1935-1945

The US and World War II

The Nye Commission, 1934-1936 blamed WWI on arms makers: “merchants of death”

1935 Neutrality Act forbade US arms sales to belligerents1936: no US loans to belligerents, either1937: FDR’s exception – “cash and carry”

non-arms, hard-currency payments, no US shipskey: sale of oil to Britain

late 1939: arms allowed – but still no loans & no US ships

Summer 1940: Selective Service registration (21-35)preparation for a draft

Late 1940: “destroyers for bases” & “Lend-Lease”FDR’s efforts to evade the Neutrality Actsallowed dispersal of $50 billion in aid to 30+ countries

Staying Out of War, 1935-1940

Japanese expansion 1931: invasion of Chinese Manchuria 1937: invasion of China; alliance with Germany &

Italy

FDR’s diplomatic efforts encouraged arms sales to China via Britain (lend-

lease) July 1941: cut off oil & rubber exports to Japan

critical resources for Japanese militaryforced Japan to seize French & Dutch colonies attack on US naval base in Hawaii to prevent

US interference

December 7: surprise attack on Pearl Harbor simultaneous with conquest of most of the South

Pacific December 8: US declared war

Dec 11: Germany/Italy declared war on US, & vice-versa

Entry into War, 1941

FDR, Stalin wanted invasion of France, 2nd front in 1942Churchill stalled, fearful of repeat of WWI trenches instead, Nov. 1942 invasion of N Africa, then up Italy1943: USSR turned the tide & began pushing Germany

backJune 6, 1944, US-GB invasion at Normandy

Germany soon caught in pincersMay 8, 1945: Germany surrendered

victory hinged on Russian soldiers & US machineryRussian victories turned back Germans & created time

for US industryfrom 1943 on, US strategy focused on industrial power, not

manpower16 million of 43 million (37%) eligible men served, ~6 million in

combat roles235,000 US battle deaths (both theaters)14 million Russian battle deaths

European Theater of War

Pearl Harbor devastated the US Navy, allowed rapid Japanese expansion seized European/US colonies throughout the southern

Pacific

but the US Navy recovered quickly turned back Japanese at the Coral Sea, May 1942 June 4: US victory at Midway Island marked a major

turning point

by summer 1942, US forces began slowly advancing toward Japan

by April 1945, the US was ready for an invasion of Japan August 6: Hiroshima A-bomb

50-100,000 killedcountless more would die of radiation

August 9: Nagasaki A-bomb36,000 more killed immediately

August 14: Japan surrendered

Pacific Theater of War

Estimates of US losses in an invasion of Japan500,000-1,000,000 soldiers killed

Context: “total war” blurred military/civilian distinctionmobilization of entire populations technological capacity for death & destruction1945: massive Allied bombings of Axis cities

Berlin, February 3: 25,000 killed Dresden, February 13: 35,000 killedTokyo, March 9-10: 90,000 killed, 1 million left homelessMarch-August: 65 Japanese cities bombed

900,000 killed, 1.3 million more wounded, over 8 million homeless

Desire to end the war before the Soviets got too involvedunlike FDR, Truman hated communism and USSRAugust 8: USSR declared war on Japan and invaded

Manchuria with 1 million men – quick victory

The Decision to Use the Bomb

FDR: victory prioritized above all elsemost New Deal programs slashed, phased outwartime production further growth of big

businesscost + 10% contracts – hugely profitablefederal contracts went to biggest suppliers

also directed scarce resources to big companies

Inflationconsumer goods – high demand, low supply

full employment, high wages (real wages +27%)people had money and wanted to spend it

wartime shortagesOffice of Price Administration (1942)

1) prize freeze; 2) rationing (incl. meat, gas, rubber)

prices up 28% total, only 9% after mid-1942

The Home Front

Wartime govt. spending $320 billion – doubled all previous US spending

combinedtaxation paid for 45% of the war’s cost

income tax: from 3% of Americans (4 million) up to 33% (43 million)

1943: withholding systemborrowing paid for the rest (55%) – war bonds

1941-1945: govt. debt rose 500% (to $280 billion)

The Home Front

Effects of War Production on Unions63% of working-age men did their service at homeunions became more accepted than ever

high membership due to AFL & CIO deal with US govt.unions: no-strike pactgovt. mandated “maintenance of membership”

all new employees in union shops made members of the union

pact + patriotism purged unions of radical leadership/influences

The Home Front

Effects of War Production on Migrationgreatest internal migration in US history

in addition to military, 15 million left their county for a jobof those, ½ settled permanently in a new state

1.5 million African Americans left the Southmajor trend was east to west

California’s population rose 72%

The Home Front

Effects of War Production on Women popular image: Rosie the Riveter

women built the weapons, men went off & used them in fact, there were ~2 million women in defense

industries but this was only about 10% of working women

during the war 90% worked in clerical & service (i.e. “female”) jobs and ¾ of US women didn’t join the workforce at all

WWII brought no change in gender roles/expectations1941-1945: 6.5 mil women entered the workforce

about ½ were single – i.e. typical working women difference: 3 million new married female workers

vast majority were middle-aged – why? no children at home could take jobs without violating basic female role

little lasting change by 1947, fewer blue-collar women than prewar but bank tellers now almost all female

The Home Front

FDR generally avoided identifying domestic enemiescommunists left aloneGermans & Italians left alone

Glaring exception: Japanese Americansracism + Pearl Harbor = panic/hysteria

fear of coastal attacks, sabotage, espionageracial stereotypes: sly, ruthless, fanaticalconvenient scapegoat: 1% of CA population (0.1% of US)

Feb 1942: Executive Order 9066by August, 120,000 Japanese relocated to internment

campsmost were under 21; 2/3 were citizens – born in US (14th

amendment)conditions in camps 1943: offered freedom for 1) military service, 2) defense

industry service Japanese American military service in Europe

December 1944 releaseKorematsu v. US (1944) – Supreme Court upheld

internment1948 congressional compensation & 1988

congressional apology

The Home Front