces of gold

ii. latter for Emperor Jahangir form King Jamesb) however, English had little to really offer Jahangir

i. already established with Portugueseii. did not lack

a. pepperb. woolc. gold

c) 1612 envoy also dismissed in 16124) trade with Surat began only with British defeat of Portuguese in 1612 Battle of Swali

f. 1613 Thomas Roe 1) established permit for factory24 at Surat on behalf of EIC2) subsequent Dutch factory in 1618

g. 1623 British 1) surrendered plans for SE Asia to Dutch 2) in exchange for greater presence in India

h. decline of Portugal increased British presence in1) Persian Gulf2) Arabian Sea

i. Gujarati hinterlands produced cotton textiles with markets in 1) Europe2) SE Asia3) Other major cotton regions included

a) Bengalb) Punjabc) Coromandel Coast

j. Other Gujarati products1) teak2) bamboo3) spices4) silver5) carnelian (brownish-red semi-precious mineral)6) camels

22 This is very important. If it confuses you, please let me know and I’ll explain something called “bills of exchange.” The guide exaggerates when it compares the hawala system to electronic transfers. It was rather like a traditional banking network and the system of checking accounts in the period prior to debit cards. The key phrase here is “networks of trust.” (p. 22, col. 1, par. 1)23 Compare the London Company (aka the Charter of the Virginia Company of London) established 7 years later (1607) under King James I.24 here defined as place to store goods before shipment, making Surat an entrepôt.

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3. The Coromandel Coasta. Southern Indian Kings encouraged trade on western coast with

1) low taxes in imports2) favorable conditions for

a) Indiansb) Europeans

3) trade used gold as basis for exchange (cf. silver in northern Indian trading)4) noted for fine and valuable textiles

a) muslinb) chintz, a woven cotton with intricate designs

i. hand-printedii. block-printed

5) Spice Islands of Indonesia imported 400,000 pieces of Coromandel textilesb. successor kingdoms to Vijayanagara

1) Golkondaa) turned city of Masulipatnam into most important port cityb) entrepôt for goods from

i. Gujaratii. Bengal

iii. Deccan plateauiv. SE Asiav. in 16th century, Arabian Sea trade included

c) diamond mines ensured Golkonda working from advantageous position in sea trade decision2) EIC bought Coromandel Properties in 1640 from local ruler

a) previously shared in trade settlements in collaboration with Indian kingdoms along withi. Dutch

ii. Danesiii. Portuguese

b) Portuguese not as dominant in Coromandel region as in Gujaratc) most trade in Indian handsd) British attracted to

i. calico textilesii. saltpeter25

iii. indigo3) 1690 Madras emerged as leading trade port linked to SE Asia

4. Bengal and Eastern Indiaa. Portuguese expelled from Mughal Bengali port of Hugli (1632) due to expansion desires of Shah Jahanb. Portuguese expulsion opened opportunity for

1) Dutch2) British

c. Bengal’s desired product1) muslin

a) thinb) light

2) silkd. Bengal’s weaving centers

1) Dhaka2) Murshidabad

e. by 1680s, EIC importing 2.8 million pieces of textiles from IndiaII. THE BRITISH IN INDIA, 1707-1857: “A FATAL FRIENDSHIP” (25%) [p. 25]

A. The Shift from Trade to Rule, 1707-1757 [p. 25]1. British Trade in India

a. gradual expansion of British influence in India over 17th and 18th centuriesb. Thomas Roe factory founded fifty years of trade as guests of Mughal emperorsc. Mughal emperors derived

1) revenues for funding soldiers2) employment for weavers across India

d. EIC for Mughals neither important1) politically2) economically

e. 1640 purchase of Madras from Indian ruler spawns growth 1) 100,000 population by 17002) Madras as open port

f. 1668 British purchased Bombay1) from Portuguese

25 Potassium nitrate required for gunpowder until 188912

2) part of Princess Catherine’s dowry upon marrying King Charles3) Maratha attacks on Surat drove growth of Bombay

a) merchantsb) craftspeople

4) ultimately Bombay emerged as capitala) culturalb) financial

g. Bengal expansion began with expulsion of Portuguese from Hugli after 16321) competition with Dutch EIC initially favored Dutch2) EIC officials resented Mughal officials’ interference in trade3) 1686 ten English ships attempted to blockade

a) Surat in Gujaratb) Chittagong in Bangladesh

4) Mughal counter-blockade of Bombay (1690) resulted in a) British concessionb) large indemnity to Mughal emperor

h. The EIC détente with the Mughals (1700)1) EIC autonomy in Madras2) uneasy and expensive peace in

a) Calcuttab) Bombay

3) EIC under dual threat froma) Mughalsb) Marathas

i. 1686-1690 warii. raids on Surat by Shivaji

4) Bengal textiles represented ½ of EIC exports by 17105) shift of EIC focus

a) from Surat b) to Calcutta in Bengal

i. 1717 British receive duty exemption in exchange for small yearly fee, enabling advantage over Dutch1) granted by Farrukhsiyar (r. 1713-1719), Aurangzeb’s successor2) Dutch still paying per item duties3) incentive for maximum production to British who paid same, whether greater or lesser quantity4) Farrukhsiyar also granted

a) rights to settle inland in Bengalb) favorable customs terms at

i. Suratii. Madras

c) right to mint coins at Bombay5) concessions appear to be sign of weakening Mughal authority

j. EIC officials used to benefit personal as well as official capacities1) EIC officials not bound to trade that did not include direct trade between

a) Indiab) England

2) private EIC officials replaced Gujarati shipowners3) private traders also engaged inland commodities4) EIC granted tax-free status to some Indian merchants

k. growing tensions to Mughal successor in Bengal, Nawab Alivardi Khan (1671-1756, r. 1740-1756)1) encroachment into inland basic trade in

a) saltb) grain

2) Khan weakened by Maratha onslaughts, sought to increase revenues through tax increases ona) zamindars (landowning aristocrats)b) Indian merchant bankersc) European companies

3) Khan’s 19 year old successor, Siraj al-Daula (1733-1757, 1756-1757) attempted to continue Khan’s policy2. British-French Rivalries

a. The Compagnie des Indes Orientales (CIO)26 and “mushroom” growth1) founded in 16642) expanded to Pondicherry in 16743) expansion in additional outposts

a) Chandernagore (near Calcutta)b) Masulipatnam (Coromandel Coast)

26 Indes Orientales is literally “East Indies”. Note the general place confusion of Europeans in distinguishing the “East” and “West” Indies (Indes Occidentales, i.e. Caribbean).

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c) Malabar4) growth more rapid than EIC5) operated in similar fashion to EIC, though more directly under control of French crown

b. further comparisons of French and British1) British driven by public and private trades asserted

a) movement inlandb) movement down the scale of production

2) French used direct military means toa) gain political controlb) obtain commercial advantages

c. South India under diverse power configuration at end of 18th century1) Mughal Empire in the Nizamate of Hyderabad2) Maratha ruled Tanjore under Poona’s nominal suzerainty3) Nawab of the Carnatic controlled Arcot, 70 miles inland from Madras4) War of Austrian Succession (1744-1748) pushed France and England to opposite sides

a) after initial French victory, Britain retained control of Madras through superior naval power in 1748b) French controlled Pondicherry despite British efforts to obtainc) Treaty verified gains through exchange

i. French obtained Cape Breton islandii. Britain received returnof Madras

5) 1750 French gained influence over Nawab of Arcot through chosen candidatea) assassinationsb) machinations

d. India and the Seven Years’ War (aka French-Indian War), 1756-1763 results in decline of French influence in India27

1) Britain used influence in Bengal to prevail over Frencha) resourcesb) supply of loyal soldiersc) cash reservesd) credit networkse) naval power

2) British also had advantages of multiple strategic locales a) that could be used against

i. Frenchii. Indian rivals

b) includedi. Calcutta

ii. Madrasiii. Bombay

3) French were weak in Bengala) deeply indebted

i. great banking house of Jagat Seth, who banked for the Nawabsii. many others

b) had fewer assets to manipulate than Britishe. role of English military often exaggerated in explaining British prevalence

1) successful employment of Indian intermediaries2) chronology of European entrance3) development of commercial contract law28

4) chance3. Summary: Indian Polities on the Eve of the Battle of Plassey

a. South India largely under Nawabs1) despite French control in Pondicherry (until 1950!)2) Nawabs exercised all power in Bengal despite nominal control of Mughal Empire in Delhi3) however, expanding power of EIC

a) fortification of holdingsb) mingong coins

b. Western India1) Maratha threat spurred English to expand Bombay ties2) regional powers in Southwest and Deccan

a) Nawab of Arcotb) Nizam of Hyderabadc) Maratha at Tanjore

c. the erstwhile Mughal heartland of North India1) Rajput kingdoms exemplify relative

a) independence27 as it did in North America28 let’s be sure to discuss British contract law as well as the role of the 7 Years’ War in our review.

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b) stabilityc) e.g. Raja Jai Singh

2) Delhi and Agra suffered from Persian and Maratha raids, resulting in heavily localized authoritya) agrarian stabilityb) trade

3) Awadh to the easta) half-way point between

i. English de facto capital of Calcuttaii. Mughal capital at Delhi

b) ruled by Nawabc) wealthy agrarian heartland with market access via

i. riverii. well-worn roads

d) wealth as basis of cultural centeri. for elite classes

ii. reputation for Nawab commitment to local welfareB. The Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Political Framework of Colonial Rule [p. 27]

1. The Battle of Plasseya. Siraj-ud-Daula, (1733-1757, 1756-1757) attempted to continue Nawab Alivardi Khan’s program to increase revenues

1) character led to excessively aggressive posture toward enemiesa) headstrongb) inexperiencedc) even became contentious with the Jagat Seth banking house

2) disrespected officials who had served under his fatherb. assumption: drastic measures necessary to engage enhanced standing of British

1) attempted to extract greater revenues in 6/1756 froma) French b) Dutch

2) proceeded to attack British in Calcutta as well in order to show his unwillingness to accept challenges to his authority29

c. reality: local authorities resented power move and dissipated his control at a time when unity was essentiald. the attack on the British residents of Fort St. William (6/1756) in Calcutta

1) 40 prisoners suffocated in the “Black Hole of Calcutta” while under Siraj’s soldiers’ care2) British used as example of Indian barbarism3) Robert Clive (1725-1774) arrived with 10 ships of soldiers from Madras, causing Siraj to return Calcutta to British control

in 1/57e. hostilities resumed after Clive’s ambitions led him to seek Siraj’s overthrow via disgruntled elites

1) Jagat Seth2) Mir Jafar

f. terms of the deal: Mir and Jagat to obtain effective rule in exchange for1) EIC to receive financial support of the two financiers (1.25 million ₤)2) EIC to receive trade privileges

g. B. of Plassey began after deal in June 17571) Nawab’s troops had been bought off by Jagat Seth and fled upon outbreak of war2) Siraj caught and executed3) Mir Jafar claimed Naawab’s throne at Murshidabad as grandee of

a) Jagat Sethb) EIC

h. Consequences of the B. of Plassey1) EIC gained far more than they hoped2) EIC with right to mind coins despite Jagat Seth’s previous monopoly claim3) gained additional area, Twenty-four Paraganas (in present day Kolkotta)4) EIC and Nawab as independent allies

i. 1758 conflict over terms of Mir Jafar and Jagat Seths’ debt repayment led to Clive demand for revenue rights to 3 Bengali districts1) Chittagong2) Mindnapur3) Burdwan

j. territorial aggrandizement in effect poses transition from trade empire to dominion with Clive’s 1760 demand for permanence1) territories not generating sufficient revenue2) end of bullion trade in 1757 added pressure

a) British refused further bullion payments due to success of tradeb) successful trade comprised of

i. saltpeter

29 This paragraph does not fully make sense, as it appears that Siraj’s only policy was to attack any and all who might limit his power. It’s not clear where his real base of support lay unless it was somehow in the military and among those who now saw the British as their principal adversary.

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ii. textilesiii. opiumiv. other commodities

c) forced EIC to purchase its goods from own i. trade

ii. land revenuesk. Mir Jafar turns to help from other Europeans upon this land grab by Britishl. Clive asserts Mir Kasim as de facto Nawab

1) in exchange for permanent claims2) through compulsion by EIC force

m. Mir Kasim’s pragmatic efforts to balance interests1) restored those ousted under EIC influence2) moved capital to higher inland ground near Monghyr (in modern state of Bihar)3) reformed army along European infantry lines4) manufactured weapons5) hired Armenian mercenaries as commanders6) excluded Jagat Seths from court7) attempted to ensure steady flow of revenue

n. Mir Kasim’s efforts to restrict power of EIC1) contested private trade in staple commodities that were traditionally sources for Nawab

a) grainb) salt

2) British saw as violation of 1757 agreement and led to 1763 attack by EIC army 3) initial return to Bengal with support of

a) Nawab of Awadhb) Mughal Emperor Shah Alam (r. 1759-1806)

4) EIC defeated Mir Kasim’s army at 10/64 B. of Buxaro. EIC restored Mir Jafar, but now as a puppet under terms of 1765 Treaty of Allahabad

1) EIC given right of diwani toa) Bengalb) Biharc) Orissa

2) in exchange for 2.6 m rupee payment to Mughal Emperor in Delhi3) this reverses previous arrangements in which EIC drew portion collected by Nawabs

2. Company or Government?30

a. title of diwani deputized EIC as part of Mughal Empire up to 1858b. 1st Governor-General of India, Sir Warren Hastings (1772-1785) established 7 years after diwani appointment

1) based rule on Indian models to minimize expense and accommodate Indian culture2) continued use of Persian as legal language until 183531

3) EIC minted coins in name of Mughal Emperorc. EIC transitions from commercial monopoly to adjudicator of competing commercial interests, in effect operating as state within

expanded trade network32

d. new arrangements asserted value of commodities over sustenance, especially indigoe. EIC operating largely like Mughal and Nawab regimes

1) extracted revenue from lands2) used revenues to further interests in other regions3) differences were that

a) British more widespread use of coercionb) extracted profits benefitted London

f. the costs of the new regime1) 42% of revenues sponsored military expenses under Hastings2) an army of 115,000 men, 90% Indian3) sepoys (from Persian sephai), in effect well-paid mercenaries, were needed to quash rebellions

a) Behar in 1781b) Orissa in 1817

g. further incorporation of peasants from Bihar and Awadh as military force for EIC1) EIC respected religious and caste norms

a) dietaryb) festivals

30 Clearly the authors want you to infer that the EIC became an effective governmental entity by virtue of its various administrative activities that emerged in the late 18th century. This might be the basis for an essay question.31 uncertain whether this would be the same as an “official” language32 this is a very important and complex point. Could we argue that the EIC became something of the forerunner of the GATT and WTO? An umbrella organization for a complex of companies? The difference with the WTO, of course, was that the EIC benefitted exclusively British interests.

