15 Cross-border Disaster Relief Eu Report

Analysis of Law in the European Unionpertaining to Cross-BorderDisaster Relief

Prepared for the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies by

With support from

© International Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties, Geneva, 2010

Cover photo: Aiguillon-sur-mer, France, March 2010Reuters/Regis Duvignau – Courtesy of alertnet.org

For more information about the British Institute ofInternational and Comparative law, please visithttp://www.biicl.org.

2010International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Box 372CH-1211 Geneva 19SwitzerlandTelephone: +41 22 730 4222Telefax: +41 22 733 0395E-mail: [email protected] site: www.ifrc.org/idrl

strategy2020

Strategy 2020 voices the collective determination of theInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties (IFRC) to move forward in tackling the majorchallenges that confront humanity in the next decade.Informed by the needs and vulnerabilities of the diversecommunities with whom we work, as well as the basicrights and freedoms to which all are entitled, this strate-gy seeks to benefit all who look to Red Cross RedCrescent to help to build a more humane, dignified, andpeaceful world.

Over the next ten years, the collective focus of the IFRCwill be on achieving the following strategic aims:1. Save lives, protect livelihoods, and strengthenrecov-ery from disasters and crises

2. Enable healthy and safe living3. Promote social inclusion and a culture of non-violence and peace

About this report

This report was commissioned by the International Federation and pre-pared by Justine Stefanelli and Sarah Williams of the British Institute ofInternational and Comparative Law.

It is one element of a broader project being undertaken by theInternational Federation and the National Red Cross Societies of Austria,Bulgaria, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom tostudy EU and Member States’regulations for cross-border disasterassistance within Europe.

This project is supported by the Civil Protection Financial Instrument ofthe European Community. However, sole responsibility for its contentsresides with the authors. The European Commission is not responiblefor any use that may be made of the information herein.

About the IDRL Programme

The International Federation’s “International Disaster Response Laws,Rules and Principles” (IDRL) Programme seeks to reduce human vulner-ability by promoting legal preparedness for disasters. It works in threeareas: (1) collaborating with Natioanl Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties and other partners to offer technical assistance to govern-ments on disaster law issues; (2) building the capacity of NationalSocieties and other stakeholders on disaster law; and (3) dissemination,advocacy and research.

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Analysis of Law in the European Union pertaining to Cross-Border Disaster Relief

Table of Contents

Table of ContentsChapter 1: Introduction 5

1a. The Context of the Study 5

1b. The EU and Disaster Relief 6

Chapter 2: Legislative Competence and Legal Bases for Action 9

2a. Legal Bases and Competence 9

2b. The Pillar Structure of the EU 10

2c. Types of Legislation 11

2d. Applicability of EU Legislation in the Private Sphere 12

i. WhoislegallyobligatedunderEUlaw? 12

ii. Whocanexerciserights? 13

2e. The EEA and Switzerland 14

Chapter 3: Areas of EU Regulation 17

3a. Civil Protection Mechanism 17

i. LegalProvisions 17

ii. TheCPMandNon-GovernmentalOrganisations 21

iii. TheCivilProtectionMechanisminPractice 21

iv. ReviewingtheCivilProtectionMechanism 21

v. EUMemberStatesandNATO 22

3b. Operational Regulation 23

i. EntryintoEUterritory 23

ii. Rightsofworkersandrecognitionofprofessionalqualifications 24

iii. CustomsandTaxation 26

iv. Food 29

v. Medicines 32

vi. Animals 35

vii. Transport 36

viii.Telecommunications 40

ix. Currency 41

x. Extendedhours 43

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Table of ContentsInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

3c. Criteria for Eligibility for Action 43

3d. Public Procurement Rules 43

3e. Privileges and Immunities 45

3f. Other Forms of EU Co-operation 46

i. NuclearSafety 46

ii. MarinePollution 46

iii. Forests 47

iv. PandemicInfluenza 47

v. VictimsofTerrorism 49

3g. Recent Trends in Co-Operation 49

Chapter 4: Other Sources of Norms 51

4a. The Legal Status of Agreements in the EC Order 51

i. AgreementswithThirdStates 51

ii. AgreementsbetweenMemberStates 51

4b. International Agreements 52

4c. Regional Agreements 54

4d. Bilateral Agreements between Member States 56

4e. Bilateral Agreements with Third States 57

Chapter 5: Conclusion 61

Annex 1: Consulted Parties 64

Annex 2: Table of Legislation 65

Annex 3: Bilateral Agreements between EU Member States 74

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Table of Abbreviations

Table of AbbreviationsACP African,CaribbeanandPacific

CECIS CommonEmergencyCommunicationandInformationSystem

CPM CivilProtectionMechanism

DG Directorate-General

EACP Euro-AtlanticPartnershipCouncil

EADRCC Euro-AtlanticDisasterResponseCoordinationCentre

EADRU Euro-AtlanticDisasterResponseUnit

EC EuropeanCommunity

ECHO Directorate-GeneralforHumanitarianAid

ECJ EuropeanCourtofJustice

ECMT EuropeanConferenceofMinistersofTransport

EEA EuropeanEconomicArea

EEC EuropeanEconomicCommunity

EFFIS EuropeanForestFireInformationSystem

EFTA EuropeanFreeTradeArea

EMU EconomicandMonetaryUnion

EU EuropeanUnion

Euratom EuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity

ICRC InternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross

IDRL InternationalDisasterResponseLaw

IFRC InternationalFederationoftheRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties

