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On 29 April 1958, as recorded in the Final Act (A/CONF.13/L.58, 1958, UNCLO, O!!. "ec. #ol. 2, 1$%&, the United

Nations Con!erence on the La' o! the ea opened !or sinat)re !o)r con#entions and an optional protocol* the

Con#ention on the +erritorial ea and the Conti)o)s one (C+&- the Con#ention on the ih eas (C&- the

Con#ention on Fishin and Conser#ation o! the Li#in "eso)rces o! the ih eas (CFCL"&- the Con#ention on the

Continental hel! (CC&- and the Optional rotocol o! inat)re concernin the Co0p)lsor ettle0ent o! isp)tes

(O&. +he C+ entered into !orce on 1 epte04er 19%$- the C on 3 epte04er 19%2- the CFCL" on 2 arch

19%%- the CC on 1 6)ne 19%$- and the O on 3 epte04er 19%2. tates 4o)nd 4 the Con#entions and therotocol, are, as at 23 6)l 28, respecti#el* !or the C+, 52- !or the C, %3- !or the CFCL", 38- !or the CC, 58-

and !or the O, 38.

+he Con#entions and rotocol are the prod)ct o! the (!irst& United Nations Con!erence on the La' o! the ea, held

in 7ene#a !ro0 2$ Fe4r)ar to 2 April 1958. +he con#enin o! the Con!erence (4 United Nations 7eneral Asse04l 

resol)tion 115 (:& o! 21 Fe4r)ar 195& 'as the c)l0ination o! a lon process. :t had its precedents in the 'or; o! 

the a)e Con!erence !or the Codi!ication o! :nternational La' held in 193 )nder the a)spices o! the Lea)e o! 

Nations. +his Con!erence dealt 'ith the territorial 'aters. Altho)h not areein on the 4readth o! the territorial sea,

it co)ld present in its report 13 dra!t articles settin o)t a 0eas)re o! aree0ent on 0an aspects o! this s)4<ect.

+hese articles 'o)ld 4eco0e the 4asis o! !)rther 'or;. :n the !ra0e'or; o! the United Nations, the :nternational La' 

Co00ission (:LC& indicated since the 4einnin o! its 'or;, in 19$9, the rei0e o! the hih seas and o! the territorial

sea a0on the topics ripe !or codi!ication. A pecial "apporte)r 'as desinated, 'ho proceeded to s)40it reports on

 #ario)s aspects o! the la' o! the sea.

Up to the end o! its 'or;, in 195%, the :LC, and the 7eneral Asse04l, 'hich closel !ollo'ed its 'or;, proceeded

thro)h se#eral dra!ts concernin di!!erent aspects o! the la' o! the sea. :t 'as onl in the !inal report s)40itted to

the 7eneral Asse04l in 195% that all pro#isions 'ere sste0aticall ordered as one 4od o! dra!t articles co#erin the

 'hole o! the la' o! the sea. +his !inal report 'as to 4e the 0ain 4asis !or the 'or; o! the 1958 7ene#a Con!erence.

+he Con!erence, 'hose tas; 'as =to e>a0ine the la' o! the sea, ta;in acco)nt not onl o! the leal 4)t also o! the

technical, 4ioloical, econo0ic and political aspects o! the pro4le0 and to e04od the res)lts o! its 'or; in one or

0ore international con#entions or s)ch other instr)0ents as it 0a dee0 appropriate? (resol)tion 115 (:& re!erred

to a4o#e&, did not s)cceed in ;eepin the pro#isions on the la' o! the sea in one instr)0ent. +he )nit o! the la' o! 

the sea, painsta;inl reached at the !inal staes o! the 'or; o! the :LC, 'as lost (s)ch )nit 'as to 4e one o! the 0ain

o4<ecti#es p)rs)ed and reached in the 1982 United Nations Con#ention on the La' o! the ea&. +he adoption o! !o)r

con#entions and a protocol in lie) o! one all@enco0passin con#ention 0a 4e seen, and 'as concei#ed, as a de#ice toattract the acceptance 4 a 4road n)04er o! tates o! at least so0e o! the Con#entions, in this 'a a#oidin #er 

radical reser#ations, or the decision 4 certain tates not to accept an all@enco0passin con#ention 4eca)se o! 

opposition to one or 0ore o! its 0ain co0ponent parts. +he !act that the CFCL" and the O ha#e attracted a

n)04er o! rati!ications and accessions s)4stantiall lo'er than the other Con#entions indicates that this Con#ention

and rotocol 'ere seen as contro#ersial 4 tates that considered the other Con#entions accepta4le. ini!icant

a4sences in the ro)ps o! tates ha#in rati!ied the C+ and the CC indicate speci!ic di!!ic)lties, !or instance as

reards innocent passae thro)h straits or the rei0e o! the continental shel!.

