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151 Mythsof Everyday Science

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151 Myths

of Everyday Science

Arthur Furst

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Copyright 2002 by Arthur FurstAll rights reservedPrinted in the United States of America

Privately published, 2002

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Faith may be defined briefly as an

illogical belief in the occurrence ofthe improbable.

H.L. Mencken

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Contents

Preface: Science and Myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

I. Toxicity and Chemicals1. Natural Is Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. All Chemicals Are Toxic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. Hormesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. Organic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. Household Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. Vindication of Apparent Toxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. Pesticides, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9. Pesticides, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10. Fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11. Insoluble Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12. Single Asbestos Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. Polluted Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14. Lead in Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. Bottled Water vs. Tap Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16. Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17. Mercury Amalgam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18. Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19. Inorganic Toxic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20. Removal of Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21. Radioactive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22. Government Exposure Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23. Benzoates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24. Phthalates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25. DDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II. Cancer and Carcinogens26. Epidemic of Breast Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27. Diet and Breast Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28. The Cause of Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29. Mesothelioma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30. Food Carcinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31. Painted Mice and Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32. Mixtures of Carcinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33. Carcinogens and Birth Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34. Nickel as a Carcinogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35. Synonymous Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36. Chloroform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37. Rodent and Human Carcinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2122232425262728

293031323334353637

3839404142434445

495051525354

555657585960

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38. Animal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6139. PCBs and Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

III. Pharmaceuticals

40. Drug Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41. Drugs with Food, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42. Drugs with Food, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43. DrugDrug Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44. Placebos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45. Multiple Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46. Chelated Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47. Oral Chelation, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48. Oral Chelation, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49. OTC Drug Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50. Fragrance-Free Cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

676869707172737475

7677

IV. Foods, Additives, and Supplements51. All Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8152. Aspartame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8253. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8354. Light Olive Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

55. Acesulfame K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8556. Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8657. Grapefruit Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8758. Organic Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8859. Colloidal Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8960. Indium: A New Inorganic Supplement . . . . . . . . . . 9061. Vitamin E from Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9162. Glucosamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9263. D-Phenylalanine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9364. Genetically Modified Foods, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

65. Genetically Modified Foods, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9566. Genetically Modified Foods, III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9667. Copper in Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9768. Beta-Carotene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9869. Flavonoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9970. Irradiation of Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10071. Fats and Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10172. Canola Oil Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10273. Fresh Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

74. Natural Vitamin E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10475. Combination of Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10576. Noni Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10677. U.S. Food and Drug Administration . . . . . . . . . . . 107

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V. Herbs78. Ginseng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79. Herbs as Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80. HerbDrug Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81. Chinese Herbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82. Herbs and Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83. Origin of Herbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84. Herbal Purity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VI. The Business of Doing Science85. M.D.s and N.D.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86. Creativity and Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87. Boards of Directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88. Publishing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89. Research Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90. Science and the News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91. The Integrity of Journals, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92. The Integrity of Journals, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93. Selected Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94. Journal Mergers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95. Right-To-Know Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96. Expert Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97. Determining Cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98. Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99. Shared Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

100. Big-name Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII. Mathematics Related101. Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102. Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103. Extrapolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. StructureActivity Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105. Timing of Doses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106. Multiple Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107. Animal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VIII. Physiological Effects108. Homocysteine and Heart Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . .

109. Cholesterol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110. Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111. Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112. Polygraph Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113. Malformed Frogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114. The Shrinking Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111112113114115116117

121122

123124125126127128129130131132

133134135136

139

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115.116.117.118.

119.120.121.

Neuron Die-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nightmares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aluminum and Alzheimers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Detoxification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cosmetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Breast Implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Endocrine Disrupters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

156157158159

160161162

165166167

168169170171172173174175176177

178179180181182183184

187188189190191192193

194195196

IX. Miscellaneous Biological122. In Vitro Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123. Bed Rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124. Skin Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125. Colon Cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126. Cumulator Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127. Acid Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128. Water Weight Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129. Hair Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130. Mice Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131. Nursing Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132. Coral Bleaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133. Secret Cures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134. Cross-Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135. Children and Detoxification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136. Water Is Safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137. Primate Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138. Cell Phones and Brain Tumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139. Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140. Side Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141. Parasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

X. General Topics142. Single Amino Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143. Accuracy of Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144. Breakthrough Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145. Private Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146. New and Improved! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147. Colloidal Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148. Vitamin O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149. Negative Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151. Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Epilogue: Junk Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

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Preface: Science and Myth

Everyone knows that all human cancers are the result of expo-sure to toxic chemicals. Often we know the specific chemical in-volved, even if its manufacturer doesnt want to admit it.