IHR InternationalHealthRegulations

ITF InternationalTransportForum

JHA JusticeandHomeAffairs

MIC MonitoringandInformationCentre

NATO NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation

NGO Non-GovernmentalOrganisation

OCHA OfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs

TEC TreatyEstablishingtheEuropeanCommunity

TEU TreatyonEuropeanUnion

TFEU TreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion

UN UnitedNations

VAT ValueAddedTax

WHO WorldHealthOrganisation


Chapter 1: Introduction

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Chapter 1. Introduction

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Chapter 1Introduction

1a. The Context of the Study

TheoccurrenceofnaturalandtechnologicaldisasterswithintheterritoryoftheMemberStatesoftheEuropeanUnion(EU)haslongbeenaconcernintheEU.Between2002and2008,theEUCivilProtectionMechanism(CPM)wasinvolvedin77incidentsoccurringwithintheEUterri-tory.SuchincidentsrangedfromearthquakesinItalytofloodinginRomaniaandBulgaria.Whenthesedisastersareonalargescale,ortheireffectscrossinternationalboundaries,internationalas-sistanceandco-operationbecomeanecessarycomponentofdisasterreliefplanning.However,itisoftenthecasethattheapplicablelegalframeworkdoesnotconsiderthelegalandtechnicalmeas-uresnecessarytofacilitateinternationalassistance,forexample,expeditedproceduresforcrossingbordersorimportingreliefgoods.

In2001theInternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRC)initiateditsInternationalDisasterResponseLaws,RulesandPrinciples(IDRL)Programmetostudygloballegalframeworkswithinwhichdisasterassistanceisprovidedandused.TheProgrammeanditspartnersreviewedtheinternational,regionalandnationalframeworksregardinginternationalre-sponsetonaturalandtechnologicaldisasters.AmongtheseveraldozenstudiesproducedwasaninitialexaminationofthebroadlinesofEUlawfordisasterrelief,carriedoutin2003bytheAustrianRedCrossinco-operationwiththeIFRC.1

Afterseveralyearsofresearchandglobalconsultationswithgovernmentsandotherstakeholdersevaluatingcommonproblemareasandbestpractice,theIFRCspearheadednegotiationsforthedevelopmentofthe“GuidelinesfortheDomesticFacilitationandRegulationofInternationalDisasterReliefandInitialRecoveryAssistance”(IDRLGuidelines).2InNovember2007,thestate parties to the Geneva Conventions unanimously adopted the IDRL Guidelines at the30thInternationalConferenceoftheRedCrossandRedCrescent.InadditiontojoiningtheconsensusontheGuidelines,theEUMemberStates3andtheirNationalSocieties4signedspecificpledgesinsupportoftheuseoftheGuidelines.SupportfortheIDRLGuidelineswasalsoincludedintheEUConsensusonHumanitarianAidin2007.ArecentreportbytheIFRCnotessomeoftheprogressinimplementingtheIDRLGuidelinessincethattime.5

The current studywas commissionedby the IFRCand is funded in substantialpartby theEuropeanCommission.ThestudybuildsupontheIDRLGuidelines,examiningthedegreetowhichnationalandEuropeanlegalframeworksaddressproblemsrelatedtothefacilitationofinter-nationalassistance.ItsscopeislimitedstrictlytotheprovisionofdisasterassistancewithintheEUanddoesnotexaminedisastersresultingfromarmedconflictsituationsorterroristicacts.ItexaminesEUlawattheregionallevelandreviewsinternationalandregionallegalinstruments

1. ‘The Regulatory Framework for Disaster Response estab-lished within the European Union: A focus on Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection Legal Study’ (2005). 2. IFRC, “Introduction to the Guidelines for the Domestic Faciiltation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Re-covery Assistance” (2008), available at: http://www.ifrc.org/idrl. 3. Pledges on IDRL: Section 3.1 – Strengthening the

legal framework for international response to disasters, Govern-ment, EU Joint Pledge, Pledge #95. 4. ibid, National Socie-ties, Pledge #56. 5. IFRC, “The Right Aid at the Right Time : Progress Report on the Guidelines for the Dwomestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Re-covery Assistance” (November 2009), available at: http: www.ifrc.org/idrl.

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Chapter 1. IntroductionInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

withpotentialapplicationtodisasterreliefwithintheEU.ThisReportalso,inpart,updatesandexpandsuponthe2005studybytheAustrianRedCrossandIFRCmentionedabove.Thisstudywillformpartofawiderproject,andwillbesupplementedbyanevaluationoftherelevantlawofsixEUMemberStates,preparedbytheRedCrossSocietiesofAustria,Bulgaria,France,Germany,theNetherlandsandtheUnitedKingdom.

1b. The EU and Disaster Relief

TheEUhasalongtraditionofconcernfordisasterrelief.Thishasbeenexpressedinpartthroughthedevelopmentofinstitutionsandrulesforhumanitarianassistanceandalsoforcivilprotectioncooperation.Todate,theinstitutionsandrulesrelatedtohumanitarianassistancehaveappliedonlytoreliefeffortsoutsideoftheEU,whereascivilprotectioncooperationhasbeenexpanded,overtime,toapplybothinsideandoutsidetheEU.Thepastfewyearshaveseensomerapprochementofthesestrands,inparticularintherecentproposalofCommissionPresidentBarrosotomergeECHOandtheCivilProtectionMechanismintoasingleDirectorate-GeneralforInternationalCooperation,HumanitarianAidandCrisisResponse.

