5
1959 I R E TRANSACTIONS O N ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS 3 3 5 Decimal-Binary Conversions i n CORDIC* D. H. DAGGETTt Summary-A special-purpose, binary computer called CORDIC 9 0 ° (COordinate Rotation DIgital Computer) contains a unique arithmetic 0.10 unit composed o f three shift registers, three adder-subtractors, a n d suitable interconnections for efficiently performing calculations i n- 13545 volving trigonometric functions. A technique i s formulated f o r using 0.11 0 0 1 t h e CORDIC arithmetic unit t o convert between angles expressed i n degrees a n d minutes i n t he 8 , 4, 2 , 1 code an d angles expressed i n POSITIVE binary fractions o f a half revolution. Decimal-to-binary conversion i s accomplished through t h e generation of a n intermediate binary o code i n which t h e variable values a r e + 1 a n d - 1 . Each o f these 18 0 0 intermediate code variables controls t h e addition o r o f 1.00 0 0 0 a particular binary constant i n t h e formation o f a n accumulated s um NEGATIVE which represents t h e angle. Examples ar e presented t o illustrate t h e I\il technique. Binary-to-decimal conversion is accomplished b y applying essentially t h e same conversion steps i n reverse order, bu t this fea- -1350or 225> -45°or 3150 ture is not discussed fully. Fundamental principles o f t h e conversion 1.01 technique, rather than details o f implementation, a r e emphasized. T h e CORDIC conversion technique i s sufficiently general t o be a p - - 9 0 0 o r 2700 plied t o decimal-binary conversion problems involving other mixed 1.10 radix systems a n d other decimal codes. Fig. 1-Representation of angles i n CORDIC. INTRODUCTION A unique concept f o r a special-purpose digital com- Y RE6ISTER puter i s described in this issue.' This computer _ ADDER- embodies a unique method f o r t he rapid serial SUBTRACTOR evaluation o f sines, cosines, transformations between polar a n d rectangular coordinates, an d other operations concerned with coordinate rotations. F o r this reason, t h e S///Fr04TF75 0 - t i ADDER- name o f t h e computer is derived from t h e initial letters | ,USTRAETlR o f t h e words COordinate Rotation DIgital Computer. REGISTR T h e versatility o f CORDIC is enhanced b y utilizing t h e novel configuration of t h e arithmetic unit for mal-binary conversions a s well a s f o r trigonometric cal- culations. Since angles a r e inherent in trigonometric | A16GZ ,61S7 R calculations, i t follows that many independent a n d com- + ADDER-+ puted variables i n a specific CORDIC application will SUBTRACTOR be angles. Therefore, this treatment i s directed spe- BINARY CONVERSION CONSTANTS = - i j cifically t o t h e conversion o f angles. Fig. 2-Implementation of ±code t o binary conversion. I n CORDIC, angles a r e represented a s binary frac- tions o f a half revolution with two's complements f o r inegative angles, a s shown in Fig. 1 . Since a o n e to t h e adder-subtractors, an d suitable interconnections. Each left of t h e binary point i s used to represent a negative programmed operation i s accomplished in a fixed num- quantity i n t h e two's complement system, angles from b e r o f steps. Each step involves t h e modification o f a + 1800 to slightly less than +360° a r e interpreted inter- number b y adding o r subtracting a constant. T h e set- nally a s negative angles measured clockwise from 0 0 . tings of a l l three adder-subtractors ar e controlled by t h e Before the conversion technique i s explained, the sign o f th e quantity i n o n e of t h e arithmetic unit regis- basic philosophy o f computation i n CORD)IC will be ters. I n this way, calculations related t o the addition o r summarized, t h e arithmetic unit, a s shown i n Fig. 2 o f subtraction of th e previously mentioned constant c a n Volder's paper,1 consists o f three shift registers, three b e executed simultaneously. * Manuscript received b y t h e PGEC, Ma y 22 , 1959; revised CONVENTIONAL CONVERSION TECHNIQUE manuscript received, June 25 , 1959. 1 Convair, a Div. o f General Dynamics Corp., Fort Worth, Tex. T h e CORDIC decimal-to-binary conversion tech- 1 J . E. Volder, "The CORDIC trigonometric computing tech- . nique," this issue, p. 330. nique m a y b e compared t o a conventional conversion