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2) also problems with European officer mutinies in 1766 and 1795-6h. main point: EIC used expanding army role in society to expand territorial and political control as effective state actor

3. The Land Revenue Systema. the Permanent Settlement in Bengal illustrates British being drawn into Indian Society beyond its extraction interests

1) lasted until 19472) established by Lord Cornwallis soon after his surrender at Yorktown in 17813) established fixed rate of land revenue taxation in perpetuity in order to encourage productive innovation4) reflected Whig belief in role of hereditary landed aristocracy and ideal of creating Indian gentleman-farmer

b. the theory and practice of permanent taxation rate1) zamindar (landowner) incentivized to maximize output since tax rate stable regardless of profitability33

2) zamindar threatened with property confiscation for failure to pay3) system was cheap and manageable

a) operated through only large landholdersb) zamindars operated as effective nobility, who were responsible for answering to needs of ryot (tenants)c) 1799 regulation allowed zamindar to seize land of ryot in cases when latter unable to meet obligations

4) EIC revenue expections of ₤ 3,000,0000 [sic]34 exceeded Bengal revenues set by Mughals or Nawabsc. Social, land use, and legal effects of the Permanent Settlement

1) new class of landowners created by rapid transformation in property market due to forced salesa) 40% of Bengali estates changed hands in first 15 yearsb) landholding elite moved from countryside and became absentee landlords living in Calcutta

2) new class of estate managers emerged whose well-being based on peasant exploitation3) peasants exploited thus by both zamindars and colonial state

a) zamindars engaged in profit maximationb) colonial state strengthened control of

i. supply chainsii. conditions of cultivators’ labor

c) results: i. famine in 1770 killing ¼ of Bengal population

ii. famine in 17834) new system ripped the fabric of traditional relations in the countryside

a) ownership patternsb) cultivationc) tenancyd) commonse) traditional labor exchangesf) custom

d. Madras and Bombay develop different pattern from failed Bengal model in 1820s1) variable revenue rate based on assertion of virtues of smallholding peasant-farmer2) The ryotwari system created direct relationship between Company state and individual peasants3) two prominent historians assert this system as “self-delusion”35

a) revenue rates determined by local elites at village level, thus securing the position of the already advantagedb) required expansion of administrative oversight and bureaucracy

i. European District Collector supervised network of Indian petty collectors36

ii. Collector in effect became executive and judicial power within jurisdiction realmiii. District level system of courts endures in India today in the person of District Magistrate

4. Ideologies of Rulea. Sir William Jones (1746-1794), founder of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, first to assert Indo-European language link

1) made link between Sanskrit, Persian, Greek and Latin2) studied Hindu legal traditions so as to be independent of inefficient and untrustworthy legal advisors

a) Hindub) Muslim

3) effort to “purify” Indian tradition along Indian lines4) Jones as Orientalist

a) capture and preserve India as it was at its heightb) merged deep respect and patronizing pity

5) consequence: made rigid a previously diverse and flexible system througha) introducing precedent-based common lawb) certain interpretations and texts over others

33 note parallels to Reagan era “supply-side” economics that asserted a lower tax rate in order to encourage investor class to contribute to economic activity by virtue of profit incentives34 this is clearly a typo in guide. Probably 3,000,000, but may be 30,000,00035 The historians cited here are Metcalf (X2) Marshall, and Trautmann36 who drew their salaries from the taxes collected

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b. James (1773-1836) and John Stuart Mill37 as Utilitarian followers of Jeremy Bentham who had less respect for Indian culture than Jones

1) Utilitarianism : the greatest good to the greatest number38

2) view of India as needing full cultural overhaul as expressed in 1818 History of British Indiaa) stagnantb) superstitiousc) irregular

c. Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859), utilitarian who advocated education in English1) Promoted Anglicist rejection of Indian

a) normsb) practicesc) languages

2) denigrated Indian literature3) promoted English India in

a) tasteb) opinionsc) moralsd) intellect

d. Anglicist approach gradually displaced Orientalist approach by 2nd half of 19th century1) adopted Macaulay’s criminal code2) other adoptions that remain largely in effect to this day

e. British largely forbade Christian missions in India1) British imprisoned 1st US missionary around 1812 in Madras2) William Carey (1761-1834) British Baptist forced to operate from Danish Serampore rather than British Calcutta3) few conversions4) major importance of missionary schools5) Christian critiques of Hinduism led many Indians to undertake apologetics6) eventually, by 1813, restrictions on missionaries largely lifted though

a) not always reliable allies for colonial projectb) would excoriate as well as encourage imperial endeavor

C. Colonial Expansion in the Nineteenth Century [p. 33]1. Lord Wellesley and Tipu Sultan: The Battle of Seringapatnam, 1799

a. Full state operations by time of 3rd Governor General Wellesley1) Permanent Settlement with administrative, executive and judicial structures2) expansion of

a) militaryb) revenue streamsc) trade

b. Haider Ali (r. 1761-1782) founded great state of Mysore in Deccan Plateau, ruled by successor Tipu Sultan (r. 1782-1799) at time of Wellesley

1) prosperity2) stability

a) favorable conditions for tradeb) skilled army of 60,000c) flourishing capital city of Seringapatnam, close to Mysore

3) reforma) eliminated

i. revenue farmingii. intermediary zamindars

b) direct collection of revenues from peasants39

c. Heroic defeat of Tipu Sultan in 17991) fought EIC troops to draw in 1984 B. of Poligur2) Tipu Sultan appeal to Napoleonic France in 1799 drew Wellesley’s special anger

a) use of revolutionary idiomsb) planted liberty tree

3) Treaty resolution based on Bengal protection promise in exchange for a) de facto controlb) heavy tribute

d. Mysore settlement applied to other independent polities on subcontinent under subsidiary alliance1) annual fee from state in exchange for protection2) company residents resided at court and initially managed state’s relationship with EIC3) ruler required to disband personal army

37 Both worked for EIC38 Cf. contemporaries Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo’s “Iron law of wages.”39? note guide lauding what it had earlier criticized under ryotwari system as too bureaucratic

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2. The Next Phase of Colonial Expansiona. diffused nature of Maratha rule challenged direct control of EIC

1) sub-kingdoms under nominal head at Poona2) many producing own weapons in N. India3) 1802 Treaty of Bassein forced Marathas to submit to subsidiary alliance4) 1803 remaining independent Maratha regions succumbed to subsidiary alliance

a) Deccanb) around Delhi

b. Final Maratha stand failed in 18181) total annexation of Maratha territory by EIC40

2) Maratha rulers pensioned and resettled3) remaining independent states of India surrounded by territories controlled by EIC

c. 1840 failed military adventure of EIC in Afghanistan1) territory difficult to govern and fully conquer2) 1842

a) 16,000 soldiers besieged at Kabulb) EIC able nevertheless to annex nearby Sindh

d. Afghanistan failure caused EIC to refocus on Punjab1) power vacuum created by d. of Ranjit Singh in 18392) tactic of playing rival Sikh chieftains against each other succeeded in 1845 1st Sikh War

a) EIC installed resident at Lahore courtb) rewarded Hindu king of Jammu with kingdom of predominantly Muslim Kashmir

3) Treaty of Amritsar 1846a) Gulaab Singh, Dogra King in Jammu

i. granteda. valley of Kashmirb. nominal sum of moneyc. twelve goats for chasmere woold. three pairs of shawls

ii. basis of current Kashmir conflict4) 1848-9 complete EIC annexation of Ranjit Singh’s kingdom

e. The Punjab school of EIC rule1) emphasized strict rule2) allowed officials’ wide-ranging powers set standards for arbitrariness in this region

a) paternalisticb) illiberalc) may relate to attitude behind infamous 1919 massacre at Jallianawala Bagh

f. Awadh administration similar to Punjab school1) classic subsidiary alliance after B. of Buxar and Treaty of Allahabad in 17652) Awadh Nawab unable to sustain network of local support without relying on EIC for loans3) problems of debt compelled Awadh Nawab to embrace

a) cultural expressionb) aesthetic achievement

4) 1801 debt forced kingdom to cede eastern half of territory to EIC, further decreasing revenue base5) cultural legacy of Awadh culture expressed in Satyajit Ray’s film The Chess Players (1977)

a) though British saw Awadh events as proof of Anglicist viewb) Lucknow and Faizabad testify to cultural dynamism of Awadh regionc) The Chess Players based on 1924 short story of Premchand

i. Hindiii. Urdu

g. 1818 tie between Mughal Empire and Awadh ended with Nawab declaration of self as king, but evident effort at independence only set stage for ultimate British annexation in 185641

1) as undertaken by Governor-General Dalhousie2) one of the bases of Indian Rebellion in 1857-8

h. movement eastward into Myanmar/Burma (1826) brings Konbaung Dynasty under EIC control1) valued for its timber supplies2) British aggression led to 2nd war in 1852 and annexation of territory up to Pegu3) 1886 war resulted in total annexation

a) remained part of British India until 1937b) after 1937 under British rule but own administration until independence in 1948

i. 1819 conquest of Singapore, the entrepôt for trade with China1) Straits of Malacca linked Singapore to Myanmar2) consolidated English shipping dominance over Dutch in SE Asia3) further takeover of Ile de France in 1814, now Mauritius

40 NB this is 3 years after the end of the Napoleonic wars41 NB end of Crimean War in 1856

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4) consolidated control over Indian Ocean from Mauritius to Canton5) extended network by takeover of Aden port on Arabian Sea6) Indians diffused throughout key port areas of British empire, from British Guiana to Fiji

a) merchantsb) soldiersc) policed) laborers, most importantly

j. the value of British rule to British1) favorable trade terms2) inexhaustible supply of natural resources3) consumer markets for mfgd goods

a) in coloniesb) at home

4) by 1830s, no major Indian elite challenges to British control3. Indirect Rule and Princely India

a. GG Dalhousie’s 1848 efforts to 1) consolidate holdings

a) legallyb) territorially

2) expand communication and transportation in order to reduce costsa) railroadb) telegraph

b. paramountcy as operational principal1) rulers without male heirs regarded as “lapsed” and EIC could take direct control of domains (doctrine of lapse)2) lapse doctrine violated local methods (common law) for determining successors, e.g. king might even adopt heir3) resulted in annexation of large states (1848-1854) and increased annual revenue by ₤5 million

a) Satarab) Jhansic) Nagpur

4. Infrastructure and Economya. drastic changes in rural economy

1) opium in eastern India used to pay Chinese for teaa) in place of silver or goldb) 15% of EIC revenuec) EIC with monopoly claim to cultivate and smuggled) famous fortunes

i. Elihu Yaleii. Sassoon family

2) indigoa) cash advances provided to encourage production, resulting in massive indebtedness of Indian peasants with market

collapses ini. 1827

ii. 1847b) Blue Mutiny in Bengal of 1859-60 prompted reforms therec) no such reforms in Bihar were Planter Raj prevailed until 1917 and Gandhi’s Champaran Campaign

b. decline of weaving in conjunction with industrial revolution1) volume swamped quality2) political pressure not able to coerce reforms as in 19th century Britain3) other commodities in this period

a) juteb) sugarc) rice grainsd) timber

c. railways1) today, 100,000 kms of track and 1.3 million employees2) legacy good, but not consistent with original intent

a) move raw materials toi. ports

ii. mfg centersb) move troops and materials in events of uprisings

3) evolution of Indian railways in1850sa) Crown guaranteed at least 5% return on investment to creditorsb) consequently, all profits from RR returned to British investorsc) design and layout served commercial interestsd) raw materials to build came from outside Indiae) as a result, no multiplier effects from this infrastructure investment

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d. Ganges Canal and other irrigation projects1) Dalhousie oversaw 500 miles of canal construction2) short-term benefits with long-term environmental consequences through salinization of soil

e. Dalhousie also completed telegraph1) deep-sea cable in 1850 crossed Hooghly River from Calcutta as crucial site for innovation2) postal service with penny post laid foundation for transnational political organization3) steam power adopted in 1840

f. did these infrastructure contribute more than they extracted from the overall development of the Indian economy?D. Indian Society, 1757-1857: Diverse Responses to Colonial Rule [p. 38]

1. Reform, Reaction, and Creativitya. Indian creativity most notable in EIC capital at Calcutta

1) important role of Asiatic Society of Bengal working in conjunction with Sir William Jones2) founding of Hindu College in 1818

a) provided path for employment with colonial stateb) especially important after shift from Persian to English as language of governancec) Henry Derozio (1809-1831) as example of those who adopted English ways

i. conversion to Christianityii. organized Young Bengal to

a. critique Indian societyb. lead enthusiasm for things British

b. Founding of Delhi College in 18251) aimed to provide necessary education for respectable work in colonial sector2) embodied ways in which English and Indian knowledge had come to coexist

a) Urdu received pride of place at Delhi Collegei. developed under Mughals

ii. blended Persian script and vocabulary with Hindu grammarb) western scientific tracts translated into Urdu, which formalized it in relation to

i. translatorsii. readers

c. The Firangi Majal (foreigner’s palace) in Lucknow as indigenous educational movement1) Shia Nawabs of Awadh patronized Sunni religious scholars in palace of former French adventurer2) FM developed curriculum for sustaining Muslim identity in various cultural frameworks3) FM remains as basis for much Muslim religious education today

a) languageb) rational sciencesc) logicd) rhetorice) theology in systematic form

d. Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) encouraged stricter norms of Islamic practice1) criticized Sufi saint worship at shrines2) Followers such as Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi led jihad against perceived violations of Muslim religious practice carried out by

Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singha) utopian character of reform movement to destroy and rebuild society on egalitarian basisb) movement failed, forcing new ways to accommodate change42

e. The Bengali Renaissance under Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) using accommodative strategy43

1) Roy as a) employee of EICb) polyglot

i. Persianii. Sanskrit

iii. Arabiciv. English

c) knowledge of Christianity applied to reformist ideals in Hinduismi. critiqued superstition

ii. sought to restore Hinduism to earlier glory2) The Brahmo Sabha founded in 1828 as institution to promote Roy’s vision, later known as the Brahmo Samaj

a) comprised of elite Bengali familiesb) forum for engaging Christianity and Hinduismc) corresponded with Unitarians

i. Englandii. US

d) followed revolutionary and constitutional movements throughout the world

42 This would seem to be something of a precursor to Al Qaeda?43 Note the frequent surnames of “Roy” and “Raj”, indicating the Indo-European etymological link to the Latin base from which we get the term royal.