Nevertheless,thisstudywillfocusonlyonthedeliveryofdisasterassistancewithintheterritoryoftheMemberStates.ItwillconsiderreliefsourcesfrombothwithinandoutsidetheEU.Forthisreason,itwillnotbeexamininghumanitarianassistancestructures.

EUlaw-makingoncivilprotectioncooperationbeganwiththeMayministerialmeetinginRomein1985.Thatmeetingwas followedbysix resolutionsoncivilprotectionover thenextnineyears,themostsignificantbeingtheResolutionof9July1991onimprovingmutualaidbetweenMemberStatesintheeventoftechnologicaldisasters.6Eachoftheseresolutionsformedtheframe-workofwhatisnowtheCPMandhasevolvedintotwoprimarypiecesoflegislation.Sincethen,theCPMhasbecomeacomprehensiveframeworkforemergencyassistancenotification,requestandresponse,andhasdevelopedanelaboratetrainingandexerciseprogrammetoimproveco-ordinationandenhanceexperts’skills.SinceJanuary2002,theMechanismhashandledalmost200eventsrangingfrompracticeexercisestoresponsestolarge-scaledisasters,suchasthe2004tsunamiinAsiaorthe2009earthquakeinthel’AquilaProvinceinItaly.

ManyoftheprovisionsundertheMechanismcorrespondtoconsiderationsintheproposedIDRLGuidelines,butthereareseveralgapsthathavenotbeenaddressedbytheMechanismlegislationorbyotherrelevantCommunitypolicies.

Giventheabove,thisreportseekstoaccomplishthefollowing:

1. ConductareviewofthecurrentEUlegalframeworkfordisasterrelief,bothwithintheCivilProtectionMechanismandinotherrelevantpolicyareasinordertoassessthedegreetowhichthecurrentlegalframeworkcorrespondstotheIDRLGuidelines;

6. In fact, the first Decision establishing the CPM (2001/792/EC) refers to the benefits derived from the 1991 Resolution but acknowledges that the scope of protection must be extended to in-clude other emergencies such as radiological or chemical emergen-cies and marine pollution (Preamble 1). Other resolutions of note were the: Resolution of the Council and of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council of 26 February 2001 on strengthening the capabilities of the European Union in the field of civil protection, Resolution

of the Council and the representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, of 31 October 1994 on strengthening Community cooperation on civil protection and Resolution of the Council and the representatives of the Govern-ments of the Member States, meeting within the Council of 23 November 1990 on Community cooperation on civil protection. For a complete look at the legislative history of civil protection in the EU, see: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/prote/legal_texts.htm.

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Chapter 1. Introduction

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2. ProvideanassessmentofpracticeundertheexistingEUframeworkfordisasterrelief;and3. Surveyselectedinternationalandregionalagreements,togetherwithrelevantbilateral

agreementsbetweentheEUandthirdcountries,thatmightimposeobligationsonEUMemberStatesinadditiontothoseundertheCommunityframework.

TheReportconcludeswiththreeannexes.AnnexIisalistofindividualswhoaidedinthedraftingofthisreport,eitherthroughinterviewsconductedbytelephoneorresponsesprovidedbyemail.AnnexIIisatableofthelegislationcitedinthisReport.AnnexIIIisatableofselectedbilateralagreementsregulatingassistancebetweenEUMemberStates.

AlltreatyarticlesreferencedintheReportarethosewhichappearinthenewly-enactedTreatyofLisbon.TheTreatyenteredintoforceon1December2009andiscomprisedoftwoseparatetreaties:theTreatyonEuropeanUnion(LisbonTEU)andtheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(LisbonTFEU).OneconsequenceoftheentryintoforceoftheLisbonTreatyistherenumberingofarticlesfromtheTreatyofNice.7Therefore,referencestotheLisbonTreatywillbeaccompaniedinbracketsbyreferencetopreviousarticles intheTreatyofNicewhereappropriate.

7. Comprising the Treaty on European Union (Treaty of Maas-tricht) and the Treaty Establishing the European Communities (Rome Treaty).


Chapter 2: Legislative Competence

and Legal Bases for Action

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Chapter 2. Legislative Competence and Legal Bases for Action

Chapter 2Legislative Competence and Legal Bases for Action

2a. Legal Bases and Competence

UndertheTEC,therearethreetypesofcompetence.n Exclusiven Sharedn Complementary

TheLisbonTreatyeffectivelymirrorsthecurrentsituationundertheTEC,butexplicitlyplaceseachareaofpolicywithinacategoryofcompetence.

Delineatingtheexactlevelsofcompetenceintheareaswherecompetenceissharedorcomplemen-taryisalengthyexercisethatwouldinvolveanevaluationofallEUlawinagivensubjectareatodeterminewhathasbeenregulatedbytheEUandwhatspecificallyhasbeenlefttotheMemberStatestoregulate.Therefore,thisReportattemptstoprovideabroadoverviewofthetypesofcom-petenceandthesubjectareaswhichfallundereachcategory.