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1 9 5 9 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS 3 3 5

D e c i m a l - B i n a r y C o n v e r s i o n s i n C O R D I C *D . H . DAGGETTt

Summary-A s p e c i a l - p u r p o s e , b i n a r y c o m p u t e r c a l l e d CORDIC 9 0 °( C O o r d i n a t e R o t a t i o n D I g i t a l C o m p u t e r ) c o n t a i n s a u n i q u e a r i t h m e t i c 0 . 1 0u n i t c o m p o s e d o f t h r e e s h i f t r e g i s t e r s , t h r e e a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s , a n ds u i t a b l e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s f o r e f f i c i e n t l y p e r f o r m i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s i n - 1 3 5 4 5v o l v i n g t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s . A t e c h n i q u e i s f o r m u l a t e d f o r u s i n g 0 . 1 1 0 0 1t h e CORDIC a r i t h m e t i c u n i t t o c o n v e r t b e t w e e n a n g l e s e x p r e s s e d i nd e g r e e s a n d m i n u t e s i n t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e a n d a n g l e s e x p r e s s e d i n P O S I T I V Eb i n a r y f r a c t i o n s o f a h a l f r e v o l u t i o n . D e c i m a l - t o - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o ni s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a n i n t e r m e d i a t e b i n a r y o

c o d e i n w h i c h t h e v a r i a b l e v a l u e s a r e + 1 a n d - 1 . E a c h o f t h e s e 1 8 0 0

i n t e r m e d i a t e c o d e v a r i a b l e s c o n t r o l s t h e a d d i t i o n o r s u b t r a c t i o n o f 1 . 0 0 000a p a r t i c u l a r b i n a r y c o n s t a n t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a c c u m u l a t e d sum N E G A T I V Ew h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e a n g l e . E x a m p l e s are p r e s e n t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e I \ i lt e c h n i q u e . B i n a r y - t o - d e c i m a l c o n v e r s i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a p p l y i n ge s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e c o n v e r s i o n s t e p s i n r e v e r s e o r d e r , b u t t h i s f e a - - 1 3 5 0 o r 2 2 5 > - 4 5 ° o r 3 1 5 0t u r e i s n o t d i s c u s s e d f u l l y . F u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n 1 . 0 1t e c h n i q u e , r a t h e r t h a n d e t a i l s o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a r e e m p h a s i z e d .T h e CORDIC c o n v e r s i o n t e c h n i q u e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l t o b e a p - - 9 0 0 o r 2 7 0 0p l i e d t o d e c i m a l - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g o t h e r m i x e d 1 . 1 0r a d i x s y s t e m s a n d o t h e r d e c i m a l c o d e s .

F i g . 1 - R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n g l e s i n CORDIC.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

A u n i q u e c o n c e p t f o r a s p e c i a l - p u r p o s e d i g i t a l com- Y R E 6 I S T E Rp u t e r i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s i s s u e . ' T h i s c o m p u t e r _ A D D E R -e m b o d i e s a u n i q u e m e t h o d f o r t h e r a p i d s e r i a l S U B T R A C T O R

e v a l u a t i o n o f s i n e s , c o s i n e s , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s b e t w e e np o l a r a n d r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s , a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n sc o n c e r n e d w i t h c o o r d i n a t e r o t a t i o n s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e S / / / F r 0 4 T F 7 5 0 - t i A D D E R -name o f t h e c o m p u t e r i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i n i t i a l l e t t e r s | ,USTRAETlR

o f t h e w o r d s C O o r d i n a t e R o t a t i o n D I g i t a l C o m p u t e r . R E G I S T RT h e v e r s a t i l i t y o f COR D I C i s e n h a n c e d b y u t i l i z i n g

t h e n o v e l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t f o r d e c i -m a l - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n s a s w e l l a s f o r t r i g o n o m e t r i c c a l -c u l a t i o n s . S i n c e a n g l e s a r e i n h e r e n t i n t r i g o n o m e t r i c | A 1 6 G Z , 6 1 S 7 Rc a l c u l a t i o n s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t many i n d e p e n d e n t a n d c o m - +A D D E R - +p u t e d v a r i a b l e s i n a s p e c i f i c C O R D I C a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l S U B T R A C T O Rb e a n g l e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s t r e a t m e n t i s d i r e c t e d s p e - B I N A R Y C O N V E R S I O N C O N S T A N T S =

- i jc i f i c a l l y t o t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a n g l e s . F i g . 2 - I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f ± c o d e t o b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n .