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f. Radha Kanta Deb (1784-1867) countered accomodationist positon of Roy by founding the Dharma Sabha2. Gender in Colonial India

a. sati, the ritual burning of a widow on husband’s funeral pyre1) valorized in 18th century2) became symbol of barbarity by 1820s, banned in 1828 by colonial state

b. some Bengali elites encouraged banning, including Rammohun Roy who provided Hindu scriptural opposition to satic. Deb supported sati, or at least opposed colonial band. South Asian historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalan point out selective morality of colonial critique of sati

3. The Pressa. English and native language papers benefitted from penny postb. newspaper as foundational to literate Indiac. 1st Indian owned English newspaper in 1777d. the Bombay Samachar founded in 1822 in Gujarati is Asia’s longest-running newspapere. newspapers linked Indians throughout British Empire, facilitating national bonds and action

4. Peasant Resistancea. Bengal

1) Shariat Allah (1781-1784) led Islamic based peasant uprising on indigo plantations2) refusal to pay tribute for support of Hindu religious activities3) Shariat’s son organized workers against abuses of

a) zamindarsb) colonials

4) Blue Mutiny of 1859-60b. Mapilla (Moplah) rebellions on Malabar Coast

1) made economic and social demands on Hindu landlordsa) 1802b) 1830sc) 1849d) 1852

2) like the Faraizi movement44

5. Bhil and Santhal Rebellionsa. among forested tribal groups known formally as adibasis or indigenous inhabitantsb. colonial state referred to as criminals based on allegations of raids to supplement livelihoodsc. Bhils in western India subject to surveillance and punitive response with colonial lack of respect for

1) common law2) habeas corpus

d. Colonials compelled sedentarization on nomadic groups like the Pindaris in 1810se. Santhal rebellion began in Bengal state of Jharkhand under leadership of four brothers in 1855-6 (aka hool)

1) showed resistance not only among elites2) provides basis for present-day Maoist resistance in India’s central forest region

III. FROM HIGH COLONIALISM TO INDEPENDENCE, 1857-1947 (25%) [p. 43]A. 1857: Mutiny or War of Independence? [p. 43]

1. The Causesa. not the first challenge to British authority

1) peasant uprisings2) army mutinies

b. differences from earlier uprisings1) widespread coordination of action2) escalation in scale3) new levels of intensity in challenges to colonial power

c. the EIC in 18571) 1.6 million square miles2) 238,000 all-volunteer army

a) divided into 3 major forces based on provinces (presidencies)b) only 38,000 were Europeanc) British troops had been removed to fight in

i. Persiaii. Crimea

d) European contingent especially small in Bengal and doab heartland in Northe) European focus in NW Punjabf) Bengal Army as largest

i. 151,000 troopsii. 40,000 high-caste

a. Brahminsb. Rajput landholders from recently annexed Awadh

d. Sepoys (soldiers from Persian word sipahi) Rebellion

44 This is another name for Shariat Allah’s movement22

1) Sepoys much cheaper than conscripting Europeans45

2) use of personal networks related to specific populationsa) Awadhb) Bihar

e. disaffection within Bengal army had begun already in mid-18th century1) EIC soldiers’ salaries did not keep up with inflation2) Brahmins could not be promoted to levels comparable with Europeans

f. territorial expansion of mid-18th caused further aggravation1) Maratha territories2) Sind (1843)3) Punjab (1849)4) Awadh (1856)

g. soldiers denied bonus pay for “serving abroad” in these territories, as British promote notion of unified Indiah. Eastern Front expansion added further strain

1) no sepoys used in Burma campaigns so as not to break caste norms forbidding crossing the kala pani (open/black waters)a) 1824b) 1852

2) however, 1856 General Services Enlistment Act required sepoys to go “overseas”i. resentments caused by

1) soldier recruitment outside of Rajput and Brahmin north2) expanded influence of British missionaries as assault on cultural foundations3) public cultural criticisms of

a) Macaulayb) Mill

4) 1856 justification for annexation of Awadh due to Lucknow nawaba) misgovernanceb) decadence

j. increased residents control and expanded use of “doctrine of lapse”k. expansion of company control into highly localized economic areasl. proper context for understanding the dispute over the new form of cartridge

2. Narrative of Eventsa. hearth: army garrison uprising in response to cartridge grease

1) Meerut in 5/1857a) 468 long km from Lucknowb) only 66 km from Delhi

2) religious basis of refusal to bite cartridges led to mass incarcerationsa) pig fat grease offended Muslimsb) tallow from beef offended Hindus

3) the rebellion involveda) massacre of English residentsb) massacre of military superiors of the Cantonment

b. movement toward Delhi1) Mughal heart of India2) seven centuries of political and economic dominance3) seat of Bahadur Shah Zafar, “the last Mughal”

a) 83 years oldb) rallying point for Indian sovereignty

c. summer spread throughout northern and central India1) drew mass support from disaffected

a) dislocated landlordsb) peasants wronged by

i. local notablesii. colonial state

c) merchantsd) former princes

2) drew key elite support that inspired further resistancea) Queen regent at Awadhb) last great Maratha chieftain, Nana Saheb

d. The role of Awadh1) colonial land reforms had dislocated wealthy landlords in favor of landholding peasants

a) medium b) small

2) joint resistance of displaced landlords and peasants shows that grievance not merely economic but alsoa) politicalb) ideological

45 early form of outsourcing!23

3) siege of the Lucknow Residencya) 500 women and childrenb) taken 20 days after Meerut uprisingc) required two separate British relief efforts

e. the central Indian territory of Jhansi and the Maratha territories as centers of uprising1) Jhansi

a) had been annexed under doctrine of lapseb) displaced queen (Rani) died leading troops into battle

2) Marathaa) Dalhousie had ended generous stipend to Chieftain Nana Sahebb) Nana Saheb led successful charge vs. EIC troops at Kanpur (near Lucknow) in 6/57c) officers,women, and children massacred despite Nana Saheb promise of safe passaged) massacre became bases of colonists’ perceptions of barbarism

f. Madras and Bombay Presidencies largely excluded from revoltg. Punjab also with no major fighting

1) had recently been defeated by Bengal Army2) Punjab officers crushed sepoys who showed rebellious sentiment

h. widespread peasant rebellion in north Indian heartland showed support across social groupings1) social groups

a) tribal communitiesb) tenant farmersc) landholders of all sizes

2) historiography has shown that rebellion was not defined by elites but rather based ona) honorb) prestige (especially in Awadh46)

i. British prevailed largely due to “backyard” in other parts of India1) James Neill led Madras army to retake Allahabad fortress in 6/572) Allahabad became base of operations for retaking Lucknow in tough battle over 5 months starting in 7/573) Jhansi retaken the following spring (3/58)4) in 6/59 Gwalior retaken, effectively ending the mutiny47

5) bases in Madras and Bombay gave British crucial resource base that rebels lackedj. rebels also suffered from lack of unity

1) varied discontents led to limited unity2) Hyderabad Nizam perceived rebellion to be largely fomented by enemy Marathas

k. consequences of rebellion both immediate and long-term1) Bahadur Shah Zafar tried, convicted, and exiled to Burma48

a) sons killedb) 1858 Babur’s lineage met ignominious death

2) British revised approach to military policy: The Peel Commission Reporta) ratio of European to Indian soldiers increased

i. from 1:6ii. to 1:2

b) army to not rely as heavily on a single social group, though clear preference given to loyal groupsi. Punjabis, who represented ½ of army by 1857

ii. Pathansiii. Nepali Gurkhas

3) intensified British racisma) British equivalent to Yellow Journalism emerged by mid 19th century with expansion of print mediab) media coverage of Kanpur massacre shifted public opinion against what had previously been seen as legitimate Indian

grievances against colonial rulec) 1,000 Indians massacred at Allahabad deemed legitimate act of revenged) gruesome acts of punishment justified49

i. blown from cannonsii. the razing and fencing in of Shahjahanabad heart of Mughal empire

iii. Red Fort in Delhi taken over by British to house enlarged troop presenceiv. forced expulsion of ½ of Delhi residentsv. Kanpur and Delhi as Mutiny Tours for residents

vi. popularization through emerging technology of photography3. The Post-Mutiny Political Framework

1) Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 which rendered all EIC authority to crown

46 Meerut, Kanpur, Lucknow47 Again, compare the dates of the Crimean war (10/53 – 2/56). One wonders how events might have unfolded had the uprising begun a few months earlier!48 note that last Burmese king exiled to India in 1885, less than 30 years later.49 compare US adoption of torture after 9/11

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2) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 a) Guaranteed ca. 500 Indian princes their title, effectively undermining Dalhousie’s policiesb) traditions invented so as to reaffirm Indian place among British royal familyc) declared the Queen the Empress of British Indiad) declared non-interference in Indian religione) promote social advancement of Indians

3) vast reorganization of resourcesa) India compelled to pay ₤50 million reparation in “India debt’b) required reorganization of land tax system and added income tax on wealthier urban groups

i. basis for financing Indian armyii. Indian Army role expanded throughout Empire

iii. numerous military conflicts involving Indian Armya. Afghanistan in 1870sb. Burma annexed in mid-1880sc. Egypt taken in 1882d. Sudan brought under British control in 1880s and 1890se. Boxer Rebellion ca. 1900f. Boer War (1899-1902)g. Tibet (1902-1903)

iv. enhanced status of India after 1857 indicates designation as “jewel in the crown”c) annual (!) transfer of ca. ₤17-18 million from India to London to pay for

i. military expensesii. administration form London

iii. training new officersiv. military storesv. pensions to retired British officers

vi. Mutinyh debtvii. numerous colonial wars

viii. payments made via natural resources export to Londond) railway building to facilitate

i. troop movementsii. disperse mfg’d goods

iii. export raw materials4) reorganization of cities strengthened division between colonizers and natives

a) reflected heightened fear and suspicionsb) strict division between White and Black towns50

B. 1858-1900 High Noon of Colonialism [p. 48]1. the 1860s and 1870s: intensification of nationalist sentiment in the aftermath of the 1857 rebellion51

a. debates facilitated by new communications technologies1) among Indians2) between Indians and the British

b. the language of debate1) liberalism2) science3) progress4) modernity

c. British sought to expand the social support base in India1) Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress by Imperial Assemblage in Delhi in 1877

a) even though capital was Calcuttab) Delhi symbolized British aspirations to invoke legacy of Mughal Empire

2) princes and notables received personal coat of arms from Viceroy52 Lord Lytton (1876-1880)d. Indian elites awarded formal representation through the Municipal Councils Act of 1882

1) deflected some of the criticism that might be levied against the British for tax increases2) placed Indians in charge of major infrastructure projects on local scale

a) sanitationb) roads

3) served as training ground for “Anglicized” elites in accordance with theories of Macaulay4) allowed British to “balance” representation between Hindus and Muslims53

50 The guide has not yet mentioned, but it should be noted, that the 1860s was the incipient decade for the rise of Social Darwinism. This doctrine arose prior to The Origin of Species (1860) in relation to the theories of Herbert Spencer, who had used Malthus’ ideas to frame his racialist worldview even before he had had the opportunity to apply Darwin’s theories to human societies.51 Note the parallel developments in Europe at this time, especially as it pertained to the multinational lands of the Habsburg Empire.52 Viceroy is literally the person who represents the “king” in an imperial land. Roy is Latin for king.53 Metcalf and Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India, summarized the intentional contradiction of the British program with the following: “Indians were expected to develop universal loyalties and were criticized for parochialism, yet in colonial institutions they

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5) “Divide and Conquer” appears to have been a basic motive for British to induce competition between Hindu and Muslim subjects