TherearethreemaintypesofcompetencethattheCommunitycanexerciseintheimplementa-tionofitspolicies:exclusive,sharedandcomplementary.Areasofexclusive competenceresultfromallocationsintheEuropeanTreaties.OncetheEChaslegislatedinagivenarea,theMemberStatesarenolongercompetenttolegislateinthatareaunlesscompetenceistransferredbacktothembytheCommunity.TheEuropeanCommissionhastraditionallyarguedforabroadapproachtoex-clusivity,i.e.,thatapowerisexclusiveonceithasbeenconferredontheEC,whetherornottheEChasactuallyexercisedthecompetence.Theareasofagriculture,customs,valueaddedtax(VAT)andindirecttaxationareconsideredareasofexclusivecompetenceundertheTreatyEstablishingtheEuropeanCommunity(TEC)asitcurrentlystands.

Whenacompetenceisshared,boththeCommunityandtheMemberStatesmaylegislateandadoptlegallybindingactsinthesubjectarea.TheMemberStatesmayonlyexercisetheircompe-tenceinsofarastheCommunityhasnotexerciseditsown.Also,theCommunitycanonlyactin-sofarastheobjectivesoftheproposedactioncannotbesufficientlyachievedbytheMemberStatesontheirown.Theareasoftelecommunications,environmentandtransport8areexamplesofareasofsharedcompetenceundertheTEC.

Complementary competenceexistsinareaswheretheCommunitysupports,co-ordinatesorsupple-mentstheactionsoftheMemberStates.AlthoughthereisaCommunitypolicy,itmayneverleadtoharmonisationofMemberStates’nationallegislation.MemberStatesmaycontinuetofollowanddeterminetheirownpolicy.Civilprotectionandpublichealthareareasthatfallintothiscategory.

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8. Transport has been declared exclusive by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) in one case because of the particular

circumstances: Case 22/70, CommissionvCouncil (ERTA) [1971] ECR 263.

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Chapter 2. Legislative Competence and Legal Bases for ActionInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Finally,itshouldbenotedthatactionstakenunderthethirdpillar–policeandjudicialco-opera-tion–areexclusivelywithinthecompetenceoftheMemberStates.Thisispertinenttothediscus-sionofEUregulationofcontrolledsubstancesandcareforvictimsofterrorism.

WhereasundertheTECthereissomeconfusionregardingwhichsubjectareasfallintowhichcategories,theTreatyofLisbonspecifiesexactlythelimitsofcompetence,basicallyreflectingthecurrentsituationinpractice.SomeexamplesofexclusivecompetenceundertheLisbonTreatyare:

n customsunion;n monetarypolicyfortheMemberStateswhohaveadoptedtheEuro.9

Sharedcompetenceoccursinrelationtoareassuchas:

n internalmarket;n agricultureandfisheries,excludingtheconservationofmarinebiologicalresources;n environment;n transport;n trans-Europeannetworks;n areaoffreedom,securityandjustice;n commonsafetyconcernsinpublichealthmatters,fortheaspectsdefinedinthisTreaty.10

Finally,areasofcomplementarycompetenceinclude:

n protectionandimprovementofhumanhealth;n civilprotection.11

ThearrangementsundertheLisbonTreatylargelymirrorthecurrentsituationundertheTEC,thereforethecurrentframeworkforcivilprotectionshouldnotbealtereddrastically.However,civilprotectionisnowaspecificallylistedobjectiveoftheUnionandfurtherlegislationintheareawillbepossible.Furthermore,Article222oftheLisbonTreatyintroducestheSolidarityClause.TheSolidarityClausespecifiesthat“theUnionanditsMemberStatesshallactjointlyinaspiritofsoli-darityifaMemberStateistheobjectofaterroristattackorthevictimofanaturalorman-madedisaster.”TheClauseisaccompaniedbyDeclaration37whichreinforcesthefactthatnothinginArticle222affectsaMemberState’srighttochoosethemostappropriatemeanstocomplywithitssolidarityobligations.AstatementmadebyMrStavrosDimas,theEuropeanCommissionerfortheEnvironmentsupportsthefactthattheSolidarityClausehascreatedabindinglegalobligationfortheMemberStatestohelpeachotherinthecontextofcivilprotection.12

2b. The Pillar Structure of the EU

WhentheTreatyonEuropeanUnion(TEU)enteredintoforcein1993,itintroducedathethreepillarstructureoftheEuropeanUnion.ThefirstpillaristheCommunitypillarandcomprisesthethreeCommunities:theEuropeanCommunity,theEuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunityandtheformerEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity.Thesecondpillarisdevotedtothecommon

9. Art 3 Lisbon TFEU. 10. ibid art 4. 11. ibid art 6. 12. Civil Protection Forum, “Towards a more resilient society”, 25-26 November 2009, Speech/09/556, available at: http://

europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/09/556&format=PDF&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en.

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foreignandsecuritypolicywhichcomesunderTitleVIoftheTEUandiswithinthecompetenceoftheMemberStates.Thethirdpillar,originallyentitled‘JusticeandHomeAffairs’isdevotedtopoliceandjudicialco-operationincriminalmattersbetweentheMemberStates,comingunderTitleVIoftheEU.Thisreportisconcernedonlywithactionsinthefirstandthirdpillarsandwhererelevant,referencetothepillarswillbemade.