I n CORDIC, a n g l e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s b i n a r y f r a c -t i o n s o f a h a l f r e v o l u t i o n w i t h t w o ' s c o m p l e m e n t s f o ri n e g a t i v e a n g l e s , a s s h o w n i n F i g . 1 . S i n c e a o n e t o t h e a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s , a n d s u i t a b l e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s . E a c hl e f t o f t h e b i n a r y p o i n t i s u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t a n e g a t i v e p r o g r a m m e d o p e r a t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a f i x e d n u m -q u a n t i t y i n t h e t w o ' s c o m p l e m e n t s y s t e m , a n g l e s f r o m b e r o f s t e p s . E a c h s t e p i n v o l v e s t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a+ 1 8 0 0 t o s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n + 3 6 0 ° a r e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r - n u m b e r b y a d d i n g o r s u b t r a c t i n g a c o n s t a n t . T h e s e t -n a l l y a s n e g a t i v e a n g l e s m e a s u r e d c l o c k w i s e f r o m 0 0 . t i n g s o f a l l t h r e e a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s a r e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e

B ef o r e t h e c o n v e r s i o n t e c h n i q u e i s e x p l a i n e d , t h e s i g n o f t h e q u a n t i t y i n o n e o f t h e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t r e g i s -b a s i c p h i l o s o p h y o f c o m p u t a t i o n i n C O R D ) I C w i l l b e t e r s . I n t h i s w a y , c a l c u l a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e a d d i t i o n o rs u m m a r i z e d , t h e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t , a s shown i n F i g . 2 o f s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d c o n s t a n t c a n

V o l d e r ' s p a p e r , 1 c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e s h i f t r e g i s t e r s , t h r e e b e e x e c u t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

* M a n u s c r i p t r e c e i v e d b y t h e P G E C , May 2 2 , 1 9 5 9 ; r e v i s e d CONVENTIONAL CONVERSION TECHNIQUE

m a n u s c r i p t r e c e i v e d , J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 5 9 .1 C o n v a i r , a D i v . o f G e n e r a l D y n a m i c s C o r p . , F o r t W o r t h , T e x . Th e CORDIC d e c i m a l - t o - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n t e c h -1 J . E . V ol de r , " T h e C O R D I C t r i g o n o m e t r i c c o m p u t i n g t e c h - .

n i q u e , " t h i s i s s u e , p . 3 3 0 . n i q u e may b e c o m p a r e d t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n v e r s i o n

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3 3 6 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS S e p t e m b e r

t e c h n i q u e i n w h i c h t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e a n d b i n a r y a r i t h - 0 , 1 , * , 9 i n t o a s e t o f t e n o d d i n t e g e r s i s n e c e s s a r y .

m e t i c i s u t i l i z e d . Th e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n v e r s i o n t e c h - F o r a n y s p e c i f i c d i g i t p o s i t i o n , t h e " l a r g e s t t r a n s -n i q u e i s b a s e d u p o n t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e f o r m e d v a l u e " i s d e f i n e d a s t h e l a r g e s t a b s o l u t e v a l u e

v a l u e o f a d e c i m a l d i g i t , N , l o c a t e d i p l a c e s t o t h e l e f t o f o f o d d i n t e g e r s s e l e c t e d f o r t h a t d i g i t p o s i t i o n a n d m u l t i -t h e u n i t s p o s i t i o n , a s g i v e n b y p l i e d b y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o w e r o f t e n . I n o r d e r f o r t h e

N - 1 0 i = X 4 ( 8 1 0 i ) + X 3 ( 4 . 1 0 i ) + X 2 ( 2 . 1 0 i ) + c o d e t o b e u s e f u l i n t h e i n v e r s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o mN * 1 0+X 4 ( 8 . 1 0 i )+ 34.1~ +X(. O)binary t o d e c i m a l , i t i s n e c e s s a r y a n d s u f f i c i e n t t h a t t h e

+ X 1 ( 1 1 0 i ) ( 1 ) f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s b e s a t i s f i e d .