2. Indian Religious Movementsa. Islamic modernism

1) animated bya) science b) rationalism

2) embraced secular approach to social relations3) understood nation-state to be basis of polity4) represented by the Aligarh movement

a) founded by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khani. family of service gentry at Mughal Court in Delhi

ii. employed by EIC in 1837iii. sided with EIC during Rebellioniv. wrote Loyal Mohammedans of India in 1861

b) promoted loyalty of Muslims to Britishc) promoted education model based on both Islamic and Western modelsd) 1875 establishment of Mohamadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh

i. modeled ona. oxfordb. Cambridge

ii. principal and staff were Englishiii. Aligarh graduates

a. had come from all Indiab. resettled and assumed leadership positions throughout India

b. Deoband movement rather focused on proper Islamic observance than colonial domination1) critiqued shrine devotion at tombs of Sufi saints2) critiqued ban on Muslim widow remarriage as reflecting contaminating influence of Hinduism3) opposed lavish spending on

a) Saints’ birthdaysb) weddings

4) Deoband madrassa separate from mosquea) organized along modern bureaucratic linesb) relied on public contributions and philanthropy rather than patronagec) used printing presses and pamphlets to spread messaged) first in India to

i. publish annual proceedingsii. list donors’ names

e) graduates returned to homelands and established 9,000 satellite campuses in 1st cdnturyc. Deoband movement more open to women’s participation than Aligarh

1) Aligarh saw men as more suited to public life, whereas Deoband saw moral role of women as paramount2) For Deoband women were to be

a) sensibleb) intelligent companions for husbands c) raise children in proper mannerd) women’s domestic status encoded in Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanasi’s Bahisthi Zaheer

d. Arya Samaj as Hindu parallel to Deoband movement1) purify Hinduism by limiting role of

a) superstitionb) custom

2) purification ceremonies for those who had converted toa) Islamb) Christianity

3) established Temples throughout India which carried the message4) centered in Punjabi heartland where Christian missionaries had had most success

e. Other religious movements54

1) includeda) Singh Sabha in Punjab (1873) sought renewal among Sikhsb) Ahmadiyyas, Muslim minority sectc) Ramakrishna Mission

2) all involved witha) modern organizational techniques

were given incentives to identify with particular religions and castes.”54 Note that the late 19th century was also the time when such religious affiliations as the Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and other Utopian movements with a religious character.

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i. print cultureii. public fundraising

iii. dedicated followers to serve as missionariesb) reforming women’s practicesc) emphasis on

i. individual choiceii. commitment

d) aspired to enter pantheon of world religions by emphasizingi. antiquity

ii. scripturalism3. The Founding of the Indian National Congress, 1885

a. the drain of wealth theory: the colonial state does not represent Indian interests1) not a wholesale rejection of colonialism2) endeavored to secure fiscal policies to nurture development of Indian industries to compete with British3) varioius urban centers for development of theory

a) Calcuttab) Bombayc) Madrasd) London

b. Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917)1) 1st Indian elected to Parliament by London constituency in 18882) Parsi from Bombay3) wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) expressing drain of wealth theory4) other associations

a) 1870 Poona Sarvajanik Sabhab) 1876 Indian Association founded in Bengalc) Madras Mahajana Sabha in 1884d) Bombay Presidency Association in 1885

5) 1885 meeting of regional associations in Bombay became basis for INCc. Constituency of INC

1) no clear democratic basis2) self-selected group of Indian elites from

a) Presidency cities ofi. Madras

ii. Calcuttaiii. Bombay

b) most had traveled to London to study for i. Indian Civil Service exam

ii. or lawc) represented professional class in India

3) character: moderatea) methods:

i. used constitutional pressure tacticsii. employed language of

a. rightsb. justicec. liberalism

iii. did so in polite fashionb) aims

i. increase powers of legislative councilsii. allow Indians to be part of legislative councils

iii. Indianization of the Indian Civil Service, the “steel frame” of the colonial statea. this would have allowed for Indians to have become bard of ICS without journey to Londonb. would ensure that ICS represented Indian interestsc. would allow officer pensions to remain in India

iv. critiqued extractive policiesa. opposed high land revenue demandsb. linked revenue demands to faminec. indentured laborers exploited by plantation owners

4) posed as representatives of larger Indian public to colonial stated. largely Hindu in character

1) Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan of Aligarh movement did not participate due to expectation of a) Hindu domination of elected councilsb) Hindus benefitting from Indianization of ICS

2) despite INC 130 year stated commitment toa) secularism

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b) tolerancee. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) opposed moderated constitutionalism of INC

1) Swaraj as birthright2) Marathi language newspaper advocating

a) more radical line than INCb) more religious line than INC

3) 1893 created the Ganapati Festivala) celebration of Ganeshb) several days of

i. processionsii. food

iii. launching of small shrines to Ganesh in Indian Ocean at Bombay4) 1895 created similar festival for Maratha warrior Shivaji

a) as symbol of Hindu who defeated Mughal Empireb) Tilak prograyed Mughals as Muslim empire

5) encouraged exclusive consumptions of swadeshi (goods produced in India)6) Hindu pride in opposition to colonial rule

4. The Idea of India at the Turn of the Centurya. religious vs. secular visions of the nationb. all groups used rail and communication networksc. shared grievances

1) racial discrimination vs. professional elites2) peasants subject to

a) market forcesb) landlord depredationsc) heavy tax burdens

d. colonial state used religious diversity to exert controlC. Indian Nationalism and the Rise of Gandhi [p. 52]

1. The Partition of Bengal, 1905-1911a. Lord Curzon’s Viceroyship (1899-1905) similar in tone to Dalhousie’s

1) streamline bureaucracy2) withdraw concessions given to Indians in

a) educationb) local government

i. reduced number of elected members on municipal board of Calcutta in 1899ii. led secret all-British conference that reduced the number of elected Indian members of universities’ governing

bodies (1904 Universities Act)b. Partition of Bengal (1905) triggered mass resistance

1) East Bengal with a majority Muslim populationa) broke historic shard homelandb) offended Bengali middle-class

2) swadeshi campaign form 1905-1908 brought together variant strands of nationalist groupsa) INC moderates believed in Constitutional methods

i. petitioning colonial stateii. prudent use of press

b) Hindu militants also saw value in swadeshic) independence groups seeking

i. strengthened Indian economyii. undermine basis of British role in India

d) some revolutionary “terrorist” groups who used swadeshi as cover for their activities55

c. assessing the swadeshi campaign1) early success

a) 25% decrease in imported British goodsb) mass and diverse social base

i. educated professionalsii. students

iii. working-class laborers from factoriesa. Calcuttab. Bombay

c) actionsi. burning of imported goods

ii. marched in streets

55 I personally do not like the use of the term “terrorist” in this context. The resort to violence in the quest for national independence has a long history that rarely gets applied to European contexts. By this standard, would not Washington and Jefferson be terrorists? Garibaldi and Bismarck?

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iii. toured countryside to convince peasants to forego cheaper imported cloth for swadeshi2) growing divisions over tactics limited sustainability of campaign3) compelled London to replace Curzon and ultimately engage long-term reforms to quell insubordination

d. British response to the campaign: the Morley-Minto Reforms of 19091) retooled administration

a) granted majority of non-official seats for elected Indian officialsi. elections not based on universal franchise

ii. votes distributed according to constituenciesa. commercial organizationsb. university graduatesc. municipal boardsd. most importantly: separate electorates for Muslims

b) official seats for colonial officials no longer in majority56

e. The “Hindu” character of Congress and the swadeshi movement resulted in the founding of the Muslim League in 19061) based on Muslims associated with Aligarh movement2) based in Dhaka, in East Bengal3) partition strategy of creating independent base of Muslim influence successful4) Muslims granted separate electorates on Indian municipal councils in Morley-Minto reforms5) separate electorates made it impossible for Hindus to vote for Muslims and vice-versa

f. 1911 formal launching of Delhi as new capital of India1) conscience effort to correlate British rule as continuation of Mughal Empire2) defused mass resistance in

a) Calcuttab) Bengal

3) 1905 partition of Bengal rescinded, though 3 new states createda) Bihar b) Orissac) Assam

g. major gains of India through swadeshi movement: self-representation at the province-wide level2. World War I and India

a. dynamic influences on India1) 1 million Indians into battles across the world2) development of Indian industries as supply flows interrupted3) the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms advanced self-representation and democracy in 19174) the return of Gandhi (1869-1948)

b. Indians drawn into war1) serving in

a) Franceb) East Africa against Germansc) Middle East against Ottomans

2) tripled India’s defense expenditure, contributing ₤150 million to war effort3) lean years for India

a) food prices 2xb) import prices 3x

4) 1918 global flu epidemic killed ca. 14 million Indians5) simultaneous failure of the monsoon

c. Indian industry benefitted from increased customs on British imports1) Gujarati benefitted especially

a) Ahmedabadb) Bombay

2) Indian mill production of cotton exceeded imports from Lancashired. The war galvanized idea of self-determination and generated political reforms

1) Indian nationalists negotiated exchanges for sacrifices ofa) menb) materialc) money

2) new generation of Indian nationalists assert role comparable to that played bya) Australiab) Canada

e. Independence spirit exemplified in 1916 meeting in Lucknow57

1) Joint meeting of a) Muslim League

56 the distinction between official and non-official status is not explained but would appear to be crucial to understanding the real power configuration of colonial administration57 the old Awadh capital

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b) INC2) INC had survived splits between moderates and extremists over 31 years3) Muslim League had a decade of mostly moderate leadership

f. The role of Jinnah (1876-1948) at Lucknow1) background

a) irreligiousb) barristerc) from Karachi and Bombayd) member of legislative council in Bombay in 1910 (34 years old)

2) INC and League agreed toa) common platform with demand for greater self-determinationb) elected majorities on all councilsc) wider franchised) separate electorates to Muslims

3) importance of Muslim community thus upheld in demands for self-determination through separate electorates4) 1916 Lucknow Pact thus

a) adopted Morley-Minto policy of separate electoratesb) accommodated democratic aspirations while alsoc) upholding religio-political identities

g. Britain compelled to accommodate nationalist sentiment in Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Montford) 1) announced in 1917 and formalized in Government of India Act in 19192) Montagu nearly promised dominion status3) dyarchy as key concept

a) under provincial controli. education

ii. health iii. local government

b) colonial state retained control ofi. communications

ii. defenseiii. lawiv. revenue

4) Indians saw Montford as minimalh. End of war spelled end of Constitutionalist approach to settling disputes

1) difficult economic conditions2) colonial repression3) political intractability4) Rowlatt Acts extended wartime powers of detention without trial into peacetime

3. Enter Gandhia. returned to India in 1915 after successful political legal and political career in South Africab. political philosophy expressed in 1909 Hind Swarajc. satyagraha as “truth-struggle”

1) program of self-reform followed by political reform2) involved delineation of publicly-stated political demands that afforded adversary opportunity to

a) acquiesceb) negotiate

3) only after failure of negotiations would agitation occur4) goal: win opponent over to the truth of the cause5) assumption: colonial state had pursued a wrong course with repression of Indians

d. ahimsa (nonviolence)4. Non-Cooperation and the Khilafat Movement

a. Gandhi’s early success upon return to India1) compromise negotiated between mill workers and owners of Ahmedabad2) Bihar settlement ameliorating conditions of indigo tenants

b. cooperated with Ali brothers on Khilafat movement1) brothers

a) Mohammadb) Shaukat

2) aims of Khilafata) preserve Ottoman Empire in wake of WWIb) OE to remain Caliph of Islam

3) Gandhi used Khilafat movement to draw new groups into anti-colonial agitation4) effectively drew Muslim masses into the movement5) 1919 massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in Armitsar also galvanized movement

a) large Sikh center and holy cityb) massacre ordered by British Brigadier-General Dyer

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i. 300 deadii. over 1000 wounded

c) Dyer’s favorable reception in England provided further boost to independence movement in Indiac. Gandhi elected president of INC in 1920

1) creation of mass movementa) fee for membership reduced so that anyone could afford to joinb) reorganized structure of Congress

i. committees linked village to districtii. district to province

iii. province to nation2) boycott of British goods and services, 1920-1922

a) students gave up British education to work with peasantsb) peasants came in droves to INC in response to lowered revenue demands

d. 1922 violent attack on police officers in Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh caused Gandhi to call off movement1) felt non-violent resistance had failed2) retreated for period of spiritual contemplation3) called on movement to gain greater cohesion and discipline4) Khilafat movement collapsed with accession of Ataturk to power in Turkey in 1924

e. Gandhi’s main method was to create strength out of India’s apparent weakness1) poverty2) spiritualism3) military emasculation

D. Mass Nationalism [p. 56]1. Interwar Political Debates

a. tensions within the INC1) Subash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) argued against go-slow program of Gandhi2) others influenced by socialist ideology3) others saw Muslim League as threat and sought to push more hardline Hindu program4) Muslim League beset by limited appeal to even its own religious constituency

b. tensions from outside the INC: Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956)1) background

a) Dalit from Maharashtrab) intellectual prowessc) financial backing from influential Indian prince allowing him to study in

i. Londonii. New York

d) Ph. D in economics fromi. Columbia

ii. London School of Economicse) London bar

2) despite clear talent, discrimination kept him from playing role in India3) critique of Gandhi

a) stress on social harmony ignored oppression of Dalitsb) advocated

i. separate Dalit villages with new infrastructureii. amelioration and reparation for Dalits

iii. weighted political representation to counter advantages of upper caste Hindusc. The Simon commission, 1927

1) all-white2) Indians posed counter-recommendations in same form as Simon Commission3) Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) put forward 1928 Nehru report

a) Nehru backgroundi. Congress Moderate

ii. lawyeriii. from Allahabad

b) report countered Simon’s and advocated greater self-representation2. Civil Disobedience, 1930-1934

a. Gandhi emerges from “retirement”58 to address increasing divisions within nationalist movementb. the 11 point plan sent to Viceroy called for repeal of the salt tax

1) fell most heavily on shoulders of poorest2) heavy symbolism as one of simple claim to the most basic and essential of resources

c. Viceroy’s decision to not correct any grievance triggered Salt March

58 Retirement is probably not a good word to use here. Gandhi was never far removed from his work on the Ashram (at least as shown in Attenborough’s film, Gandhi). The guide also does not appear to be consistent in conveying Ambedkar’s criticism of Gandhi when it rather appears that Gandhi was working diligently to change attitude about “untouchability.”

