1550 – 1700 AD...– “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.” Published and dedicated to the Pope upon his death in 1543. – Heliocentric universe where the planets circled

A Scientific Revolution1550 – 1700 AD

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

• Describe scientific knowledge and methods prior to and after the discoveries of the 16th

and 17th centuries.• Who were some of the

important scientists, and what did they do?

• How did people react to the new ideas?

• How did life change because of the Scientific Revolution?

Why do we study theScientific Revolution?

– It led many to question how to best understand the natural world?

• (Using the scientific method to observe, experiment, and reason.)

– Inquiries led to new discoveries in astronomy, physics, medicine, chemistry, and mathematics based on reason.

– Most importantly, it led to discoveries that improved the quality of life.

Background to the Revolution...

• Medieval Scientists or “Natural Philosophers” did not make observations of the natural world. Why?– They relied more on common sense and ancient

authorities like Aristotle for scientific information.

• Early humanists began studying the classical texts of Ptolemy, Archimedes, and other ancient thinkers. What did they discover?– That some ancient scholars disagreed with Aristotle

and other accepted authorities.


• Technical problems linked to exploration and trade led to innovation and more accurate observation and measurement – New instruments like the telescope and microscope

made fresh observations and discoveries possible.

• The study of mathematics increased during the Renaissance.– The great scientists of the day believed that the

secrets of nature were written in the language of mathematics.


• The Reformation movement causes many to question longstanding traditions of the its view of the sciences.

• Governments gradually accept and support early scientists.– Louis XIV establishes the

French Royal Academy of Science in 1666 at the suggestion of Jean BaptisteColbert. Why?


IMPACT OF THE RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, AND EXPLORATION:As scientific information grew, the stage was set for a new understanding of the natural world that would shake up European society.

NEXT UP:A Revolution in Astronomy and Physics.

Revolution in Astronomyand Physics: Terms & Questions

– Terms: Geocentric, Ptolemaic system, heliocentric, 1543, 1687

– People: Ptolemy, Nicolas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Sir Isaac Newton

– Question:• Describe how perceptions of the

universe changed during and after theRenaissance. What accounts for thesechanges?

A Revolution in Astronomy and Physics

• Ptolemy (85 – 165)– Ancient world’s greatest

astronomer.– Geocentric model of the

universe became the Ptolemaic system.

– Earth rested motionless at the center while planets circled in different, crystal-like spheres.


• Medieval believers considered the Ptolemaic system to be perfect, unchanging, uncorrupted by temporary matter or by original sin.

• What lies beyond Saturn?


• Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)– Polish astronomer– “On the Revolutions of the

Heavenly Spheres.” Published and dedicated to the Pope upon his death in 1543.

– Heliocentric universe where the planets circled the sun, the moon around the earth, and the earth on an axis.

– Mathematical Errors (Divide by zero)

– The size of the universe is limited.


Martin Luther, “This fool wants to turn the whole of astronomy upside down.”

Heliocentric Model of the Universe by Copernicus


• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)– Astronomer / Alchemist– Most comprehensive and

accurate observations of astronomical and planetary bodies for his time period.

– 1572 He observes a supernova without a telescope. It was visible for approximately 17 months.

– 1601 Tycho dies from mercury poisoning. Some scholars argue that Kepler may have murdered him to steal his data.

– Interesting fact: Lost a portion of his nose in a duel in 1566. It was replaced with a small metal plate.


• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)– German mathematician,

astronomer, astrologer.– Acquired Tycho’s tables of planetary

movement and came up with his own Laws of Planetary Motions, 1605.

– 1st Law: Planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits and their speeds are varied.

– Invented an improved refracting telescope.


• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)– Italian scientist and mathematician– Systematically observed that

objects of different masses fall at the same speed.

• Disproved Aristotle’s believe that the natural state of an object is rest.

– Improves the clock and telescope. Invents a water thermometer.

– First European to use a telescope to examine the moon’s craters and mountains as well as the moons of Jupiter.

• Proved that planets and moons are composed material and not pure light as suggested by Ptolemy.


• Galileo proved Copernicus’heliocentric model of the universe in 1632.

• 1633 – Galileo is brought to trial by the Catholic Church for heresy.

• How did Galileo respond to the Church’s condemnation of his work in astronomy?– He’s forced to withdraw many

of his statements.– He’s placed on house arrest

for the remainder of his life.

“All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them.” - Galileo


• Isaac Newton (1642-1727)– English scientist and mathematician

– In a letter to Robert Hooke, “If I had seen farther, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.”

– Many innovations:• white light is composed of

different colors or rainbows• nervous system as electrical• calculated sound waves• finds the density of the earth• Establishes a new math called

Calculus.


• Newton writes Principiain 1687.– Law of Universal

Gravitation.• Every object is attracted

to every other object by a force called gravity.

• Proves Kepler’selliptical orbits.

– Three Laws of Motion.• 1st – Inertia, • 2nd – Acceleration • 3rd – Equal and

opposite reaction.


– Newton’s Legacy:• He gave the world a picture of a universe as a

huge, regulated, uniform machine. • It remained unchallenged until Einstein’s theory of

relativity in the 20th century!– Question: Why would astronomy be where

the new scientists and the Church would clash?