2c. Types of Legislation

UndertheTEC,therearethreemaintypesoflegislation.Thebindingnatureofthelegislationdependsonitsform.

n Directives:bindingastotheresulttobeachievedn Regulations:bindingintheirentiretyn Decisions:bindingintheirentiretyonwhomtheyareaddressedn Resolutions:non-binding

ThemajorityoftherelevantlegislationisintheformofaDirective,RegulationorDecision,eachpossessingvaryingdegreesofbindingauthority.13AsdefinedinArticle249TEC,aDirectiveis“binding,astotheresulttobeachieved,uponeachMemberStatetowhichitisaddressed,butshallleavetothenationalauthoritiesthechoiceofformandmethods.”ARegulationisgeneralinitsapplicationand“bindinginitsentiretyanddirectlyapplicableinallMemberStates”.ADecisionis“bindinginitsentiretyuponthosetowhomitisaddressed”.Finally,althoughtheyarenotlegallybindingandarenotspecificallymentionedintheTEC,ResolutionshavebeeninstrumentalinthedevelopmentoftheEU’scivilprotectionpolicy.Theyaretypicallydraftedasstatementsofintentiontodeveloppolicyinagivenarea.

Inthecontextofthethirdpillar,therelevanttypesoflegislationarejointactions,frameworkdecisionsanddecisions.14JointactionsaddressspecificsituationswhereoperationalactionbytheUnionisrequired.TheycommittheMemberStatesinthepositionstheyadoptandintheconductoftheiractivities.FrameworkdecisionsareadoptedbytheCouncilunanimouslyinordertoap-proximatethelawsandregulationsoftheMemberStatesandfunctionmuchlikedirectives:theyarebindingastotheresulttobeachieved,buttheMemberStatesmaychoosetheformofmethodofachievingtheendresult.Decisionsaresomewhatsimilar,onlyitistheCouncilthatadoptsthenecessaryimplementingmeasures.DecisionsareadoptedbytheCouncilwithqualifiedmajorityforanypurpose,otherthantheapproximationofMemberStates’lawsandregulations,consistentwiththeobjectivesofTitleVITEU,whichcontainstheprovisionsonpoliceandjudicialco-operationincriminalmatters.

13. Another consequence of the Treaty of Lisbon is that the nature and types of legal instruments has changed. At the time of writing, it is not clear whether and how these changes will affect

the legal instruments cited in this Report. 14. Article 14 (re-garding joint actions) and Article 34 (decisions and framework decisions) TEU.

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2d. Applicability of EU Legislation in the Private Sphere

n ThebindingnatureofEUlegislationonprivatebodiesisdependentuponthetypeoflegislationatissue.

n DirectivesareonlycapableofbindingtheState,buttheycanberelieduponbyprivateindividualsandbodiestoasserttheirrights.

n RegulationsarebindinguponboththeStateandprivatebodiesandindividuals.n ThereisnospecificEUregulationofcharitableorganisations;thatislefttotheMemberStates.

Attheoutset,itshouldbementionedthatthereisatpresent,nogeneralEUregulationofcharitableorganisations.WhiletheEUhasdevelopedsomelegislationintheareaofcompanieslaw,itisspecif-icallyinapplicabletonon-profitorganisations.15Consequently,legalregulationofthesebodiesoccursnationally,sometimesresultinginhardshipfornon-profitorganisationsthatworkacrossborders.Therefore,asonerecentcommentatorhasnoted,thecurrentEUregulatoryregime“preventsnon-profitorganizationsfromfullyenjoyingthebenefitsofthecommonmarket.”16Non-profitorganisa-tionswill,however,beboundbyandderivebenefitfromEUlegislationregulatingotherareasoflaw.

i. Who is legally obligated under EU law?

Dependingonthetypeoflegislationinvolved,Europeanlawmayimposeobligationsonprivateindividualsandbodies.Directivesareonlycapableofproducingverticaldirecteffect.Thatis,theyimposeobligationsonlyupontheMemberStatestowhomtheyareaddressed.Theydonotbindprivateindividualsand,consequently,donothavewhatiscalledhorizontaldirecteffect.17

Asdirectivesanddecisionscanonlybindstates,thedefinitionof‘state’isrelevant.TheECJhasde-fined‘state’broadlyasincludingallorgansoftheState.18InFoster v British Gas,19theECJdevelopedafour-prongtesttodeterminewhetherabodycanberegardedasthestateforpurposesofdirecteffect:

1. thebodymustprovideapublicservice;2. theservicemustbeprovidedpursuanttoameasureadoptedbytheState;3. theserviceprovidedmustbeunderthecontroloftheState;and4. thebodymustpossess special powersbeyond thosenormally applicable in relations

betweenindividuals.

ThefollowingtypesofbodieshavebeenheldtobeemanationsoftheStatebytheECJ:

n Localandregionalauthorities20

n Nationalhealthauthorities21

n Police22

n Nationalisedindustries23

BasedontheFoster test,nationalcourtshaveruledthatcharitiesestablishedbyaprivateactsuchasawillortrustdeed,eveniftheyprovideapublicservice,arenotconsideredasthe‘state’unlessit

15. Some of this legislation is discussed below in Part II.b.c. 16. OB Breen, ‘EU Regulation of Charitable Organ-isations: The Politics of Legally Enabling Civil Society’, The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law, vol 10, issue 3 (June 2008). 17. Case 152/84 Marshall v SouthamptonandSouthWestHampsireAreaHealthAuthority(Teaching)

[1986] ECR 723. 18. Marshall (n 17). 19. Case C-188/89 [1990] ECR I-3313. 20. Case C-103/88 FratelliConstanzo SpAvComunediMilano [1989] ECR 1839. 21. Marshall (n 17). 22. Case 222/84 MargueriteJohnstonvChiefCon-stableoftheRoyalUlsterConstabulary[1986] ECR 1651. 23. Foster (n 19).