 Attended 4 8% tates, the Con!erence oranied itsel! in !i#e 0ain co00ittees and a plenar, and !ollo'ed r)les

o! proced)re si0ilar to those o! the United Nations 7eneral Asse04l, so that 'hile pro#isions co)ld 4e adopted in

one o! the co00ittees 4 si0ple 0a<orit, a t'o@thirds 0a<orit 'as reB)ired 'hen the pro#ision reached the plenar.

+his proced)ral r)le 0ade it i0possi4le to aree on the 4readth o! the territorial sea. Altho)h a 12 0ile 4readth

pro4a4l co)ld ha#e sec)red appro#al in the co00ittee, it 'as clear that it co)ld not do so in plenar, th)s the

B)estion 'as le!t )nresol#ed 4 the C+. +he !act that this Con#ention pro#ides that the e>ternal li0it o! the

conti)o)s one can not e>ceed 12 0iles !ro0 the 4aseline indicates that no 4readth 4eond 12 0iles 'as seen as

accepta4le.

+he United Nations 7eneral Asse04l considered this ;e )nresol#ed B)estion, toether 'ith that o! !ishin

li0its, 'orth o! a !)rther e!!ort at reachin aree0ent and 0ade the0 the 0ain ite0s on the aenda o! the econd

United Nations Con!erence on the La' o! the ea, held in 7ene#a !ro0 1% arch to 2% April 19%. +his Con!erence

!ailed to !)l!il its o4<ecti#e. A0on the #ario)s proposals, ranin !ro0 3 to 2 0iles 0a>i0)0 li0its, a proposal !or

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a % 0iles 4readth o! the territorial sea pl)s a % 0iles !isher one i00ediatel ad<oinin it 'as accepted in the

Co00ittee o! the hole 4)t did not o4tain the necessar t'o@thirds 0a<orit in plenar.

+he C+ sets o)t in detailed pro#isions the 0ain r)les on the territorial sea and the conti)o)s one. :ts r)les

address, in partic)lar, 4aselines, 4as, deli0itation 4et'een tates 'hose coasts are ad<acent or !ace each other,

innocent passae and the conti)o)s one. A0on the aspects that at the ti0e 'ere seen as the 0ost contro#ersial

 'ere those related to article 1%. First, article 1%, pararaph $, pro#ides that innocent passae, 'hich cannot 4es)spended, applies in straits )sed !or international na#iation not onl connectin one part o! the hih seas to

another part o! the hih seas, 4)t also to the territorial sea o! a !orein tate, th)s incl)din also the strait o! +iran.

econd, in article 1%, no distinction is 0ade reardin innocent passae o! 'arships, hence the pro#ision is enerall 

co)ched !or all ships. +his o)tco0e res)lted !ro0 the !act that the tates in !a#o)r o! reB)irin the coastal tateDs

consent did not #ote alonside those 'ho !a#o)red prior noti!ication.

+he C de!ines the hih seas as all parts o! the sea not incl)ded in the territorial sea and internal 'aters. :t deals

speci!icall 'ith* the !reedo0s o! the hih seas- the riht o! a tate to ha#e ships !lin its !la )nder conditions !i>ed

 4 it, statin the contro#ersial reB)ire0ent o! the e>istence a =en)ine lin;?- the rihts and o4liations o! the !la

tate- pirac- the riht o! #isit- hot p)rs)it- and the lain o! s)40arine ca4les and pipelines. :t also contains t'o

earl and pioneerin pro#isions on poll)tion 4 the dischare o! oil and o! radio@acti#e 'astes.