Similarly, we all know that anyone who develops lung cancer ofany type is or was a cigarette smoker, though the tobaccocompaniescontinue to maintain otherwise.

There is no question that damage to the human body can onlybe caused by synthetic chemicals. In fact, the decrease in lifespan incivilized countries is due to the introduction of so many syntheticchemicals. What is wrong with our government regulatory agen-cies? Why do they allow all these toxic, cancer-causing agents to be

added to our food supply?Worse, perhaps, is that big companies are now altering ourfoods with modern genetic engineering techniques. Soon Franken-stein foods will be foisted upon us.

Lucky for us, though, natural products are safe and harmless.Its a good thing that we can buy organically grown foods, which aregrown without fertilizers or pesticides and have no toxic compo-nents.

All of the above are mythsor are they? Do modern-day mythshave a basis in reality?

To answer this, we must first ask what a myth is. Websters Illus-trated Encyclopedia Dictionary defines myth as: 1.a. A traditionalstory originating in a preliterate society, dealing with supernaturalbeings, ancestors, or heroes that serve as primordial types in a prim-itive view of the world; b. A body of such stories told among a givenpeople; a mythology: as in Norse myth; c. All such stories collec-tively. 2. Any real or fictional story, recurring theme, or charactertype that appeals to the consciousness of a people by embodying itscultural ideals or by expressing commonly felt emotions: the

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I. Toxicity and Chemicals

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1. Natural Is Good

BackgroundMany people among the general public believe that the con-

tamination of our environment is a result of the introduction of syn-thetic chemicals. A portion of the general population believe thatmost illnesses are the result of exposure to synthetic chemicals. Onthe other hand, the same people consider natural products to besafeand best to use.

MythSynthetic chemicals are bad, whereas natural compounds are

safe and good.

RealityMany compounds made in laboratories and factories are abso-

lutely identical with those found in nature. There is no difference inchemistry or biological action, and in many cases there is no differ-ence in nutritional value.

In reality, there are very few synthetic products that are as toxicas certain natural substances. Exposure to some natural chemicalscan be fatal.

Cyanide, a natural substance, is fatal at a dose of 10,000 micro-grams (mcg).

Botulism is natural, and it is lethal in doses as small as 0.03 mcg;one thimbleful could wipe out half of a citys inhabitants.

Tetanus toxin is lethal at 0.7 mcg.For cobra poison the value is 0.3 mcg.Poison oak and poison ivy are also natural.Scientifically speaking, general statements of good or bad,

toxic or safe, are not adequate to describe any substance oragent.

Synthetic chemicals are ubiquitous in the modern world. Thevast majority of prescription drugs are synthetic. Much of the fabricused in clothing is synthetic. Plastic bottles are everywhere. It isimpossible to avoid synthetics in our daily lives.

And yet the average life expectancy has actually gone up in re-cent decades.

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2. All Chemicals Are Toxic

BackgroundAt some (mostly very high) dosage, every chemical becomes

toxic.

MythAll chemicals are bad, because all chemicals are toxic. Since

chemicals are chemicals, their origin makes no difference. In fact,we should coin a new single word, as a contraction: toxichemical.

RealityIn the early 1500s (the date has been variously reported) the

concept of quantification of poisons was presented by PhilippusAureolus Theophrastus Bombasus von Hohenheimwho, follow-ing the tradition of his day, changed his name to Paracelsus uponreceiving his doctoral degree, so as to resemble a Greek philoso-pher. His dictum is as useful today as it was in his time. In para-phrase, what he said was, What is there that is not a poison? Allthings are poisons, and nothing is without poison. The right dose

differentiates a poison from a remedy.Following Paracelsus cue, the modern toxicologist takes as his

slogan The dose makes the poison.When the term chemical is used, a certain segment of the

population equates it with synthetic chemicals. The next thought istoxic.

Everything in the universe is made up of chemicals, includinghuman beings. Without chemicals there would be no universe. In asense, every substance is potentially toxic if the dose is large

enough. This includes oxygen, which is necessary to sustain life.The opposite is also true: at a low enough dose, no agent manifeststoxicity; if a low enough dose is used, the chemical becomes innocu-ous. For every chemical, there is a threshold below which no toxici-ty is noticed.

There is one exception to this. By law (but not by science),there is no permissible sub-threshold dosage for chemicals thathave been declared carcinogenic.