w h e r e X i = 0 o r 1 . T h e c o n s t a n t s 8 1 0 i , 4 1 0 i , 2 1 0 i , 1 ) W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r d i g i t p o s i t i o n , t h e

a n d 1 1 0 i , e v a l u a t e d i n b i n a r y f o r a l l v a l u e s o f i o f b e sum o f t h e l a r g e s t t r a n s f o r m e d v a l u e s f o r a l l l e s su s e d , a r e r e q u i r e d i n t h e c o n v e r s i o n . The t r a n s f o r m a - s i g n i f i c a n t d i g i t p o s i t i o n s m u s t b e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e

t i o n f r o m d e g r e e s a n d m i n u t e s t o f r a c t i o n s o f a h a l f r e v o - p o w e r o f t e n f o r t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p a r t i c u l a rl u t i o n i s i n c o r p o r a t e d b y e x p r e s s i n g t h e b i n a r y c o n - d i g i t p o s i t i o n u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .s t a n t s i n t h e d e s i r e d u n i t s . A c o n v e r s i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d 2 ) C o n d i t i o n 1 m u s t b e s a t i s f i e d f o r e a c h d i g i tb y e x e c u t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d i n ( 1 ) . T h e s e p o s i t i o n .o p e r a t i o n s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e I f o r a n a n g l e o f 4 5 0 , T h e s e t o f t e n o d d i n t e g e r s - 9 , - 7 , - 1 , + 1 ,w h i c h i s e x p r e s s e d i n 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e a s ( 0 1 0 0 ) ( 0 1 0 1 ) .

+9 s a t i s f i e s t h e f o r e g o i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r p o s i t i o n s i nC o n v e r s i o n o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f a n e g a t i v e a n g l e i s a c - w h i c h a l l d e c i m a l d i g i t s , 0 t h r o u g h 9 , a r e p o s s i b l e , a n dc o m p l i s h e d i n t h e same w a y , a n d t h e r e s u l t i s t h e n c o m -

p l e m e n t e d b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e b i n a r y m a g n i t u d e f r o m t h i s s e t w i l l b e u s e d f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n p u r p o s e s .T h e e q u a t i o n t r a n s f o r m i n g a d e c i m a l d i g i t N , h a v i n g

o n e o f t h e v a l u e s , 0 , 1 ,* *

. , 9 , i n t o a d i g i t Y h a v i n g ,

TABLE I r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e v a l u e s - 9 , - 7 , * * , + 9 , i s

Y==2N-9. ( 2 )C o n s t a n t s - B i n a r y 8 , 4 , 2 , 1

C o n s t a n t s F r a c t i o n o f H a l f C o d e P r o d u c t T e r m sD e g r e e s R e v o l u t i o n V a r i a b l e s T h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e i n v e r s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i S

8 0 0 . 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 X 0 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N-Y+ 9 . ( 3 )4 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 x 1 = 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 12 0 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 X 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 x 0 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A p p l y i n g t h e f a c t o r o f i n ( 3 ) t o t h e - 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 w e i g h t s8 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 x 0 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r e s u l t s i n t h e ± c o d e e q u a t i o n4 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 x 1 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 02 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 x 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N+1 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 N=Y44+Y33+Y2 + Y 1 - 2 4 J

A c c u m u l a t e d Sum=2-2 H a l f R ev o l u t i o n = 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 w h e r e Y5 = +1 o r -1 a n d C = 9 / 2 . A f a c t o r o f 1 0 i may

b e a p p l i e d t o e a c h t e r m i n ( 4 ) , a s w a s d o n e i n ( 1 ) , t oa c c o u n t f o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e d i g i t N . T h e p a t t e r n o f

C O N V E R S I O N B A S E D UPON ± CODE t h e Y j v a r i a b l e s o f t h e c o d e o f ( 4 ) , w i t h C = 9 / 2 a n d