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1) 241 mile journeya) starting in Gandhi’s “center” of Ahmedabad, Gujaratb) culminating in small seaside town of Dandi, near Surat59

2) the march as eventa) moral issues clear-cutb) powerful focus on two essentials

i. homespun clothii. salt

c) involved massive numbers of women3) the “Frontier Gandhi”, Abdul Ghaffer Khan (1890-1988) extended support for the Salt March to NW Frontier Provinces

a) Pathanb) tall and imposingc) Muslim60

d. Gandhi’s arrest 1) initially upheld discipline of non-violent civil disobedience2) ultimatey fell into violence, causing Gandhi to call off campaign

e. Gandhi’s agreement with Viceroy, Lord Irwin1) India as federation2) Indian responsibility to increase3) safeguards for political minorities to be put into place

f. symbolic significance: 1st time colonial stated treated leader of INC as equal61

g. The 2nd Round Table talk in London1) Dr. Ambedkar won separate electorates for Dalits2) Gandhi angered by Dalit separation as he saw them as part of the Hindu community3) Gandhi viewed as criticism of his own approach to issue of Dalits4) Gandhi responds by undertaking fast-unto-death in effort to avert the division of India62

5) Ambedkar thus coerced into accepting Gandhi’s demands to reverse Dalit electorates in Poona Pact of 19326) Gandhi’s concession: certain legislative districts reserved for untouchables only

a) voters could vote for whomeverb) but all candidates to be Dalits

3. The 1935 Government of India Act and the 1937 Electionsa. The Gov’t of India Act of 1935 (GOIA)

1) ended Montford diarchies at provincial level, placing all departments in hands of Indians2) colonial authority with power to remove Indian representatives if deemed necessary

b. 1937 elections held to confirm provisions of GOIA of 19351) franchise now included 35 million expanded role of middle class2) regional parties contested

a) Congressb) Muslim Leaguec) many others on regional basis

3) INC prevailed in 8 of 11 provinces4) Local parties won other 35) Muslim League captured only 4.4% of Muslim vote6) agrarian based coalitions won in areas that would later become ML63 strongholds

a) Punjabb) Bengal

7) Muslims tended to vote in accordance with local issues, not religious affiliation8) regional parties drawn to ML so as to limit INC dominance

E. World War Two in India [p. 58]1. The Declaration of War and the Two-Nation Theory

a. London declared war on behalf of India without consulting elected Indian governmentb. INC resigned all seats in protextc. Jinnah took advantage of rift between INC and London in 1940 Lahore Resolution

1) argued Indian Muslims as separate nation2) made demands for independent of quasi-autonomous status for Muslim states in

a) Northwestb) east

59 according to the film, the arrival at Surat was to coincide with the anniversary of the Amritsar massacre60 not mentioned in guide61 It is important to note that all of this is occurring as Britain is falling into the depths of the Great Depression. One of the consequences of this is that the conservative governments of the 1920s gave way to the increasing power of the Labour Party as the masses in Britain moved to the left.62 the guide refers to this as Gandhi’s famous “fast unto death”. This is certainly not his most famous fasts and was over in 6 days. Is it possible that the guide has overstated the coercive nature of this tactic in this instance?63 Muslim League

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c) around Muslim majority states ofi. Punjab

ii. Bengal3) hoped to exchange promises of minority rights in Muslim majority regions with Hindu majority regions

d. Jinnah’s two nation theory1) two nations resided in united India2) must be treated equally as nations despite Hindu majority

2. August 1942: Turning Pointa. Sir Stafford Cripps offered full dominion status after war in order to retain Indian support during the warb. INC refused Cripps offer, demanding independence immediately

1) uncertain future promise2) untrustworthy partner64

c. basis for Gandhi’s 3rd major civil disobedience movement: The Quit India movement1) encompassed previously reluctant social groups2) very large number of women participating in 1st public activity outside of home

d. colonial response brutal: arrest and imprisonment of entire INC leadershipe. ML used opportunity to enhance status with Britainf. ML became favored party in exchange for loyalty and gained influence exceeding its electoral base

3. The Indian National Army (INA)a. Subash Chandra Bose’s conception as farfetched, bombastic and galvanizing

1) rebel army that challenged non-violent vision of Gandhi2) endeavored to treat Britain on own terms

a) globalb) militaristic

3) many Indians did not see British victory in their interests4) Japanese advances compelled massive migration of a million Indians from Burma to Calcutta

a) after victories in SE Asiai. Dutch territories

ii. British territories including chokepoint of Singaporeb) control of Singapore gave Axis base to move into Burma

b. Bose consorts with the Axis1) Gandhi had marginalized Bose’s socialist wing of the INC 2) 1939 Bose visited

a) Germanyb) Singapore

3) negotiated deal with the Axis, using Indian POWs of Japan as base of army to fight Britisha) 30,000 member armyb) Rani of Jhansi brigade of women soldiers

4) British made aware of limits of Indian a) loyaltyb) even passivity

5) movement fades with d of Bose in 8/45 airplane crash65

c. 1946 trial of 3 INA leaders for sedition by colonial state1) fanned flames of nationalist discontent2) hastened demise of British in India

4. Indian Summer: The 1943-1944 Famine in Bengala. E. Indian special suffering during WWII

1) 1 million refugees from Burma to Calcutta2) US soldiers able to break siege at Imphal only in 19443) further Allied movement into Burma after 1944

b. colonial policies contributed to Bengal famine1) unlike WWI, in WWII Britain had to fund its own war effort2) Britain unable to fund the 2.5 million Indian soldiers fighting on its behalf3) agreement with the Government of India to fund the war based on promise of British repayment after the war4) 1.3 Billion rupee debt funded during war by government deliberate inflationary policy66

c. famine as consequences of inflation, supplies, and stores1) 3.5 million dead in eastern India2) product of maldistribution

a) food stores centralized in urban areas

64 NB numerous instances of GB promises to allies in WWI that were later left unfulfilled. E.g. Arabs and Kurds.65 note that 8/45 was the month in which the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, effectively bringing WWII to an end66 The guide is somewhat confusing here. It notes a debt of London measures in “₤ 1.3 billion rupees”. Is it British pounds or rupees that is in play here? It is also not clear who is in charge of the “Government of India” at this point, considering that most of the INC leadership had been imprisoned in response to the Quit India movement.

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b) stores shipped to the army as priorityc) hunger deaths concentrated in countryside, where inflation wreaked most damage

3) long-term political impacts of famine in eastern India claimed famine as source of subsequent divisions and riots in Bengal IV. “TRYST WITH DESTINY”: INDEPENDENT INDIA, 1947-1991 (25%) [p. 61]

A. The Independence Settlement [p. 61]1. The Partition Plan

a. severe debt crisis in post-war Britain1) most debt to US2) some debt to government in India3) heavy reliance on US aid4) peacetime food rationing in Britain5) tide turning against colonial rule

a) war fought for democracy and self-determination67

b) 1945 election of Labour governmenti. Labour PM Clement Attlee sought to extricate Britain from India

ii. sought quick movement68

b. The Simla Conference (6/45)1) Simla as Himalayan escape from oppressive summer heat of Delhi and Calcutta2) Viceroy convened joint conference with Muslim League and INC to negotiate Independence3) ML rewarded for its support for Allied war effort4) INC represented by Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)

a) backgroundi. son of Motilal

ii. Spiritual son of Gancdhiiii. grew up in England

a. careful student of situation in Indiab. enormous charisma

b) politicsi. socialist

ii. seculariii. more modernist than Gandhiiv. Gandhi prone to peasant utopian vision

c. The failure of the Simla conference due to irreconcilable divisions between Nehru and Jinnah1) Nehru agreed

a) in principal to two-nations theory of Jinnahb) to equal division between Hindus and Muslims on negotiations committee

2) Nehru rejected Jinnah’s argument that all Muslims be represented by the ML, excluding thereby any Muslims who might affiliate with the Congress Party (CP)

d. British held 1945 election to determine interim government and negotiating partner for further talks1) CP highly successful2) for 1st time, ML also successful

a) in 1937 won only 4.4% of voteb) 1945, ML won

i. all Muslim seats in central legislatureii. 75% of seats in provincial legislatures

iii. guide seems to imply that Jinnah manipulated fear of Hindu dominance in order to achieve these victories3) the reasons for the ML success

a) close work with local Muslimsb) sustained campaign in countryside spearheaded by Muslim scholarsc) promoted Muslim overtones69

4) CP also promoted a religious idiom to sustain its political base, driving moderate Muslims toward a more religious viewe. 1946 Cabinet Mission sought compromise in face of unclear election results

1) Provinces divided into 3 groupsa) Group A was Hindu majority states

67 Clearly, too, the war was fought against an extremist form of racism that was not lost on Indians as well. It’s surprising that the guide does not mention this here!68 The guide’s assertion of Gandhi as a peasant utopian would not appear to be a proper summary of Gandhi’s political viewpoint. Rather, Gandhi asserted that no real progress could be made that disregarded the vast majority of Indians who survived a meager existence as peasants. Progress would have to encompass all of India; not just its urban, industrial groups. Nevertheless, Gandhi’s criticism of western materialism could reasonably be interpreted as a form of peasant idealism. It is also interesting to note the parallel ideological formation of the Maoist version of Marxism that itself focused on the definitive role of the peasantry as the revolutionary core for transformation in the exploited periphery of the world. 69 this despite Jinnah’s generally secular views. One would have to assume that in order to gain the mass support of Muslim peasants, religion would have had to play a prominent role. This mass religious appeal would clearly shape the character of the Pakistan that would emerge from these developments.

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b) Group B included Muslim regionsi. northwest states of

a. Punjabb. Sindc. Baluchistan

ii. northwestern frontier provincesc) Group C: eastern state of Bengal, a Muslim-majority province

2) three-tiered Indian governmenta) tier 1: individual statesb) tier 2: groupings A, B, and Cc) tier 3: national government

3) each group of states to have equal say at national level, giving Muslims far greater voice than numbers would have warranted

4) important powers concentrated at group levela) taxationb) law and order

5) Nehru opposed the inherent divisions as a structural weakness, leaving India susceptible to new modes of foreign exploitation70

6) CP leaves negotiationsf. Jinnah’s response: the Direct Action Day of November 1946

1) triggered violence against Hindus in Bengal2) Hindus retaliated in Bihar3) Gandhi’s tour of the two provinces failed to stem the violence

g. British response to violence was to seek a more rapid withdrawal so as not to become responsible for yet another crisis1) Attlee announced in 2/47 that British would withdraw by 6/482) Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979) sent to negotiate final settlement3) Mountbatten advanced withdrawal date to 8/47, leaving only 6 months to arrive at settlement

h. The charm offensive of Mountbatten and wife, Edwinai. Jinnah viewed Mountbatten’s ultimatum in one of two forms

1) either a united India with no guarantees of Muslim power at the center (as had been set in the Cabinet Mission)2) OR an independent Pakistan with two wings71

j. Jinnah’s acceptance of Pakistan plan achieved even more than his Lahore Resolution of 1940 assertedk. Nehru accepts Mountbatten Plan

1) as best way to achieve end of colonialism2) with pressure from Hindu conservatives within the CP

l. Gandhi vehemently opposed partition2. The Trauma of Partition, 1947-1955

a. no massive migration anticipated1) assumed guarantees of minority rights in both nations would suffice2) failure of planning intensified popular anxiety

a) hurried timelineb) lack of detail c) poor communication

3) other contributing factors to upheavala) post-war conditionsb) oppressive heatc) high-anxietyd) uncertain boundaries

b. border finally determined six weeks after partition1) drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, chosen because he had not been to India and was perceived as neutral2) consultations with

a) Hindusb) Muslimsc) Sikhs

3) Radcliffe Boundary Comissiona) toured Indiab) accepted various argumentsc) settled on decisions that were sometime arbitraryd) immortalized in famous poem of W.H.Auden, “Partition”

c. complete breakdown of law and order in Punjab1) London and Delhi ignored pleas from British officers for reinforcements

70 This system is not dissimilar to that established under the Articles of Confederation in the US in 1783. Nehru may well have been right in asserting the inherent national weakness implicit in such an arrangement. His criticism would thus have little to do with his socialist proclivities, as the guide suggests!71 the two ears on the elephant trunk of India!