+he CFCL" sets o)t principles and 0echanis0s !or the rational 0anae0ent o! !isheries in the hih seas. :tinsists on cooperation 4et'een tates enaed in the sa0e !isheries, it reconies the special interest o! the coastal

tate 'hen the !isheries are in the hih seas ad<acent to its territorial sea and pro#ides !or co0p)lsor settle0ent o! 

disp)tes concernin all the ;e r)les. o0e o! the pro#isions are si0ilar to those that 'ere to 4e adopted in 1995 in

the United Nations Fish toc;s Aree0ent. At the ti0e, the CFCL" 'as #er contro#ersial, as is e#idenced !ro0 the

lo' n)04er o! rati!ications and accessions* on one hand, 0an tates 'ere ;een on de#elopin e>cl)si#e !isher 

rihts 4eond the territorial sea E a rei0e !or !isheries on the hih seas 4eond the e>ternal li0it o! the territorial sea

 'as not satis!actor- on the other hand, the central role i#en to the co0p)lsor settle0ent o! disp)tes 'as so0ethin

that tates 'ere not read !or at the ti0e.

+he CC sets o)t r)les on the notion, li0its and rei0e o! the continental shel!. +he 4asic concept o! the so#erein

riht o! the coastal tate as reards reso)rces o! an area o! the sea4ed 4eond the e>ternal li0it o! the territorial sea

had e0ered in tate practice onl since 19$5. :t has 4een rihtl said that the Con#ention =crstallies? a relati#el 

B)ic; process o! !or0ation o! a c)sto0ar r)le, 'hich also incl)des the notion that the rihts o! the coastal tate o#er

the shel! do not reB)ire occ)pation or e>press procla0ation. +he pro#ision on the e>ternal li0it, 4ased on the 2

0eters iso4ath and on e>ploita4ilit, 'as to 4e seen as o4solete in liht o! technoloical proress and 'as radicall 

0odi!ied in the 1982 Con#ention. +he r)le on deli0itation, 4ased on the eB)idistance pl)s special circ)0stances

concept, 'as clearl indicated 4 the :nternational Co)rt o! 6)stice (:C6& as not correspondin to c)sto0ar la' 

( North Sea Continental Shelf, Judgment,  I.C.J Reports 1969, p. $2, para. %9&. :t is note'orth, ho'e#er, that recent

de#elop0ents in the :C6 case la' on deli0itation ha#e 4ro)ht the Co)rt to accept an =eB)ita4le principles/special

circ)0stances? 0ethod 'hich, as reconied 4 the Co)rt, is =#er si0ilar? to the eB)idistance/special circ)0stances

0ethod o! the CC ( Land and Maritime Boundar !et"een Cameroon and Nigeria #Cameroon #. Nigeria$

 %&uatorial 'uinea inter(ening), Judgment,  I.C.J. Reports, I. C. J. Reports *++*, p. $$1, pararaph 288&.

+he O, to 'hich onl tates parties to at least one o! the 7ene#a Con#entions can 4eco0e part, pro#ides !or

co0p)lsor <)risdiction o! the :C6 !or all disp)tes concernin the interpretation or application o! the Con#entions,

)nless the parties to the disp)te aree to ar4itration or conciliation. +his rotocol has ne#er 4een applied in practice,

and the 0odest n)04er o! parties it has attracted sho's that co0p)lsor settle0ent o! disp)tes in la' o! the sea

0atters, i! it is to 4e practicall rele#ant, 0)st 4e an interal part o! the instr)0ent dealin 'ith the s)4stance- a

lesson learned 4 the +hird United Nations Con!erence on the La' o! the ea (193@1982& in dra!tin the 1982

Con#ention.

+he i0portance o! the 7ene#a Con#entions is c)rrentl 0ostl historical, as an e>pression o! the =traditional la' 

o! the sea?, na0el, the la' pre#ailin 4e!ore the trans!or0ations in the international co00)nit and in its

assess0ent o! the )ses o! the seas that 4ro)ht a4o)t the +hird United Nations Con!erence on the La' o! the ea. +he

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Con#entions 'ere adopted less than a decade 4e!ore the !a0o)s speech 4 Ar#id ardo at the 7eneral Asse04l in

19% that started the process !or the co0plete rene'al o! the la' o! the sea, and entered into !orce <)st a !e' ears

 4e!ore that e#ent. +his e>plains 'h, not'ithstandin their intrinsic leal B)alit, the 'ere soon seen 4 a 0a<orit 

o! the tates as o4solete. Under article 311, pararaph 1, o! the United Nations Con#ention on the La' o! the ea o! 