I n T a b l e I , i t i s s h o w n t h a t a t e a c h s t e p , a b i n a r y c o n - w i t h 0 ' s u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t - l ' s , i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o fs t a n t i s e i t h e r a d d e d o r n o t a d d e d , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e w e l l - k n o w n E x c e s s - 3 c o d e . 2w h e t h e r t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e v a r i a b l e i s 1 o r 0 , r e s p e c - I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f C i n ( 4 ) i s d e t e r -t i v e l y . I n o r d e r t o u s e t h e C O R D I C p r i n c i p l e , i t i s m i n e d b y t h e c h o i c e o f i n t e g e r s u p o n w h i c h t h e t r a n s -n e c e s s a r y e i t h e r t o a d d o r t o s u b t r a c t a c o n s t a n t . T h e f o r m a t i o n e q u a t i o n s a r e b a s e d . I n g e n e r a l , t h e t r a n s -

u s e o f a d d i t i o n o r s u b t r a c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d b y a c o d e f o r m a t i o n o f a s e t o f n +1 i n t e g e r s N = 0 , 1 , * ,nv a r i a b l e p l a c e d i n t h e s i g n d i g i t p o s i t i o n o f a n a r i t h m e t i c ( n o d d ) i n t o o d d i n t e g e r s Y= - n , -n + 2 , * , - 1 ,u n i t r e g i s t e r . The p r o b l e m o f c o n v e r s i o n b y a d d i n g a n d + 1 , n, X - 2 , n l e a d s t o t h e i n v e r s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,

s u b t r a c t i n g c o n s t a n t s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t . S u b s e - N = y + aq u e n t l y , t h e m e t h o d o f p r o p e r l y p o s i t i o n i n g t h e c o d e N Y±

v a r i a b l e s f o r c o n t r o l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d . a n d a v a l u e o f C = n / 2 . T h i s f o r m o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l -By a n a l o g y t o t h e way i n w h i c h a c o d e v a r i a b l e o f w a y s l e a d s t o a ± c o d e w h i c h ( b y a n a l o g y t o t h e E x c e s s -

+1 i s u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a c o n s t a n t , a 3 c o d e ) i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n " E x c e s s " c o d e . I t f o l l o w sv a r i a b l e o f -1 may b e u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h s u b t r a c t i o n . t h a t i f t h e p r o p e r ± ( " E x c e s s " ) c o d e i s u s e d f o r e a c hT h e r e f o r e , i t i s d e s i r e d t h a t a b i n a r y c o d e w i t h ± 1 a n d d i g i t p o s i t i o n , n o c o d e c o n v e r s i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . H o w e v e r ,-1 v a r i a b l e s b e u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t d e c i m a l a n g l e s i n i f i t i s d e s i r e d t o u s e t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e , t h e r e q u i r e d

CORDIC. F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , t h e d e s i r e d c o d e w i l l b e c o n v e r s i o n c a n b e r e a d i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a d d i n g a

c a l l e d a ± ( p l u s - m i n u s ) c o d e . The 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 w e i g h t s c a n - b i n a r y c o n s t a n t t o e a c h 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 - c o d e d d i g i t .

n o t b e a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o a f o u r - d i g i t ± c o d e b e c a u s ea l l p o s s i b l e sums o f b i n a r y - w e i g h t e d ± c o d e d i g i t s a r e 2 R . K . R i c h a r d s , " A r i t h m e t i c O p e r a t i o n s i n D i g i t a l C o m p u t e r s , "

o d d . _ T h e r e f o r e , a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e d e c i m a l d i g i t s D . V a n N o s t r a n d C o . , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , N . Y . , p p . 1 8 2 - 1 8 4 ; 1 9 5 5 .

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1 9 5 9 D a g g e t t : D e c i m a l - B i n a r y C o n v e r s i o n s i n CORDIC 3 3 7

T h e b a s i c c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e d u r e i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e C O R D I C a r i t h m e t i c u n i t s h o w n i n F i g .8 , 4 , 2 , 1 c o d e may b e u s e d w i t h t h e ± c o d e p r o v i d e d t h e 2 . T h i s s i m u l t a n e o u s a c t i o n w i l l b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y m e a n sc o n s t a n t t e r m C 1 0 i f o r a l l d e c i m a l d i g i t p o s i t i o n s i s o f a n e x a m p l e i n w h i c h d i f f e r e n t ± c o d e s f r o m t h e

a d d e d i n b i n a r y t o t h e a c c u m u l a t e d s u m . A s a n e x a m p l e , E x c e s s - 3 - e q u i v a l e n t c o d e a r e u s e d f o r c e r t a i n d e c i m a l4 5 0 w i l l b e c o n v e r t e d f r o m ± ( E x c e s s - 3 ) c o d e t o b i n a r y . d i g i t p o s i t i o n s . S i n c e t h e h u n d r e d s - o f - d e g r e e s p o s i t i o n