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2) largest peacetime migrations till that timea) 6-12 million crossed bordersb) 1 million killed in riotsc) crimes against women

3) Punjab particularly violent because of legacy of militarism in the regiona) had provided bulk of soldiers to Indian Armyb) many veterans of WWII traumatized and inured to violence

d. eastern border exchanges not as violent1) spread out over longer period (1947-1955)2) Calcutta cultural landscape changed with influx of millions of Hindus from E. Pakistan3) eventually, E. Pakistan would become Bangladesh in 1971, due to resentment of domination by W. Pakistan4) Chatterji estimates 4.1 million refugees going from west to east Bengal from1947-19625) partition of Bengal reminiscent of 1905 partition6) strong Bengali identity based on

a) languageb) literature

7) i.e. Bengal closer to Indian identity in many ways than it was to Pakistane. the 8/15/47 “Tryst with Destiny” speech of Nehru, painted optimistic picture of what India could accomplish in the world

3. The Princely States and the Roots of the Kashmir Conflict a. general background

1) 562 princely states2) 45% of territory in subcontinent3) required integration into modern democratic machinery4) most too small to remain viable outside of national integration72

5) generous provisions made for those who acquiesced to join India6) some, however, resisted; with lasting consequences

b. the “instrument of accession” required for princely acquiescence is at heart of Kashmir conflict1) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950) put in charge of princely integration2) Patel faced problems in three states

a) in Junagadh in western India, Muslim Nawab wanted to join Pakistan, which Patel refusedi. cut off supply lines and postal links

ii. sent troops to the borderiii. Nawab capitulated to these pressures

b) similar process in Hyderabadi. Muslim Nizam ruled over 87% population of Hindus73

ii. state surrounded by Indiaiii. acceded to India in 1948 even though some soldiers continued to resist Indian rule

c. Kashmir as obverse of Hyderabad and Junagadh1) Muslim majority state ruled by Hindu kings2) Hindu Kings granted territory in exchange for loyalty during Sikh wars of 1840s3) Hindu Prince Hari Singh announced preference for Pakistan

a) Pakistan more amenable to autocratic style of his rule?b) Singh concerned over socialist tendencies of the new Indiac) concerned to placate Muslim majority

4) Nehru sought to incorporate Kashmir as the one Muslim-majority state in new Indiaa) in order to show evidence of success of secular approach to governmentb) in order to show strength of democratic polity?74

5) incursions with evident ties to Pakistan military drove Singh toward India for military reinforcementsa) incursions in direction of Srinigarb) instrument of accession signed, but would have to be approved by Kashmir citizens

d. Indian troops in Kashmir marked the 1st Indo-Pakistani war on 10/27/471) UN intervention in 1/48 resulted in ceasefire only in 1/492) ceasefire contingent on successful plebiscite, which has never been held3) Kashmir thus tacitly partitioned

a) most territory under Indian controlb) some northwestern territory under Pakistani controlc) boundary not recognized by either side

e. Kashmir accession enshrined in Indian constitution1) substantial autonomy for Kashmir ensured in Article 3702) two additional wars have been fought over status of Kashmir3) tensions remain as a product of

a) Indian mistreatment

72 compare, however, the experiences of such European ministates as Luxembourg, Monaco, and Malta.73 presumably the Nizam also wanted to join Pakistan74 guide does not mention this second element to explain Nehru’s policy

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b) Pakistani support for insurgent movement4) citizens increasingly disgusted by both

a) Delhib) Karachi/Islamabad

B. Jawaharlal Nehru’s India [p. 65]1. “We the People of India”: Drafting the Indian Constitution

a. the challenges Nehru and the Indian government faced in implementing swaraj1) persistent underdevelopment

a) lack of educationb) lack of technology

2) extraordinary diversityb. progressive constitution nevertheless retained many aspects of British colonial state

1) strong central government to protecta) civil libertiesb) equality

2) ameliorative measures fora) Dalits by banning untouchability b) women

3) British parliamentary democracy with elections every five years4) 1952 first application of constitutional election with universal adult franchise5) to this day, Indian democracy with much higher voting rates than most Western democracies

c. Components1) Guiding principles in

a) Preambleb) Fundamental Rights section

2) lengthy details of division of state and central authority created unique form of federalisma) central government held most powersb) state governments

i. control of agricultural landii. law and order

c) third category of topics negotiated between states and central government3) effective accommodation of

a) regional rights and variationsb) strong central government to

i. protect against foreign threatsii. ward off fissiparous tendencies

d. the assassination of Gandhi occurred amidst process of drafting constitution1) January 1948 in New Delhi2) Nathuram Godse, right-wing Hindu nationalist opposed to

a) Gandhi’s accommodations to Muslimsb) message of tolerance

3) resulted in a) banning of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (national organization of volunteers)b) effective removal of right-wing Hindu politics for three decades

2. A Planned, Mixed Economya. 1951-6 focus on land ownership reform, the first of Soviet-style five year plans

1) termsa) ended colonial system of intermediate revenue collection by large landlords in zamindari systemb) formerly large estates divided and sold at below-market rates to allow small holders ownership c) large landholders compensated at below market rates75

2) problems of implementation at the state levela) loopholes in legislationb) dominant groups controlled state legislature and set land ceiling limits so high as to undermine effective reformc) peasants so poor that few could afford to buy even the below market plotsd) peasant cooperatives as alternative to individual land ownership never implementede) “and the process was marred by the inefficiency, loopholes, and fraud that accompany any large government

scheme.”76

75 For the record, and against what the guide asserts, this is exactly the OPPOSITE of the Soviet five-year plans. Stalin’s system entailed collectivization, which effectively turned the agriculture sector of the economy over to control of the state. Stalin subordinated the agricultural economy to the needs of rapid industrialization. What Nehru appears to be doing here is rather reminiscent of the program of peasant-centered development that Gandhi had advocated. The analogy to the Soviet system appears thus far to be off-target.76 the conservative ideological predilections of the guide’s author(s) are laid pretty clearly here. One wonders what would have happened to land reform had the Congress Party taken Ambedkar’s proposals more seriously to allow for separate representation of the historically oppressed Dalits. One can’t help but draw the parallels to the proposals of Radical Republicans at the end of the Civil

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3) accomplishments of the land reform limiteda) Uttar Pradesh: 3 million peasants took control of 7 million acres of land

i. small cultivatorsii. even some sharecroppers

b) as interesting experiment in federal relations between states and central governmentc) as testament to central government commitment to social reformd) limits of success reverberate to present day

i. rise of radical Maoist movements in 1950s and 1960s77

a. West Bengalb. Keralac. Andhra Pradesh

ii. the bhoodan (land gift) movement of Gandhian Vinobha Bhave as effort to have landowners voluntarily gift land

b. The Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961): industrial development78

1) large industries placed in government handsa) national securityb) development

i. minesii. atomic energy

2) joint control with private entities of some less essential industries3) small industries entirely private4) protectionism

a) auto industryi. only car produced in India was the Ambassador

a. clunkyb. stately

ii. high tariffs nurtured Indian development of industryb) Nehru’s efforts successful despite US opposition

i. industrial output increased 7% annuallyii. base income levels rose

c) agricultural productivity increasedi. 25% in first five-year plan

ii. 20% in 2nd five year planc. Nehru and non-alignment

1) defined: coalition of former colonies dissatisfied with Soviet and Western bloc system2) Nehru organized Bandung conference in Indonesia (1955) which included recently independent states

a) 1949i. Burma

ii. Sri Lankab) Indonesia (1949)c) ultimately, Ghana joined as 1st independent African colony (1957 independence)

3) reflects inspiration of anti-colonial sentiments expressed ina) Gandhian nationalismb) Nehruvian vision

3. Language, Religion, and Caste in Independent Indiaa. Language as greatest source of division

1) the problem: 14 major linguistic groupings79

2) the solution enshrined in the constitution: 15 years of official English then transition to Hindi3) the reality: English remains the language of governance

War to grant every freed slave 40 acres and a mule. This, of course, could only have been done in the aftermath of the comprehensive defeat of the Confederacy in the US Civil War. India was not going to push this reform to the extent that it would tear apart an already divided society. Also, for the record, by economic measures the Soviet state-sponsored planning experience was quite successful.77 It should be noted that the decades after the end of World War II were marked by a number of post-colonial peasant uprisings that included Vietnam, China, and Algeria. Land reform remains a major theme in various Central American conflict up to the present and was definitive in the Mexican Revolution in the decade of the 1910s. The Soviet revolution was also largely a peasant revolt that occurred in the crisis of WWI. The lack of a major peasant uprising in India might be regarded as at least partly an expression of the success of the political order that had been established under its constitution.78 This paragraph is somewhat frustrating in that it does not look at some of the essentials such as energy, transportation, and communication. It also does not mention healthcare. In most European states after WWII these have been placed under the more-or-less direct control of the government. The term “mixed economies” is thus rather useless in that all economies are mixed to a certain degree. Few economies are as favorable to private interests as that of the US.79 Including hundreds of Indo-European language family languages as well as numerous languages from the Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan, and Uralic language families.

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a) Hindi pertinent only to dominant northern languagesi. Punjabi

ii. Bengalib) Hindi resented by speakers of

i. Tamilii. Telugu

iii. Malayalamiv. Kannada

c) English as practical, albeit imperfect, solution4) India has successfully averted political devolution based on linguistically-based nationalism5) the case study of Madras as example of inclusive rather than devolutionary resolution of linguistic nationalism

a) Potti Sriramulu 1952 fast to create Telugu-speaking state our of Madrasb) his death from the fast forced Nehru to resolve Tamil and Telugu dispute in favor of Teluguc) by 1956, 14 states incorporated based on linguistic nationalism

6) the example of Punjaba) two Hindi-speaking states

i. Haryanaii. Himachal Pradesh

b) Punjab for Punjabisb. religion

1) no special constitutional protection for Indian Muslims outside of general guarantees to minorities2) separate Muslim representation instituted under British was abolished3) state support for varied religious communities through encouragement and support of religious-based

a) schoolsb) universitiesc) associations

4) many national holidays for each of India’s religionsc. caste

1) Dalits protected by constituonal legal obligation to equality and anti-discrimination2) special representation seats for scheduled castes and tribes (SCs and STs)

a) essentially the same system as Gandhi and Ambedkar’s Poona Pactb) SCs and STs helped develop regional and national political parties to represent these groups

3) reserved seats extended to a) government employmentb) educationc) in essence, India’s version of Affirmative Action!

4. Nehru’s Death and Legacya. CP party domination in elections of 1952, 1957, and 1962b. the enduring democratic political culture

1) contrary to skepticism of Western political scientistsa) the legacy of “oriental despotism”b) religious fervorc) poverty

2) transfers of powera) peacefulb) reflective of voter choice

3) varied political perspectives outside of the defining role of CPa) communistsb) Hindu nationalists

4) occasional resort to emergency powers such as governor’s rule5) generally consistent respect for

a) civil libertiesb) due processc) free expression

6) Congress promoted collaboration betweena) national partyb) state-level leaders

c. the 1962 War with China1) triggered by refuge offered by Nehru to Dalai Lama after Chinese annexation of Tibet in 19592) Chinese encroachment into what India perceived as its territory3) some claim that Nehru visibly weakened by defeat

C. Mrs. Gandhi’s India [p. 70]1. The Congress Political System

a. Nehru’s successor: Lal Bahadur Shastri1) the 2nd Indo-Pakistani War (1965)

a) Indian response to Pakistani-sponsored insurgency in Kashmir

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b) ended in a ceasefire2) Shastri died en route to Tashkent to sign ceasefire agreement

b. death of Shastri opened way for political career of Indira Gandhi (1917-1984)1) Nehru’s daughter who came to be called Mrs. Gandhi80

a) had been constant companion of her fatherb) married Feroze Gandhi, who was not related to Mohandasc) Gandhi is common name in Gujarati

2) CP considered Indira to be pliable link to Nehru legacy3) Indira had her own ambitions not in line with CP power brokers

c. the 1967 elections1) Congress retained national power but lost in several important states2) Indira

a) exploits momentary weakness to create the Congress-I partyb) circumvents party elites in order to make mass appeal on garibati hatao (expel poverty) platformc) “Indira is India”

3) resounding Congress victories in 1967 and 1971, despite the weakening of Party-centered culture created by her father4) Indira used religious assertions as basis for mass appeal

2. The Birth of Bangladesha. general context of difficult international challenges

1) mass campaign of nationalization of key industries2) 1971 alignment with the Soviet Union

a) forsaking father’s nonalignmentb) distrust of US due to its close ties with Pakistan

3) elimination of stipends for former Indian princes and their descendants4) abolished fundamental right to hold property in order to fund populist programs

b. major victory in the 3rd war with Pakistan1) context of alienation of East Pakistanis

a) the language division: Bengal vs. Urdu and Punjabib) disenfranchised in many waysc) cut off from access to

i. government jobsii. elite institutions

iii. networksd) West Pakistan consistently underfunded development programs in favor of heartland projects

2) E. Pakistan election of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the Awami League triggered massive W. Pakistan interventiona) brutal suppression of all signs of resistanceb) ca. 1.5 million Bangali civilians killedc) mass migration into Indian W. Bengal

3) Gandhi successfully invaded E. Pakistan created modern Bangladesh, which retains generally good relations with IndiaD. The Emergency, 1975-1977, and Its Aftermath [p. 7-]

1. Social Movements in 1960s and 1970s Indiaa. 1973 as crisis transition in Indira’s PMship

1) global inflation hurt Indian economya) food shortagesb) unemployment

2) promises made earlier unfulfilled3) corruption scandals

b. the rise of Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979) in Northern India1) background

a) Gandhianb) socialistc) graduate of University of Wisconsin, rather than England

2) personal tours of Indian countryside similar to Gandhi3) political alliance with Morarji Desai in Gujarati, who rather represented middle-class dismay with Indira4) The Total Revolution campaign of 1974-5 was the result of this alliance

c. the Naxalite movement in Bengal1) originated in town of Naxalbari in late 1960s2) state repression drove movement toward Maoism3) Naxalite movement active in India for over 40 years now as revolutionary movement

a) attacks on Indian policeb) attacks on army outposts

4) centered in forested core at juncture point of states ofa) Andhra Pradeshb) Orissac) Bengal

80 to what extent was her assuming the surname Gandhi an effort to claim the mantel of both great founding fathers of modern India?40

d) Madhya Pradeshe) Maharashtraf) new state of Chhattisgarh

5) strong support by tribal residentsa) neglected by stateb) resist incursions on traditional lifestyle of

i. modern industryii. commerce

d. combination of discontented groups made Indira’s regime ineffective2. The Emergency, 1975-1977

a. the causes and content of the emergency1) Indian High Court invalidated Indira’s election in 1971 on paperwork technicality2) Indira responded by declaring emergency

a) suspendingi. civil liberties

ii. due processiii. free speech

b) imprisoned rivals3) Indira convened Parliament to retroactively validate her election4) used poverty as an excuse to

a) justify repressionb) aggressively (and selectively?) pursue corruption

5) younger son Sanjay (1946-1980) enters scene in support of Indira’s programa) cleared slums in service of

i. economic efficiencyii. aesthetic appeal

b) enforced birth control often via forced sterilizations6) the darkest moment in Indian democracy?

b. public response to the emergency1) initial support of middle classes as way to undermine campaign of Narayan2) poor and Muslims alienated by

a) mass sterilizationb) slum clearance

3) 1977 call for elections resulted in severe defeat of Indira’s program4) Morarji Desai led coalition of parties that took control

a) led by Janata Partyb) increased influence of regional partiesc) right-wing Hindu party part of coalition, the Jan Sanghd) coalition unstable with Uttar Pradesh leader Chaudhury Charan Singh briefly unseating Desai.