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ispartoftheStatesystem.24ThishasnotbeenspecificallyquestionedbeforetheECJ,butitseemslikelythatcharitableorganisationssuchasNationalRedCrossSocietiesornon-governmentalor-ganisations,forexample,wouldnotbebounddirectlybyECdirectivesanddecisions.

Itshouldbenoted,however,thatonceadirectivehasbeencorrectlyimplementedbytheMemberStates,itbecomespartofnationallawandthereforeapplicabletoprivateindividualsandbodiesaswellastheState.So,inthatsense,directivesmayalsobindprivatebodiesorindividuals.

Bytheirverydefinition,regulationsareof‘generalapplication’andthereforeimposeobligationsnotonlyontheMemberStates,butalsoonprivateindividuals.MuchoftheEClegislationdis-cussedinthisReportisintheformofaregulation.Consequently,ifinvolvedinthetypesofactiv-itiesregulatedbythislegislation,privateindividualsandbodieswithintheEUwillbeboundbyprovisionsrelatingto:

n TheimplementationoftheCommunityCustomsCode25

n Visarequirementsforthirdcountrynationals26

n Foodqualitystandards27

n Pharmaceuticalstandardsandrulesregardingcontrolledsubstances28

n EUvehicleregistrationrequirements29

n Euratomsafeguards30

n TheEuropeanCentreforDiseasePreventionandControl31

Treatyarticlesconcerningfreemovementarealsocapableofproducingobligationsbetweenindi-viduals.32Therefore,thoseprovisionsoftheTECregardingfreemovementofpersonsandworkerssuchasthoseontherecognitionofprofessionalqualificationsorestablishment,producebindingobligationsontheMemberStatesaswellasprivateindividualsorbodies.

ii. Who can exercise rights?

DirectivesanddecisionscanonlyconferrightsonindividualsagainsttheState;Inorderfortheseinstrumentstohavethiseffect,theymustsatisfythreeconditions:

1. thedateofimplementationmusthavepassed;33

2. theprovisionatissuemustbesufficientlyclearandprecisesoastodemonstrateaninten-tiontoconferrights;34and

3. theprovisionmustbeunconditional,i.e.,notrequireanyfurtherdecisionoractoftheCommunityortheMemberState.35

24. NationalUnionofTeachers andOthers v.GoverningBodyofStMary’sChurchofEngland(Aided)JuniorSchooland Others [1997] CMLR 630; [1997] ICR 334, Court of Appeal (England and Wales). 25. See Part III.b.iii. 26. Part III.b.i. 27. Part III.b.iv. 28. Part III.b.v. 29. Part III.b.vii. 30. Part III.e.i. 31. Part III.e.iv. 32. Case C-281/98 RomanAngonesevCassadiRisparmiodiBolzano[2000] ECR I 4139: Article 29 TEC covers the discriminatory conduct of private parties in relation to the free movement of workers; Case 90/76 S.r.l.UfficiovanAmeydevS.r.l.UfficioCentraleItalianodiAssistenzaAssicurativaAutomobilistainCircolazioneInternazionale [1977] ECR 1091: demonstrates that the ECJ has applied Article 43 in relation to freedom of es-tablishment to private parties, although it is not clear whether this

is a strict rule; Joined Cases C-51/96 and C-191/97 ChristelleDeliègeVLigueFrancophonedeJudoetDisciplinesASBL: Article 49 on free movement of services is applicable to private rules aimed at regulating the profession of services in a collective way. 33. Case C-129/96 Inter-environnement Wallonie [1997] ECR I-7411. 34. Case 148/78 Criminal Proceed-ingsagainstTullioRatti [1979] ECR 1629. 35. Case 8/81 Becker [1982] ECR 53. This does not mean that the provisions of a directive will not be directly effective because the rights it grants are dependent upon an objective factor or event; rather, it means that the provision must not be dependent on the judgment or dis-cretion of the Community institutions or national authorities (TC Hartley, TheFoundationsofEuropeanCommunityLaw (5th ed) OUP 2003 p 199).

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AlthoughprivatebodiessuchastheNationalRedCrossSocietiesornon-governmentalorgan-isationsarenotbounddirectlybydirectives,theymayassertanyrightsprovidedinthedirectivesagainsttheState.

AsregulationsaregenerallyapplicableandcreateobligationsonthepartoftheStateandindi-viduals,private individualsandbodiesmayasserttheirrightsvertically(againsttheState)orhorizontally(againstotherindividuals).ThesameistrueregardingtheTreatyprovisionsonfreemovement.

Consideringtheforegoing,privateindividualsandbodiessuchastheNationalRedCrossSocietieswillbenefitfromEUlawifcertainconditionsaremet.ThetypeoflawconcernedwilldictatewhethertheycanasserttheirrightsagainsttheStateorboththeStateandotherprivateindividualsorbodies.EUlawmayalsocreateobligationsthatbindprivateindividualsorbodies.Again,thisdependsonthetypeoflawatissue.Regulationsmaydirectlybindthesebodiesiftheybecomeinvolvedinthesubjectmatterconcernedbytheregulation.Directivesmayindirectlybindprivateindividualsandbodiesinvolvedintheregulatedsubjectmatteraftertheirprovisionshavebecomepartofnationallaw.