S i n c e t h e c o n s t a n t f o r t h i s c o d e i s ( 9 / 2 ) t O i , t h e sum o f r e q u i r e s o n l y f o u r d i g i t s ( 0 - 3 ) , t h e a p pl i c a t i o n o f ( 5 )t h e c o n s t a n t s f o r t h e t w o d i g i t s i s 4 9 1 ' . T h e ± c o d e p r o d u c e s a c o n s t a n t C=3/2 a n d a ± c o d e w h i c h i sr e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( w i t h l ' s o m i t t e d ) f o r 4 5 0 i s ( - +++) e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e 8 , 4 , 2 , 1 ( o r " E x c e s s - 0 " ) c o d e . O n l y

(+-- - ) , a n d t h e c o n v e r s i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n T a b l e I I . t h e l a s t t w o b i n a r y d i g i t s o f t h i s c o d e a r e r e q u i r e d .

T A B L E I I

C o n s t a n t s C o n s t a n t s - B i n a r y F r a c t i o n ±CodeD e g r e e s o f H a l f R e v o l u t i o n V a r i a b l e s P r o d u c t T e r m s A c c u m u l a t e d Sum

4 9 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 ( C o r r e c t i o n ) + 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 04 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X -1 = - 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 02 0 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 X +1 = + 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 . 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 X +1 = + 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 15 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 x + - = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

4 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 x +1 = + 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 02 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 x - 1 = - 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 01 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 X -1 = - 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

2 0.000000001011 X - 1 = -0.000000001011 0.010000000000

A c c u m u l a t e d Sum= 2 - 2 H a l f R e v o l u t i o n = 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

P O S I T I O N I N G OF + V A R I A B L E S FOR TABLE I I IA D D E R - S U B T R A C T O R CONTROL S i f

S u c c e s s i v e d i g i t s o f t h e ± c o d e must c o n t r o l s u c c e s - (++±+)(+-- - ) = 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 R e m a i n d e rs i v e s e t t i n g s o f t h e a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s i n o r d e r f o r t h e S u b t r a c t 1p r o p e r s e q u e n c e o f a d d i t i o n s a n d s u b t r a c t i o n s t o o c c u r 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e I I . T h e s e t t i n g s o f t h e a d d e r -

s u b t r a c t o r s d u r i n g c o n v e r s i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d A d d 1b y t h e v a l u e o f t h e s i g n d i g i t l o c a t e d i n t h e Y R e g i s t e r 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 +( d e c i m a l - t o - b i n a r y ) o r i n t h e A n g l e R e g i s t e r ( b i n a r y - t o - S u b t r a c t 1d e c i r n a l ) . Th e s e t t i n g s r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r a r e i n d i -c a t e ( c i n F i g . 2 b y t h e s i g n o f t j , a +1 o r -1 v a r i a b l e 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 +d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s i g n d i g i t . S u b t r a c t 1

I n p o s i t i o n i n g t h e ± c o d e d i g i t s f o r c o n t r o l , t h e t e c h - 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 +n i q u e o f b i n a r y n o n r e s t o r i n g d i v i s i o n i s u s e f u l b e c a u s ei n t h i s o p e r a t i o n , s u c c e s s i v e q u o t i e n t d i g i t s a r e g i v e n b y S u b t r a c t 1t h e s i g n s o f s u c c e s s i v e r e m a i n d e r s . D i v i d i n g t h e n u m b e r o o o o 0 0 0 0 +r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e ± c o d e o f t h e a n g l e b y 1 p r o d u c e s t h e S u b t r a c t 1

c o m p l e m e n t s o f s u c c e s s i v e ± c o d e d i g i t s ( i n s p a c e ) a s

t h e s i g n s o f s u c c e s s i v e r e m a i n d e r s ( i n t i m e ) . T h i s b i n a r y 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0n o n r e s t o r i n g d i v i s i o n b y 1 i s e a s i l y i m p l e m e n t e d i n A d d 1C O R D I C b y means o f t h e c u s t o m a r y r u l e s g i v e n b e l o w . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

1 ) I f r e m a i n d e r i s p o s i t i v e , s u b t r a c t d i v i s o r ; i f r e - A d d 1m a i n d e r i s n e g a t i v e , a d d d i v i s o r .