1982, the 1982 Con#ention =shall pre#ail, as 4et'een tates arties, o#er the 7ene#a Con#entions on the La' o! the

ea o! 29 April 1958?. +he 155 parties to the 1982 Con#ention incl)de 0ost o! the tates 4o)nd 4 the 7ene#a

Con#entions- the latter Con#entions re0ain 4indin onl as 4et'een, or in the relationships 'ith, the !e' tates that

are parties to the rele#ant 7ene#a Con#ention and not parties to the 1982 Con#ention. +his is, in partic)lar, the case

o! the United tates, Colo04ia, :srael and ene)ela.

an pro#isions o! the 7ene#a Con#entions, at the ti0e o! their adoption, corresponded to c)sto0ar 

international la'. +his see0s partic)larl tr)e as reards the C, 0ost o! 'hich has 4een transported into the 1982

Con#ention, and 'hose prea04le e>plicitl speci!ies that its p)rpose is =to codi! the r)les o! international la' 

relatin to the hih sea?. +his pro#ision is not repeated in the other 7ene#a Con#entions. till, a n)04er o! pro#isions

in the C+ are set o)t in the 1982 Con#ention and can 4e seen as correspondin to c)sto0ar la'. oreo#er, the 4asic

pro#isions o! the CC, as re0ar;ed a4o#e, ha#e 4een indicated as contri4)tin to the =crstalliation? o! the

c)sto0ar notion o! the continental shel! and still correspond to c)sto0ar la'.

Related Materials

 A. Legal Instruments

United Nations Con#ention on the La' o! the ea, onteo Ga, 1 ece04er 1982, United Nations, reat Series,

 #ol. 1833, p. 3.

 Aree0ent !or the :0ple0entation o! the ro#isions o! the United Nations Con#ention on the La' o! the ea o! 1

ece04er 1982 relatin to the Conser#ation and anae0ent o! traddlin Fish toc;s and ihl irator Fish

toc;s, Ne' Hor;, $ A))st 1995, United Nations, reat Series, #ol. 21%, p. 3.

 B. Jurisprudence

:nternational Co)rt o! 6)stice, North Sea Continental Shelf, #-ederal Repu!li of 'erman/Netherlands), #-ederal 

 Repu!li of 'erman/0enmar), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969,   p. 3.

:nternational Co)rt o! 6)stice, Land and Maritime Boundar !et"een Cameroon and Nigeria

#Cameroon #. Nigeria$ %&uatorial 'uinea inter(ening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports *++*,   p. 33.

C. Documents

Lea)e o! Nations,  2ts of the Conferene for the Codifiation of International La", (LN. doc. C.351..1$5, 193,

 .&- "eport o! the econd Co00ission, Lea)e o! Nations )4lication . Legal, 193+.4. 9 (C.23, . : 1, 193. &.

5ear!oo of the International La" Commission, 199, #2/CN./13 and Corr. 173), chapter ::, p. 281.

5ear!oo of the International La" Commission, 1986,  #ol. ::, doc)0ent A/3159.

ffiial Reords of the :nited Nations Conferene on the La" of the Sea, 'ene(a, * -e!ruar7*; 2pril 198< ,

(A/CONF.13/L.58&, #ol. 2, p. 1$%.

ffiial Reords of the Seond :nited Nations Conferene on the La" of the Sea, 'ene(a, 1; Marh7*6 2pril 

196+, 2nne=es, (A/CONF.19/L.15, anne>&.