2e. The EEA and Switzerland

InadditiontotheTECandtheTEU,twootheragreementsshouldbementionedatthisstage.TheEuropeanEconomicAreaAgreement(EEAAgreement)enteredintoforcein1994andex-pandedtheEUinternalmarkettoalltheEuropeanFreeTradeArea(EFTA)States.Currently,onlythreeEFTAStatestakepartintheEEAAgreement:Norway,IcelandandLiechtenstein.AspartoftheEEAAgreement,theEFTAStatesmustimplementallEUlegislationrelevanttothefunc-tioningoftheinternalmarket.Thisincludesrespectforthebasicprinciplesoftheinternalmarket,suchasthefreemovementofgoods,persons,capitalandservices.

TheEUhasalsoenteredintoseveralagreementswithSwitzerland,coveringvariousareasoflegis-lativepolicy.Afterthefirstagreementonfreetradein1972,theEUandSwitzerlandhaveenteredintoapproximately100bilateralagreements.Themostnotablenegotiationsoccurredintwomainrounds:BilateralIin1994andBilateralIIin2004.BilateralIconsistsofaseriesofsevenagree-mentsinthefollowingareas:(1)freemovementofpersons;(2)civilaviation;(3)overlandtrans-port;(4)agriculture;(5)publicprocurement;(6)technicalbarrierstotrade;and(7)research.TheBilateralIIpackageconcerns(1)securityandasylum;(2)co-operationinthefightagainstfraud;and(3)previouslyopenissuesinthefieldsofagriculture,environment,media,education,careoftheelderly,statisticsandservices.Mostrecently,inDecember2008,SwitzerlandbecameamemberoftheSchengenTreaty,discussedbelow.Essentially,theseagreementsoperatesimilarlytotheEEAAgreementandmakeSwitzerlanda‘virtual’memberoftheEEA.Consequently,mostEUlawwillapplyuniversallythroughouttheEU,EEAandSwitzerland.


Chapter 3: Areas of EU Regulation

17


Chapter 3. Areas of EU Regulation

Chapter 3Areas of EU Regulation

3a. Civil Protection Mechanism

IDRL Guidelines

PartIIoftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesforthe“expeditioussharingofinformationaboutdisasters”.

n TheCPMprovidesanalertandresponsecentretoalertstatestotheexistenceofdisastersandtheneedforassistanceaswellasanyassistanceoffered.

PartIIIoftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesthatdecisionstorequestreliefmustbemadeandcommunicatedinatimelymanner;thesameisapplicabletonotificationoftheterminationofrelief.

n TheMICprovidesoneplatformforthesenotificationstobemadeassoonaspos-siblewithinEurope.Inaddition,statespecificationofthetypesandamountsofassistanceisincludedintheMICalerts.

i. Legal Provisions

The main EU mechanism which deals with disaster relief assistance inside the EU is theCPM,whichhastraditionallybeenmanagedbytheCommission’sDirectorateGeneralfortheEnvironment(DGEnvironment),butwhichwillapparentlybemanagedinthefuturefromthenewDirectorate-GeneralforInternationalCooperation,HumanitarianAidandCrisisResponse.TheCPMconsistsoftwoprimarypiecesoflegislationcoveringdisasterprevention,prepared-nessandresponse:CouncilDecision2007/779/EC,EuratomestablishingaCommunityCivilProtectionMechanism(recast)andCouncilDecision2007/162/EC,EuratomestablishingaCivilProtectionFinancialInstrument.Thesewillbediscussedinmoredetailbelow.TheCPMisap-plicableto“majoremergencies”,36whichisdefinedas“anysituationwhichhasormayhaveanadverseimpactonpeople,theenvironmentorpropertyandwhichmayresultinacallforassistanceundertheMechanism”.Inthepast,earthquakes,floods,forestfires,storms,tsunamis,biological,chemical,environmental,radiological&technologicaldisasters,marinepollution,andterroristat-tackshavebeencategorisedasfallingwithinthisdefinition.37

Previously, the legalbasis for theCPMwassomewhat indirect.AlthoughitwasmanagedbyDGEnvironment,thelegalbasisandoriginofcompetenceoftheCPMdoesnotfallundertheCommunity’senvironmentalpolicy,whichisanareaofsharedcompetence.Article3oftheTEC,whichliststheobjectivesoftheCommunity,specificallycitesinsubsection(1)(u)measuresre-latingtocivilprotection.CivilprotectionwasthereforepartofthecompetenceoftheEuropeanCommunity(EC)underthefirstpillar,butitwasnotexclusive,itwascomplementarytotheMemberStates’competence.However,Article3(1)(u)didnotitselfserveasalegalbasisforaction

3

36. Council Decision 2007/779/EC, Euratom establishing a Community Civil Protection Mechanism (recast), Article 1(1). 37. ‘Community co-operation in the field of civil protection’,

European Civil Protection, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/prote/cp01_en.htm.