2 ) S h i f t d i v i s o r o n e p l a c e t o r i g h t . 1 1 1 1 1

3 ) R e p e a l t 1 a n d 2 .

T h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f d i g i t s o f t h e ± c o d e f o r 4 5 0 i si l l u s t r a t e d b y f o l l o wi n g t h e a b o v e r u l e s , a s s h o w n i n S i m i l a r l y , a c o n l s t a n t C = - 5 / 2 i s u s e d f o r t h e t e n s - o f -T a b l e I I I . m i n u t e s p o s i t i o n , w h e r e o n l y s i x d i g i t s ( 0 - 5 ) a r e u s e d .

T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ± c o d e i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n " E x c e s s -THE COMPLETE D E C I M A L - T O - B I N A R Y C O N V E R S I O N 5 " c o d e . T h r e e ( i n s t e a d o f f o u r ) b i n a r y d i g i t s may b e

Th e p o s i t i o n i n g o f ± c o d e d i g i t s f o r c o n t r o l a n d t h e u s e d f o r t h i s p o s i t i o n i f d e s i r e d .g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e b i n a r y a n g l e b y a d d i t i o n a n d s u b t r a c - I n d e c i m a l - t o - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n , t h e ± c o d e f o r t h e

t i o n o f c o n s t a n t s t a k e p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h i n t h e d e s i r e d a n g l e i s p l a c e d i n t h e Y r e g i s t e r ( F i g . 2 ) , a n d

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3 3 8 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTE R S S e p t e m b e r

TABLE I V

O p e r a t i o n - O p e r a t i o n -T o p A d d e r - R e g i s t e r C o n t e n t s B o t t o m A d d e r - R e g i s t e r C o n t e n t s V a l u eS u b t r a c t o r S u b t r a c t o r

Y = 0 . 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 1 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 9 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X=1.0 Add

Y = 1 . 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 1 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 9 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

Ad d X=0.1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 - 1 0 0 °

Y = 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 9 9 0 5 9 . 5

S u b t r a c t X=0.01 Ad d 0 . 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 + 5 0 0

Y = 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

Ad d X=0.001 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 - 4 0 0

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X=0.0001 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 + 2 0 0

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X=0.00001 Add 0 . 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 + 1 0 0

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 9 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 + 5 0

Y = 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 4 4 0 5 9 . 5 '

Ad d X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 - 4 0

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 4 0 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 + 2 0

Y = 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 4 2 0 5 9 . 5 '

Ad d X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 - 1 0Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 4 1 0 5 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l A d d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 + 3 0 '

Y = 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 0 2 9 . 5 '

Ad d X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 - 4 0 '

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 4 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 + 2 0 '

Y = o 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 4 2 0 0 9 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 + 1 0 '

Y= 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 4 2 0 1 9 . 5 '

Ad d X=0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 5 '

Y = 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 4 2 0 1 4 . 5 '

S u b t r a c t X= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 + 4 '

Y= . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 4 2 0 1 8 . 5 '

Ad d X =0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S u b t r a c t 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 - 2 '

Y= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 4 2 0 1 6 . 5 1 '

S u b t r a c t X =0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 ± 1 '

Y= 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 4 2 0 1 7 . 5 1 '

S u b t r a c t Ad d 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 + . 5 '

A n g l e 0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 2 0 1 8 . 0 '

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1 9 5 9 N e t h e r w o o d : M i n i m a l S e q u e n t i a l M a c h i n e s 3 3 9

t h e d i v i s o r o f 1 i s p l a c e d i n t h e X r e g i s t e r . A s i g n d i g i t t o - b i n a r y c o n v e r s i o n . T h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r i no f 0 i n t h e Y r e g i s t e r e s t a b l i s h e s a ( i o f - 1 , w h i c h i s l o a d i n g t h e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t r e g i s t e r s a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e

p r o g r a m m e d t o s e t t h e t o p a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r ( F i g . 2 ) t o a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s f r o m t h e a n g l e r e g i s t e r i n s t e a d o fs u b t r a c t a n d t h e b o t t o m a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r t o a d d . A t h e Y r e g i s t e r . I n t h i s c on v e r s i o n , t h e b i n a r y a n g l e i s

s i g n d i g i t o f 1 h a s t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t . The sum o f c o n - i n i t i a l l y p l a c e d i n t h e a n g l e r e g i s t e r , a n d t h e b i n a r y -

s t a n t t e r m s d e s i g n a t e d b y C i n ( 4 ) i s i n i t i a l l y p l a c e d i n c o d e d - d e c i m a l a n g l e i s f o r m e d i n t h e Y r e g i s t e r .t h e a n g l e r e g i s t e r , a n d s u c c e s s i v e c o n s t a n t s a r e i n t r o -d u c e d t o t h e b o t t o m a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r a s s h o w n i n F i g . C O N C L U S I O N