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Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1973-1982

The General Assembly, by resolution 2340 (XXII) of 18 Deember 1!"#, establishe$ an A$ %o &ommittee to 'tu$y the

eaeful ses of the 'ea*+e$ an$ the ean -loor beyon$ the .imits of /ational uris$ition, onsistin of thirty*si

ember 'tates The A$ %o &ommittee hel$ three sessions $urin 1!"8, an$ 5resente$ its stu$y (A6#230) to the General

 Assembly at its t7enty*thir$ session, in 1!"8 %ain onsi$ere$ the re5ort of the A$ %o &ommittee, the General Assembly

a$o5te$ on 21 Deember 1!"8 resolution 24"# A (XXIII), by 7hih it $ei$e$ to establish a &ommittee on the eaeful ses

of the 'ea*+e$ an$ the ean -loor beyon$ the .imits of /ational uris$ition, onsistin of forty*t7o ember 'tates

'ubse9uently, on 1# Deember 1!#0, the General Assembly $ei$e$ by resolution 2#:0 & (XX;), to onene a thir$

onferene on the la7 of the sea in 1!#3, an$ instrute$ the &ommittee on the eaeful ses of the 'ea*+e$ an$ the

ean -loor beyon$ the .imits of /ational uris$ition to at as 5re5aratory bo$y for the onferene

The &ommittee hel$ si sessions an$ a number of a$$itional meetins in /e7 <or= an$ Genea bet7een 1!#1 an$ 1!#3

n 18 Deember 1!#2, hain onsi$ere$ the re5ort on the &ommittee>s 7or= $urin its 1!#2 sessions (A68#21 an$ &orr1),

the General Assembly re9ueste$ the 'eretary*General to onene the first session of the Thir$ nite$ /ations &onferene

on the .a7 of the 'ea in 1!#3 to $eal 7ith orani?ational matters, an$ a seon$ session in 1!#4, as 7ell as subse9uent

sessions if neessary, to $eal 7ith substantie 7or= (resolution 302! (XX;II)) The &ommittee submitte$ its final re5ort to

the General Assembly at its t7enty*eihth session, in 1!#3 (A6!021 an$ &orr1 an$ 3) %ain onsi$ere$ the re5ort, the

General Assembly re9ueste$ the 'eretary*General to inite 'tates to the &onferene, an$ $ei$e$ that the man$ate of the

&onferene 7as the a$o5tion of a &onention $ealin 7ith all matters relatin to the .a7 of the 'ea (resolution30"#

(XX;III) of 1" /oember 1!#3)

The &onferene, in 7hih 1"0 states 5artii5ate$, hel$ eleen sessions bet7een 1!#3 an$ 1!82 At the first session, the

&onferene set u5 a General &ommittee, three ain &ommittees, a Draftin &ommittee an$ a &re$entials &ommittee

Durin its seon$ session, the &onferene $etermine$ the om5etene of the three ain &ommittees by alloatin to the

5lenary or the &ommittees the sub@ets an$ issues on the list 5re5are$ in aor$ane 7ith General Assembly

resolution 2#:0 & (XX;) (A6&/-"26 2!) The &onferene alloate$ to the -irst &ommittee the to5i of the internationalreime of the sea*be$ an$ oean floor beyon$ national @uris$ition, an$ to the 'eon$ &ommittee the to5is of the territorial

sea, the ontiuous ?one, the ontinental shelf, the elusie eonomi ?one, the hih seas, lan$*lo=e$ ountries, shelf*

lo=e$ 'tates an$ 'tates 7ith narro7 sheles or short oastlines an$ the transmission from the hih seas, 7hile the to5i of

the 5reseration of the marine enironment 7as alloate$ to the Thir$ &ommittee All the main &ommittees, as far as the

to5is 7ere releant to their man$ates, 7ere to $eal 7ith reional arranements, res5onsibility an$ liability for $amae

resultin from the use of the marine enironment, settlement of $is5utes, an$ the 5eaeful uses of the oean s5ae, ?ones

of 5eae an$ seurity The latter, as 7ell as the to5i of enhanin the uniersal 5artii5ation of 'tates in multilateral

onentions relatin to the la7 of the sea, 7ere to be onsi$ere$ $iretly by the 5lenary (A6&/-"262!)