• Astronomy challenged the whole view of the universe of the Church of the Middle Ages , a view that emphasized God’s role as creator.

Section Review

Breakthroughs in Medicineand Chemistry: Terms & Questions

– Terms: 1543, 1628– People: Galen, Andreas Vesalius,

Ambroise Pare, William Harvey, Antoinie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Antoine and Marie Lavoisier.

– Question:• Describe how perceptions of human

anatomy change during and after theRenaissance. What accounts for these changes?

Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• Galen (129 – 200 AD)– Greek physician– His teachings about human

anatomy greatly influenced medicine during the Middle Ages.

– Errantly relied on animal dissections for his views on human anatomy.

– Human dissections were against Roman Law.

c Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)– Belgian physician who wrote

“On the Fabric of the Human Body” in 1543.

– Dissected human bodies as professor of surgery at the University of Padua.

– Accurate view of individual organs and basic human structure

– Inaccurately believed the body had two types of blood.

By Juan Valverde de Amusco, 1559.Link


• Ambroise Paré (1517 -1590)– French military surgeon– Greatly contributed to the

development of modern surgery

– Ended the practice of cauterizing wounds with boiling oil.

– Improved the treatment of fractures

– Promoted the use of artificial limbs


“Eventually my oil ran out and I was forced to use in its place a digestive made of the yolks of eggs, rose-oil and turpentine. That night I could not sleep, fearing that because of my lack of cauterization I would find the wounded dead or poisoned. This made me wake up very early to visit them. Beyond my hope, I found those for whom I had used the digestive feeling little pain, their wounds without inflammation, having slept fairly well through the night. Those to whom I had applied the boiling oil I found feverish, with their wounds very painful and swollen. Then I decided never more to burn thus cruelly poor men wounded with gunshot.”

-Ambroise Paré, 'Apology and Treatise' (1575)Link


• William Harvey (1578-1657)– English physician who

wrote “On the Motion of the Heart and Blood” in 1628

– Proved that the heart was responsible for circulation not the liver.

– Blood makes a complete circuit in the body.


• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– Dutch trader and scientist– Invented 400 different types of

microscopes.– Observed single-celled

organisms, bacteria, muscle fibers, and blood in capillaries

– Father of microbiology


• Robert Hooke (1635-1703)– English natural philosopher– Used improvements in the

microscope to declare the cell as life’s building block.

– Built the pumps used in Boyle’s experiments on gases.


• Antoine and Marie Lavoisier (1743-1794)– French Chemists– Studied gases.– Discovered materials need

oxygen to burn.

• Robert Boyle (1627-1691)– English chemist, inventor– Boyle’s Law: the volume

of gas varies with the pressure exerted on it.

IMPACT: Their concept of elements discredited the traditional notions that fire, wind, air, and water are the key elements to the universe.

Section Review

The Origins of ModernScience:

– Terms: Rationalism, Inductive Reasoning, Scientific Method.

– People: René Descartes, Francis Bacon

– Questions:• On what basis did Descartes claim he could not

doubt his own existence?• Describe the impact of Inductive Reasoning.• Some contemporary thinkers argue that the goal

of controlling nature has done a lot of harm to theworld. What might they have in mind?

The Origins of Modern Science

• René Descartes (1596 – 1650)– French philosopher and

mathematician– Discourse on Method, 1637.

• One can rationally be sure of one thing-one’s own experience.

– “Cogito ergo sum” or “I think, therefore I am.”

• He separated mind and matter.– Rationalism: System of thought

based on the idea that reason is the chief source of knowledge.

The Origins of Modern Science

• Francis Bacon (1561-1626)– English Philosopher– Inductive Reasoning: Make

generalizations based from purposeful observations and experiments organized to test hypotheses.

• Scientific Method to best understand the physical world.

– Use science to give humans the power to control and dominate nature and make life better.

Section Review

CHECKING UNDERSTANDING

TASK: Use your notes to create a visual display that graphically shows how scientific knowledge and methods change during the Scientific Revolution.

POINTS TO CONSIDER:-Describe scientific knowledge and methods prior to the revolution.-Who were some of the important scientists in each field of discovery, and what did they do?-Summarize how society changed because of this revolution in the sciences.

Readings

• Michael Postan, “Why Was Science Backward in the Middle Ages? p. 229-230

• Sir George Clark, “Early Modern Europe: Motives for the Scientific Revolution” p. 231.– Consider why scientific incentives were

lacking in the Middle Ages; what typical medieval traits discouraged scientific exploration; motives for exploration in the modern age.

Reading

• Galileo Galilei, “Letter to Christina of Tuscany: Science and Scripture.” p. 226-7– How does Galileo defend his ideas and his

view of the correct line between science and scriptural authority?

– Why are his views important to the Scientific Revolution?

Reading

• René Descartes, “The Discourse on Method.” (1637) p. 226.– How does Descartes break with the traditional

ways of finding truth?– What are the potential weaknesses of this

approach? How might a modern-day scientist criticize this method?

Documents

1550 – 1700 AD...– “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.” Published and dedicated to the Pope upon his death in 1543. – Heliocentric universe where the planets circled