5) coalition collapsed in 1980 and Indira brought back into power3. Return to Power and Regional Autonomy

a. further enhanced role of religion, with chief example being Punjab 1) linguistic reorganization had resulted in creation of three states in British Punjab

a) Himachal Pradeshb) Haryanac) Punjab, the Sikh heartland

2) Punjab separatism/devolution strengthened under Indira’s regimeb. The Punjabi grievances

1) Punjab as breadbasket of modern India as a result of its effective implementation of Green Revolution technologies2) disputes with Punjab

a) economic, especially in relation to water rightsb) location of capitalc) preservation of historic role of Punjabis in the Indian military

3) Punjab grievances organized in relation to the Akali Dal party whose goal greater autonomy in Khalistan (land of the pure)

c. Indira plays the religious card: her support for Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale (1947-1984)1) nature of support

a) materialb) political

2) Indira, however, could not control Bhindranwale’s radicalism a) roadside executions of opponentsb) sought refuge in Sikh temple at Amritsar

3) 1984 Operation Blue Stara) Indian army stormed Golden Temple with tanksb) Bhinranwale killed

4) Sikhs devastated by betrayal of Indian government and destruction of their holiest shrine

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d. Mrs. Gandhi assassinated by two of her own Sikh bodyguardse. retaliation against Sikhs

1) fomented by Congress party by handing out lists of Sikh-owned businesses2) 3,000 Sikhs killed

f. the major consequence of the emergency: the shattering of Indian secularismV. CONTEMPORARY INDIA, 1991-2014 (10%) [p. 74]

A. Introduction [p. 74]1. the end of Congress dominance in 19892. economic liberalization3. development of consumerist lifestyles4. national focus, despite increasing importance of state activity5. Parliamentary system combining legislative and executive powers

a. Prime Minister elected by ruling party or coalitionb. President as constitutional head of state with similar role to monarch in constitutional monarchiesc. ministerial heads come from elected members of Parliament

1) heads such asa) Homeb) Foreign c) Planning

2) two houses of Parliamenta) upper houseb) lower house Lok Sabha (People’s house) of 545 seats

B. India under Rajiv Gandhi: The Third Generation of the Nehru Dynasty (1984-1989) [p. 75]1. Rajiv’s Economic Policy

a. Rajiv’s accession1) President Zail Singh immediately swore in Rajiv immediately after assassination of Indira2) Rajiv won resounding majority after calling for electoral confirmation, winning 77% of Lok Sabha

b. movement away from relative success of Nehruvian autarky1) Import Substitution Policies and protectionism of earlier decades2) movement away from state sponsored infrastructure projects of predecessors

a) minesb) factoriesc) dams for hydroelectric and irrigation

3) Green Revolutiona) successful in wheat regions

i. Punjabii. Haryana

b) relative failure in rice region of eastern India4) famine eliminated, though problems with malnutrition continue

c. Rajiv facing limits of Nehruvian success1) large government debt burdens2) regulations slowed

a) growthb) innovation

3) heavy defense burdens4) corruption

d. Rajiv contributes to corruption through “Permit raj” (license prince?): 1980s as era for favored permits for new businesse. program featured deregulation, import liberalization, and easier access to foreign technology

1) program led by technocratic economists, especially Manhmohan Singh (PM 2004-2014)2) eased restrictions on imports, especially electronics3) opened to foreign investment through joint ventures, especially in auto industry4) pushed for revolution in information technology

2. Rajiv’s Foreign Policya. turn toward the US as the USSR enters terminal phaseb. regional affairs: Sri Lanka

1) backgrounda) Sinhalese Buddhists failed to integrate Tamil Hindu minority effectively into societyb) Tamils as descendents of plantation workers who migrated to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in colonial period from Tamil Nadu

2) Indian peace-keepers sent in 1987 drawn into long conflict with Tamil Tigers, ultimately withdrawn in19903) female suicide bomber assassinated Rajiv and 14 others during campaign visit to Tamil Nadu in May 19914) Sri Lankan civil war ended with complete suppression of Tamil insurgency by May 2009

a) ended 26 years of civil warb) suppression achieved by President Mahinda Rajapaksa

3. Religion and Politics in the 1980s and 1990sa. continuation of Indira’s religious program exacerbated tensions with India’s Muslims

1) 37 million Indian Muslims in population of 372 million at time of partition historically supported INC

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2) Rajiv appealed to conservative rather than reformist wing of Indian Muslims to secure vote banka) group of electors who vote en masse for

i. candidateii. party

b) assumes people vote as groups rather than as individuals81

3) Indian secularism generally included rights of each religiona) to found schoolsb) observe public holidaysc) practice own civil laws related to

i. marriageii. divorce

iii. inheritanceiv. adoptionv. other family and religious customs

d) these founded in the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858b. the 1985 Supreme Court case of Shah Bano brought religious problems to fore

1) circumstancesa) elderly Muslim women turned out from home through triple talak divorceb) unilateral divorce as male prerogative, though with some protections for woman under Muslim marriage contractc) Shah Bono sought government assistance in deriving alimonyd) lower courts granted request and ordered husband to pay monthly maintenancee) lower courts operating on a century of precedent in this matter

i. matter considered under criminal lawii. criminal operant because women without support often had to turn to illegal means for sustenance

f) husband appealed case to Supreme Court i. on contention that Muslim contract adequately provided for divorced wife

ii. and that criminal code violated his constitutionally guaranteed religious freedom2) the Supreme Court decision as frontal assault on fundamentals of Islam

a) five justice bench of all Hindusb) precedent in support of wife exceeded with attack on Koran

3) Rajiv used Supreme Court decision as opportunity to appeal to Muslim conservatives via the 1986 Muslim Women’s Billa) Muslim women could no longer sue for maintenance under criminal lawb) women dependent only on Muslim religious personal law

c. other appeals of CP to Islamic conservatives1) Hindu right endorsed stereotype of Muslim male misogyny2) Hindus right asserted civilizing mission sentiment of former colonials3) Hindu right accused CP of “pseudo-secularism”

a) in refusal to undertake common civil law for marriageb) in subjecting Hindu males to laws not applied to Muslim males

4) Hindu right as patriarchal upholder of Muslim women’s rightsd. Muslim women doubly disregarded

1) denied right to claim maintenance2) closed out of discussion on women’s rights by Rajiv’s appeal to Islamic conservative male leadership

e. the growth of the Muslim women’s movement since the 1980s1) able to effectively argue that social structures, not the Koran, is basis of discrimination2) creation in 2006 of All India Muslim Women’s Personal laws Board

a) provided platform for women to develop their own exegesis of Koranb) compelled male-dominated Personal Law Board to include womenc) proffered model nikahnamah (marriage contract) with better rights to

i. propertyii. money

f. 2001 revision of Supreme Court decision in Shah Bano case1) based on common law practice of “reading down”

a) reinterpretation of statute along Constitutional linesb) does not involve overturning of statute

2) court declared an “equivalence” of criminal law and terms of the muslim Women’s Act3) principals asserted

a) Indian secularism need not unseat separate religious practices through uniform civil codeb) reforms could be enacted by each community on its own terms

4. Roots of the Babri Masjid Affaira. background

1) Babri Masjid built in 1528

81 this appears to be similar to district apportionment in which certain racial groupings are guaranteed representation through a clear majority in that district. It assumes, however, that whites will largely vote for whites and blacks for blacks. It feeds separation rather than unity.

43

a) through patronage of founder of Mughal Empire, Baburb) located in Ayodhya, 85 miles east of Lucknow

2) some Hindus believe that mosque came with destruction of temple devoted to a) Hindu Lord Ramb) avatar of the god Vishnu

3) most mainstream historians dispute Hindu activists’ claim4) 1949 claim of miraculous insertion of Ram icon in mosque5) state reasonable response of closing site upon rise of religious tensions6) matter remained dormant for 36 years

b. 1986 Rajiv reopened temple as reassurance to Hindus in light of Muslim Women’s Actc. demands grew to restore alleged temple on site of the mosque

1) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)President L.K. Advani toured India dressed like Lord Ram in a) 1990b) Toyota chariot

2) coincided with TV serializations of Hindu epicsa) The Ramayanab) The Mahabharata

3) episode combined forces ofa) mass mediab) spectaclec) religious devotiond) violent ends

d. The Hindutva philosophy1) Veer Sarvarkar (1833-1966) as ideological founder

a) 1923 tract, Hindutvab) three pillars

i. geographic unity of Indiaii. Aryan roots of Hindu community in Sanskrit scriptures

iii. common culture of Indiac) “big tent” concept of Hinduism included

i. Sikhsii. Jains

iii. Buddhistsd) Islam as the externalized “other” due to the foreign origins of its religious idease) Muslims

i. required to bear extra burden of “assimilation”ii. not entitled to special provisions as laid in constitution

a. no 1909 separate electoratesb. no 1985 variant civil law

2) as correlated to other Hindu nationalist organizationsa) many originate in early 20th centuryb) the Hindu Mahasabha as coalition that formed premier organization of Hindu nationalism

i. promoted cow protectionii. promoted Sanskritized Hindi language over

a. Urdub. English c. other

c) Rashitriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) “Association of National Volunteers,”est. 1925i. paramilitary organization that did not seek electoral politics

ii. organized into local units (shakhas)a. paramilitary trainingb. community servicec. create bases of supportd. meet needs of locals when state fails

iii. primary goal: reform Hindu community in relation to totally dedicated warrior leadersa. strongb. masculinec. militaristic

iv. supported by the Mahasabha in its expansion in north Indian heartland, especially in those areas where high caste threatened bya. peasants’ unrestb. large Muslim populations

v. after partition found sympathetic base among traumatizeda. Hindusb. Sikhs

vi. lost prominence when RSS member Nathauram Godse assassinated Gandhi

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d) other Hindustva organizations affiliated with the Sangh Pariwar family of Hindu right organizationse) BJP party formed when Jan Sangh w/drew from Janata Party coalition in 1980

5. Rajiv’s Fall and the Rise of the Manata Dal/National Front Governmenta. the Swedish arms (Bofor) scandal and kickbacks to ministers in Rajib’s governmentb. V.P. Singh “pushed scandal forward” to the point that Rajiv expelled him from CPc. Singh established coalition that would unseat CP in 1989 elections

1) led by Singh’s Janata Dal2) prudent electoral strategy held coalition together3) led to major BJP victory on national stage with 86 seats in the Lok Sabha

d. CP suffered further defeats at state level in 19901) CP controlled only 9 states2) in 1985 it had controlled 173) Janata Dal won five states in Hindi heartland4) BJP in control of

a) Madhya Pradeshb) HimachalPradesh

e. so began the period of “political fragmentation”C. Prime Minister V.P. Singh (1989-1990) and the Mandal Commission [p. 79]

1. Singh’s reform program to change caste-based affirmative actiona. increase reserved seats for scheduled communities

1) from 22.5%2) to 49.5%

b. promote National Front/Janata Dal base via implementing Mandal Commission efforts to improve access to1) education2) employment

c. affirmative action programs applied to OBCs (Other Backward Classes) raised OBCs political status2. the response of upper castes to Mandal Commission implementation

a. particularly strong among1) students2) medical community3) to the point of self-immolation

b. 1992 Supreme Court decision upheld 50% as maximum permissible affirmative action quota, thereby affirming Mandalc. dispute provoked BJP to abandon Janata Dal coalition and undermine PMship of Singh

3. assessmenta. have empowered manyb. negatively, has created a hierarchy within the oppressed classes82

c. wealth not “thoroughly” distributed within each caste grouping83

d. caste identity has become “reinscribed” by the state84

e. “substantive” equality over “formal” equality has created a culture that motivates caste identity85

f. The 1989 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act1) effort to address the problems of caste-based violence, especially in rural areas2) established special courts tor trials in abusive cases3) recognition of inherent weakness of normal institutions in addressing such cases

a) policeb) courts

4) bottom line: oppressed groups to not have reliable forums for justice86

82 this is reminiscent of when in US history the Irish became a primary source of hostility toward the Chinese and, ultimately, African-Americans -- without, of course, the racial dimension. The general situation evokes Max Weber’s understanding that people do not generically identify in a social group. They seek a status above someone else, not class solidarity with a denigrated social group from which they might have derived.83 One suspects that what the guide is attempting to assert here is that a network of power and influence emerged among the OBCs that operates with the same weaknesses and corruptions as in the rest of the society. Poverty does not always breed virtue!84 “reinscribed” seems an awkward verb here. Rather “reconfigured”?85 presumably, the distinction between “substantive” vs. “formal” equality correlates to the legally-encoded equality that is guaranteed, for instance, in the US constitution. Of course, this legal equality for African-Americans and some others did not always pertain. Recent Indian history appears to be an effort to focus “de facto” egalitarianism as opposed to merely “de jure”. This is the challenge of Affirmative Action programs wherever they might occur: How to recognize the inherent consequences of centuries of injustice without creating new injustices that might become more pernicious. Programs such as Affirmative Action entail inherent dangers that open the way for new forms of injustice and discrimination. That does not necessarily mean, however, that the programs are inherently flawed. The challenge in any democracy is to be vigilant and engaged, ever-ready to improve and change.86 Again, the parallels to the US are evident. There have been numerous instances in which the US federal government has had to intervene to protect minorities (especially Blacks) in instances of local and state police and judicial abuse. There is a spate of federal law in the US that has been set up to address precisely these more local injustices. The complex interplay between local, state, and federal authorities is an inherent part of the complex interactions in democratic societies.