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 At its thir$ session, at the re9uest of the &onferene, the &hairmen of the three ain &ommittees eah 5re5are$ an informal

sinle neotiatin tet oerin the sub@ets entruste$ to their res5etie &ommittees, 7hih toether onstitute$ the

informal sinle neotiatin tet (A6&/-"268, arts I to III) At the follo7in session, reise$ tets on the settlement of

$is5utes (A6&/-"26!6Bel an$ Be2) as 7ell as a reise$ sinle neotiatin tet (A6&/-"268 an$ Be1) 7ere

5re5are$ Thereafter, at its sith session, the &onferene re9ueste$ the resi$ent an$ the &hairmen of the ain

&ommittees, 7or=in un$er the resi$entCs lea$ershi5 as a team 7ith 7hih the &hairman of the Draftin &ommittee an$ the

Ba55orteur*General 7ere assoiate$, 7hih 7as subse9uently referre$ to as the &olleium, to 5re5are an informal

om5osite neotiatin tet (A6&/-"2610), oerin the entire rane of sub@ets an$ issues ontaine$ in arts I to I; of

the reise$ sinle neotiatin tet At its seenth session, the &onferene i$entifie$ ertain outstan$in ore issues an$

establishe$ seen neotiatin rou5s (A6&/-"26"2) for the 5ur5ose of resolin these issues (A6&/-"26B&/Gl an$ 2)

'ubse9uently, $urin the eihth session, a reision of the informal om5osite neotiatin tet 7as 5re5are$

(A6&/-"26106Bel) The &onferene too= the $eision to om5lete 7or= on the &onention by 1!80 Durin its ninth

session, on the basis of the $eliberations of the &onferene (12:th to 128th 5lenary meetins), the &olleium un$ertoo= a

seon$ reision of the informal om5osite neotiatin tet, 5resente$ as the informal om5osite neotiatin tet

(A6&/-"26106Be2) -ollo7in the $eliberations of the &onferene at its tenth an$ resume$ tenth sessions (142n$ to

1::th 5lenary meetins), the &olleium 5re5are$ a reision of the $raft onention on the la7 of the sea (A6&/-"26.#8),

7hih beame the offiial $raft onention of the &onferene, sub@et only to the s5eifi on$itions reor$e$ in $oument

(A6&/-"26114) At the subse9uent session, on the basis of the $eliberations of the &onferene (1:#th to 1""th 5lenary

meetins) onernin the re5ort of the resi$ent (A6&/-"26.8") an$ the re5orts of the &hairmen of the ain &ommittees

(A6&/-"26.8#, .!1 an$ .!2) on the neotiations on$ute$ by them an$ the re5ort of the &hairman of the Draftin&ommittee on its 7or= (A6&/-"26.8: an$ .8!), the &olleium issue$ a memoran$um (A6&/-"26.!3) ontainin

hanes to be inor5orate$ in the $raft onention on the la7 of the sea (A6&/-"26.#8), an$ $oument A6&/-"26.!4

settin out three $raft resolutions an$ a $raft $eision of the &onferene 7hih 7ere to be a$o5te$ at the same time as the

$raft onention

The nite$ /ations &onention on the .a7 of the 'ea toether 7ith resolution I to I;, formin an interal 7hole, 7as

5roisionally a$o5te$, sub@et to $raftin hanes, at the 182n$ 5lenary meetin on 30 A5ril 1!82, by a reor$e$ ote ta=en

at the re9uest of $eleation of the nite$ 'tates of Ameria n 10 Deember 1!82, the &onferene a$o5te$ the  nite$

/ations &onention on the .a7 of the 'ea, ontainin 320 artiles an$ nine annees The &onention 7as o5ene$ for

sinature, until ! Deember, first at the inistry of -orein Affairs of amaia (from 10 Deember 1!82), an$ then at the

nite$ /ations %ea$9uarters in /e7 <or= (from 1 uly 1!83)

The General Assembly also onsi$ere$ the aen$a item entitle$ EThe .a7 of the 'eaF on ! Deember 1!!3, an$ on 2# an$28 uly 1!!4 +y resolution 4862"3 of 28 uly 1!!4 the General Assembly a$o5te$ the Areement relatin to the

im5lementation of art XI of the nite$ /ations &onention on the .a7 of the 'ea of 10 Deember 1!82, onsistin of ten

artiles an$ nine annees

The nite$ /ations &onention on the .a7 of the 'ea entere$ into fore t7ele months after the $e5osit of the sitieth

instrument of ratifiation, on 1" /oember 1!!4 The Areement relatin to the im5lementation of art XI of the &onention

entere$ into fore on 28 uly 1!!", thirty $ays after the $e5osit of the fortieth instrument of ratifiation

to5

8/20/2019 1958 Geveva Convetion on Law of the Sea

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