2 . A s o n e s t e p o f t h e d i v i s i o n i s t a k i n g p l a c e t o e s t a b l i s ht h e n e x t s e t t i n g o f t h e a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r s , a c o n s t a n t i s fore t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n w a s d e v i s e d e s p e c i a l l yb e i n g a d d e d o r s u b t r a c t e d t o m o d i f y t h e q u a n t i t y i n f o r c o n v e r s i o n s b e t w e e n m i x e d r a d i x d e c i m a l a n g l e s a n d

t e a n g l e rrs

r a c c d i n t omodifyt h e

siniityi n t b i n a r y a n g l e s i n a d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r w i t h a C O R D I C

r e g i s t e r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s t e p . The b i n a r y a n g l e t y p e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t . One o f t h e m o s t a t t r a c t i v e f e a -i s t a k e n f r o m t h e b o t t o m a d d e r - s u b t r a c t o r o n t h e f i n a l t u r e s o f t h e t e c h n i q u e i s t h a t t h e s a m e c o n s t a n t s a n d

c o m p u t a t o n s m t h e p c o n t r o l l o g i c c an b e u s e d i n b o t h d e c i m a l - t o - b i n a r y a n d

An e x a m p l e o f 1 4 2 0 1 8 m i n u t e s w i l l b e c o n v e r t e d t o b i n a r y - t o - d e c i m a l c o n v e r s i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i q u e

b n a r , a s s o w n i n T a b l e s I Vl

Te c o r r e tr es t o w as d e s i g n e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p u t e r , i t i s f e l t t h a t

0 . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 w h i c h i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e r e s u l t c e r t a i n c o n c e p t s w i l l b e u s e f u l i n o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .s h o w n *1 ia b l e I X F o r t h i s r e a s o n , e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n p l a c e d more on f u n -d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s t h a n on d e t a i l s o f a s p e c i f i c a p p l i -

B I N A R Y - T o - D E C I M A L C O N V E R S I O N c a t i o n . O b v i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e a n d may b e

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p l i s h e d b y a s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e . T h e sum o f c o n s t a n t t e c h n i q u e .t e r m s d e s i g n a t e d b y C i n ( 4 ) i s f i r s t s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e

b i n a r y a n g l e . Then t h e ± c o d e i s g e n e r a t e d b y a " n o n - ACKNOWLEDGMENT

r e s t o r i n g d i v i s i o n " i n w h i c h t h e d i v i s o r s a r e s u c c e s s i v e J . E . V o l d e r , w h o c o n c e i v e d t h e b a s i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o fc o n s t a n t s o f t h e ± c o d e . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e " n o n - CORDIC, a l s o e n v i s i o n e d a c o n v e r s i o n t e c h n i q u e w h i c h

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s i r e d ) b y a d d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t a n t t o t h e + m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a r i t h m e t i c u n i t . T h e a u t h o r i s i n -c o d e . d e b t e d t o M r . V o l d e r f o r d i s c u s s i o n s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s

T h e b i n a r y - t o - d e c i m a l c o n v e r s i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d w h i c h a s s i s t e d m a t e r i a l l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i sw i t h t h e s a m e c o n s t a n t s a n d c o n t r o l l o g i c a s t h e d e c i m a l - c o n v e r s i o n t e c h n i q u e .

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i m a l m a c h i n e s i s e v o l v e d , a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f s e l e c t i n g c o m p o n e n t s m a c h i n e s u c h a s t h a t o f F i g . 1 a n d d e r i v i n g af o r c o n s t r u c t i n g m a c h i n e s i s d i s c u s s e d . m i n i m a l e q u i v a l e n t m a c h i n e . A p a i r o f e q u i v a l e n t m a -

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