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3. Hormesis

BackgroundIn classical toxicology, a dose-response curve is commonly used

to describe the effects of toxins. As the dose is increased, the re-sponse becomes more pronounced. As mentioned before, the oppo-site is also apparently true: as the dose is decreased, toxicity be-comes less pronounced. Eventually, at a low enough dose, there willbe no toxic response. This means a threshold has been crossed.

MythWhen a biological system is exposed to a toxic agent, there will

always be some adverse effect on some organ. As noted, the greaterthe dose, the more injury will result. However, if the dose is low-ered, there will be less harm, but there will still be harm. Only ifthere is no dose will there be no harm. There may be a dip in thecurve at some threshold point, but this has no meaning.

Reality

It is true that as the dose is lowered, toxic response decreases.(For the record, this response is not linear). In many cases a differ-ent and little-known phenomenon takes place, which may be thereason for the dip in the dose-response curve known as a U-dip orhockey stick dip.

A pharmacological inversion may take place. At some low dose,a known toxic compound may become biologically beneficial! Thisphenomenon is known as hormesis.

Hormesis can be defined as a stimulatory effect that occurs

when a substance which, at high doses, results in negative effects(growth inhibition or toxic manifestations), produces positive ef-fects at much lower doses (growth stimulation; enzyme activation).

Examples are legion. Mice exposed to very low doses of x-rayslive longer than unexposed mice used as control subjects; at higherdoses, the mice develop cancer. Arsenic is a growth stimulant atverylow doses; at high doses it is toxic. Cadmium, one of the most toxicmetals, will stimulate the growth of cells at low doses.

reference: Calabrese, E.J. and Baldwin, L.A., eds. (2001). Spe-cial Issue: Scientific Foundations of Hormesis. Critical Reviews in

Toxicology. Vol. 31, nos 45.

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4. Organic Acids

BackgroundAcids are corrosive to the skin. When they come into contact

with skin, they can burn holes in it. People have become disfiguredwhen they were accidentally exposed to strong acids.

MythI just read the label on my soft drink. It contains citric acid.

Acids are acids. How dare the company put an acid in a drink? I willnot drink any more of this brand!

RealityThere are hundreds of different acids. Some are corrosive, like

hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids. However, there are manyorganic acids (i.e, those that contain carbon) that are very weak.Vinegar is an example.

Two factors influence corrosiveness: the nature of the acid, andits concentration. Citric acid is non-toxic and is a natural constitu-ent of lemons, for example. At the concentration at which citric acid

is used in soft drinks, it is safe and presents no problem. People whodrink excessive amounts of soft drinks may have some physiologicalor medical problems, but these are not citric acid problems per se.

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5. Arsenic

BackgroundArsenic has been declared a human carcinogen, mainly because

of results from epidemiological studies of environmental and occu-pational exposure.

MythArsenic is carcinogenic because small amounts of it are retained

in the body. Given enough time, a critical concentration will bereached, and cancer will result.

RealityArsenic is not accumulated in the body. When a person is ex-

posed to arsenic, he or she starts to excrete it in the urine almost atonce. Rates of excretion are easily followed. About 50% to 60% ofingested arsenic is excreted within a week.

Only exposure to high concentrations on a daily basis can leadto cancer. In occupational settings, such as at metal foundries,workers are constantly inhaling residues of arsenic and other heavy

metals.There is doubt as to whether the presently permitted concen-

tration of 50 per liter can be carcinogenic.

reference: Vahter, M. and Marafante, E. (1988) In vivo meth-ylation and detoxification of arsenic. In Craig, P.J. & Glockling, F.,eds., The Biological Alkylation of Heavy Elements. Royal Soc. Chem.,London, pp. 105199

Yager, J.W., Hicks, J.B., and Fabianova, E. (1997) AirborneArsenic and Urinary Excretion Of Arsenic Metabolites During

Boiler Cleaning in a Slovak Coal-Fired Power Plant. Environ.Health Per. 105:836842.

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About the Author

Arthur Furst, Ph.D., Sc.D., is the Distinguished University Profes-sor Emeritus at the University of San Francisco. In 1940, he startedresearch in cancer and toxicology. He is the author of more than

300 research publications, reviews, and abstracts. Dr. Furst has re-ceived a number of honors, among them the UCLA Medal for Ex-cellence in Professional Achievement. More recently, in 2001, hebecame the first and only recipient of the Lifetime ContributionAward presented by the American College of Toxicology. He is afellow of five scientific societies.

Now retired, Dr. Furst lives in Cupertino, California.