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D. The Prime Ministership of P.V. Narisimha Rao (1991-1996, as representative of the INC (I) Party) [p. 79]1. The Destruction of Babri Masjid

a. Rao came to power on wave of sympathy for INC after assassination of Rajiv Gandhi at hands of Tamils in 1991b. 12/92 state efforts to protect structure failed

1) weak policing2) role of BJP

a) not in power in 1990b) chief Min Kalyan Singh could not keep word

i. structure razed by karsevaks (volunteers)ii. singh faced criminial charges for failure

c. Rao imposed President’s Rule1) dismissed

a) Singh’s elected government in UPb) 3 other state governments

2) courts assumed control of legal status of temple in compromise rulinga) 1/3 of temple land to Lord Ram devotionb) 1/3 of temple land to Muslim organization c) 1/3 of temple land to stae

d. aftermath of destruction1) riots killing ca. 1000

a) north Indiab) Bombay

2) state complicity in violence against Muslimsa) Shiv Sena party in Bombay increasing local political power

i. nativistii. militaristic

iii. founded by political cartoonist Bal Thackeray (1926-2012)b) Maharishtrian regionals targeted outsiders operating in Bombay

i. south Indiansii. Muslims

iii. Gujaratisc) Shivaji iconographyd) Shiv Sena important role despite political dominance of Congress in Maharashtra

2. Liberalizationa. the weight of the 1980s debt burden87

1) 1991 debt obligation was 75% of GDP2) Gulf War oil price spike compelled India to seek two IMF bailout loans totaling $3.2 billion3) IMF loans predicated on “structural adjustments”

a) privatization of industryb) devaluation of rupeec) abolition of export subsidies

b. liberalization success1) GDP annual growth rose to 6.3% after miring at 3% as “Hindu rate of growth”2) IMF restructuring irreversible despite recent declines88

3) critiques from Left and Righta) foreign dominationb) lack of Indian

i. goodsii. ideas

c. the social consequences of liberalization1) the rise of a new middle class as measured in consumer goods purchases

a) washing machinesb) TVsc) kitchen appliancesd) air condtioners

2) Indian corporations as measured in Forbes Magazine’s list of 2000 public companiesa) Reliance Industries

87 Again, either the ideological obsession or the naivety of the guide authors’ viewpoints are revealed. By the end of the 1980s, MOST governments in the developing world were in the midst of a debt crisis. There was nothing uniquely “socialist” about debt problems. The global debt crisis of the late 1980s was a product of complex policies emanating from the world’s banking centers and projecting into Asia, Europe, Latin America, and Africa regardless of the political and economic policies undertaken by the various governments on those continents.88 The guide’s commitment of “Washington Consensus” ideology is almost humorous in its lack disparagement of the voices of those who might disagree. There “was no going back” despite recent evidence showing that growth declines may soon fall below those of the “Hindu rate.” What’s next, a “Rastafarian rate”?

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i. largest private sector firm in Indiaii. diversified (conglomerate)

a. offshore oil fieldsb. televisionc. publishingd. telecom

iii. recently split up by sons of patriarch, Dhirubhai Ambanib) State Bank of Indiac) Oil & Natural Gasd) ICICI Banke) Tata Motors

d. liberalization expanded telecom1) created many new television broadcasters

a) from 1959-1991 Doordarshan held monopolyb) presently 700 licensed channelsc) 60% of all households have cable and satellite

2) 600 million unique mobile telephone connections3) growth in “citizen journalism” monitoring

a) corporationsb) politicians

3. Politics in the Southa. Tamils

1) since 1950s, have called for autonomy rather than secession2) 1975-1987 led by the DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam) under Chief Minister M.G. Ramachandran (1917-1987)

a) background in Tamil Film Industry exemplifies role of film industry in linking to political careeri. producer

ii. actoriii. director

b) exemplifies role of cinema fan cultures and clubs in influencing lifei. public

ii. artisticb. Andhra Pradesh

1) INC dominance until 19832) 1983 rise of Telugu Desam Party under film star N.T.R. Rao3) under party leadership of Chandra Babu Naidu TDP has

a) effective adoption of e-governance tools b) turned Hyderabad into major IT center

4) challenged by Telangana movement, which achieved separate statehood in 2014a) perceived historic unityb) sense of development in comparison with other regions in APc) struggle between AP and Telangana over status of Hyderabad resulted in temporary compromise of 10 years as capital

of both statesc. Karnataka

1) varied leadership since 1983 ofa) INCb) Janata Dal

2) capital Bangalore as IT industry centerd. Kerala as center of communist influence with success measured in89

1) balanced distribution of wealth2) high human-index measures, e.g. 93% adult literacy, highest in country

E. The BJP and the Prime Ministership of Atul Bihari Vajpayee, 1998-2004 [p. 82]1. Nuclear South Asia

a. background to BJP1) dominant party in current government whose first ascension to power occurred in 19982) moved away from Hindutva roots and has focused on economic development3) movement away from Hindutva opened doors to coalition partners in quest to unseat Congress4) however, 13 coalition partners very diverse and have contributed to paralysis

b. effort to assert India’s geostrategic standing vis-à-vis1) Pakistan2) China

c. 1998 nuclear tests in Pokharan in Thar Desert of Rajasthan1) second explosions in this desert

89 This example and this section provides some great evidence in support of the federalist structure in general and in India in particular. In a true federalist system, individual states provide experimental labs in governance that reflect local cultures but that also might contribute to programs and policies that might be adopted in other states or even at the national level.

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2) first explosion was in 1974 as response to Chinese tests at that timed. BJP used nuclear weapons as expression of Indian power in 1998e. Pakistani exploded nuclear weapons in Baluchistanf. neither state willing to accept criticism from Russia or USAg. MAD not guaranteed to

1) prevent error2) deter war

2. Kashmira. new crisis in Kashmir since 1989 different from earlier

1) earlier crisis as state dispute between India and Pakistan2) new crisis as product of local insurgency related to disputes between

a) Kashmirb) Delhi

3) crisis as product of Delhi’sa) excesses of forceb) shortages of funds

b. the story of Sheik Abdullah1) leader of INC-modeled National Conference overthrown by Nehru in 19532) detained and released after 22 years3) resounding political success from 1977 until death in 19824) succeeded by his son, Farooq

c. the failings of Indian policy in Kashmir led to rise in political opposition to India1) failures of national leadership

a) Nehru and Indira failed to create “vibrant constitutional culture” in Kashmir as they had elsewhereb) Rajiv “cynically manipulated Kashmiri politics”

2) rise of new partiesa) Muslim United Frontb) Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front embraced violencec) other groups also undertook violence

d. the role of Pakistan1) goal: weaken India2) method: force India into further repressive measures3) success

a) soldier:citizen = 1:5, the highest anywhere in the world in 1990b) visible Indian presence everywhere lends sense of occupation

4) 100,000 Hindu Pandit refugees from targeted bombings of non-Muslims create Hindu resentment and support for Indiae. analysis

1) current crisis not significantly related toa) Islamb) Indian secularism

2) conflict based on key factors ofa) regionb) nationc) incorporation

3) Jammu and Kashmir LF demands “secular and sovereign Kashmir”4) conflict fostered by Delhi

a) denial of political rightsb) political repression

5) Pakistani role is to keep Indian army tied up in Kashmirf. the 1999 Kargil conflict

1) cause: infiltration of Pakistani agents over the Line of Control (the agreed upon border after last Indo-Pakistani war)2) war remained conventional and short, though fought at 2,700 meters3) BJP framed it as Hindu war against Muslim Pakistan

g. current government under control of Omar Abdullah, Chief Minister (2009-Present)1) son of Farooq2) paradox of Kashmir dependency upon and resentment of India3) most recent Delhi failure in response to massive floods in 9/2014

h. Kashmir insurgency in context of other separatist conflicts that began in 19891) Punjab and Assam successfully incorporated after long, bloody conflict2) programs of government employment and developmental funds not as effective in Punjab

F. The Prime Ministership of Manmohan Singh (b. 1932), 2004-2014 [p. 83]1. 2004 defeat of BJP-Led National Democratic Alliance

a. Congress victory attributable to feared rise of “communal forces”b. BJP lost over 100 seats in Lower House (Lok Sabha)

2. Singh as leader of UPA (United Progressive Alliance) programa. 2009 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)

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1) guaranteed to all rural residents 100 days’ of income/year2) inadequate redistribution of wealth considering the rapid growth of urban economy

b. increased concentration of wealth among the few90

c. corruption reached unprecedented proportions, e.g. 2G spectrum scam when $400 million lost after failure to auction bid91

d. Legislative efforts to address corruption1) 2005 Right to Information Act (RTI)

a) similar to FOIA in USb) right of ordinary citizen to obtain state information about working of government

i. decision-makingii. finance

iii. hiringiv. firing

c) in conjunction with internet has unveiled nexus of government-industrial corruption2) Anna Hazare

a) social reformer in Gandhian moldb) led dharnas (sit-ins) against corruptionc) Hazare collaborated with

i. RTI leader Arvind Kejariwalii. the Am Admi Party (Common Man’s Party)

a. which joined INC party coalitionb. failed in 2014 elections with only four seats in Lok Sabha

G. Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the 2014 Elections [p. 84]1. failure of Congress and United Progressive Alliance due to

a. corruptionb. slowed economic growth

2. the BJP victorya. 282 seats for BJPb. additional 54 seats with its coalition partner, the NDAc. Congress lost 162 seats, leaving only 60 for its coalition

3. Modia. Gujarat head of government during riots in 200292

b. many see as complicit in death and displacement of Muslims, including US (which denied him a visa)c. BJP strategy to build campaign around personality of Modi in “presidential-style referendum”

4. BJP platforma. anti-corruptionb. ending FDI to Indian economyc. greater efficiency for middle class in

1) education2) health services

d. reconstruction of the Hindu temple at the Babri Masjid5. Modi and the US

a. unlikely to gain US support in Kashmirb. visited in 9/14 after earlier denial of visa

H. Development as Freedom? [p. 85]1. contributions to development theory

a. Dr. Amartya Sen in Development as Freedom (1999)1) nobel-prize winner in economics2) argued importance of

a) human rightsb) women’s empowermentc) secure civil liberties

3) these non-material measures needed to be valued comparably to a) industrial marketsb) consumer markets

4) continues the legacy of Nehruvian socialism in context of India5) subsequent popularization in The Argumentative India (2005): economics tied to social development

b. Yunus Khan and the Grameen Bank1) originated in Bangladesh2) pioneered micro-lending to women as mode of empowerment

2. Public Interest Litigationa. historically legal system similar to US to locus standi wherein only those harmed by unjust law have standing in courtb. locus standi, however, generally undermined by the inability of poor people

90 Again, on this issue India is little different from the rest of the world!91 The exact nature of this incident is not well-explained92 These riots, I believe, were part of the background story to Slumdog Millionaire

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1) to fund their own legal affairs2) to articulate their own interests in legal format

c. two innovations1) concerned citizen can approach courts on behalf of disenfranchised group2) Supreme Court can use even a postcard notification to begin an abuse investigation3) Court can order bodies within society to undertake investigations93

a) branches of governmentb) associationsc) journalistsd) local judges

4) courts can offer different forms of relief to victimsa) compensatoryb) rehabilitativec) restitutived) preventivee) curative94

3. The Missing Girl Child95

a. the problem: biology does not appear to match reality1) projected female:male = 1.05:1.002) actual female: male = .93: 1.00

b. causes of the problem1) higher rates of mortality for

a) women b) girls

2) natality inequality due largely to sex selective abortion3) unequal facilities

a) lack of basic nutritionb) educationc) medical care

4) inequality to rights in property5) unequal sharing of household

a) benefitsb) chores

6) domestic violence7) physical victimization

c. problems extend to damage the society as a whole4. Naxalbari and Maoism

a. centered in forested heartlands of India1) central2) eastern

b. named after village in West Bengalc. derived from persistent underdevelopment of adibasi communitiesd. uprising triggered in response to Delhi’s use of paramilitaries to suppress adibasi resistance to natural resource extractione. effective use of guerrilla tactics with broad popular supportf. Naxalite vision of total revolution along Maoist lines

93 This reminds me of the investigative undertakings that Gandhi and his cohorts made in the Champala campaigns during the independence movement94 it seems interesting that punitive awards are not mentioned here95 This section based entirely on Sen’s work in The Argumentative Indian

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