18

Chapter 3. Areas of EU RegulationInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

inthatsphereandtheTECdidnotprovideaseparateprovisiononwhichtobasesuchaction.Therefore,thecivilprotectionlegislationcitedArticle308TECastherelevantlegalbasis.Article308allowstheinstitutionstotakeanyappropriatemeasuresthatarenecessarytoattainoneoftheobjectivesoftheCommunityandtheTEC.

ThecharacterisationofcivilprotectionasacomplementarycompetencehasbeenmoreemphaticallycementedbyitsexplicitlistingintheLisbonTreatyunderArticle6TFEU,discussingcomplemen-taryaction.However,theCommunityhasacknowledgedtheaddedvalueofmakinganEU-levelmechanismavailableasasupplementtoMemberStates’systemsintheeventthataMemberStatebecomesoverwhelmedbyadisaster.ThesupportoftheCPMisavailableonrequestshouldtheaf-fectedstatedecidethatitsownmechanismsareinsufficienttoprovideanadequateresponse.

UndertheTreatyofLisbon,theEUshallhavecompetencetocarryoutactionstosupport,co-ordinateorsupplementtheactionsofMemberStatesincivilprotection.TitleXXIII,Article196TFEUprovidesthattheEU:

shallencouragecooperationbetweenMemberStatesinordertoimprovetheeffectivenessofsystemsforpreventingandprotectingagainstnaturalorman-madedisasters.Unionactionshall(a)aimtosupportandcomplementMemberStates’actionatnational,regionalandlocallevelinriskprevention,inpreparingthecivil-protectionpersonnelandinrespondingtonat-uralormanmadedisasterswithintheUnion;(b)aimtopromoteswift,effectiveoperationalcooperationwithintheUnionbetweennationalcivilprotectionservices;and(c)promoteconsistencyininternationalcivil-protectionwork.

TheEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncilshallestablishthemeasuresnecessarytohelptoachievetheobjectivesreferredtoinArt.196(1),excludingallharmonisationofthelawsandregulationsoftheMemberStates.

TheLisbonTreatythereforeformaliseswhathasalreadybeenthecaseinpractice:thecompetenceoftheCommunitywithregardtocivilprotectioniscomplementaryinnature.Thismightexplainwhy,asthetreatiesstand,itisdifficulttofinddetailedprovisionsregardingdisasterreliefoper-ationsintheEClegislationunderthefirstpillar.

TheEUhasidentifiedcivilprotectionasbeingoneoffourpriorityareasofcivilianactionundertheEuropeanSecurityandDefencePolicy.Civilprotectioninthissense,however,ismostlyinrelationtoarmedconflict.AccordingtotheCouncil,inanefforttorespondeffectivelytocrisismanagementtasks,certaincivilprotectiongoalshavebeensetwithadeadlineoftheendof2010.38Thesetargetsconsistofactionssuchasestablishingco-ordinationteamswithroundtheclockavailabilityandcreatinglarge-scaleinterventionteamsthatcanbedispatchedonshortnotice.Itisthoughtthatthatthesecrisismanagementtoolscouldbeusedregularlyforcivilprotectionoper-ationsabroadinthecontextofEU-ledautonomousmissionsorincivilprotectionoperationsledbyorganisationsliketheUNortheOSCE.ItispossiblethattheseinnovationscouldbereplicatedandusedfordisastersoccurringwithintheCommunity;howeveritisunclearwhetherthesepro-ceduresencompassalloftheconsiderationsoftheIDRLGuidelines.

38. The Civilian Headline Goal 2010 is available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Civilian_Headline_Goal_2010.pdf.

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TheCPMcurrentlyincludes31countries(theEU27plusLiechtenstein,Iceland,NorwayandCroatia).Asdiscussedabove,theCPMconsistsoftwomainpiecesoflegislation,onecoveringgen-eralco-operationregardingco-ordinationofcivilprotectionassistance,andafinancialinstrument39whichenablestheEUtofundactivitiesundertheframeworkfocusedonprevention,preparednessandresponse.TheDecisionestablishingtheCommunityCPM40providesforvariousmethodsofco-operationandactionincluding:(1)establishingacentralinventoryofavailableassistanceandinterventionteamsormodulesintheMemberStates;(2)trainingprogrammesfortheteams;(3)workshopsandseminarsgearedtowardaspectsofintervention;(4)thecreationofassessmentandco-ordinationteams;(5)thecreationofaMonitoringandInformationCentre(MIC)andaCommonEmergencyCommunicationandInformationSystem(CECIS)toliaisebetweentheMICandMemberStates’contactpoints;(6)aidinginthedevelopmentofdetectionandearlywarningsys-tems;(7)emphasisingtheimportanceofinformationexchangeinordertofacilitateaccesstoequip-mentandtransport;(8)freeingupadditionaltransportresources;and(9)conductingexercises.41

TheEUCommissionfacilitatesthemobilisationofcivilprotectionresourcesfromtheMemberStatesthroughtheMIC,whichistheheartoftheCPM.BasedinBrussels,itisaccessible24hoursadayand7daysaweek.AnystateaffectedbyadisastercanrequestassistancethroughtheMIC.Therequestwillbeforwardedimmediatelytoanetworkofnationalcontactpoints,which,inreturn,informtheMICwhethertheyareabletoofferassistance.TheMICcollectstheinforma-tionandinformstherequestingstateabouttheavailableassistance.Therequestingcountrythenselectstheassistanceitneedsandestablishescontactwiththeassistingcountries.Moreover,theCPMhasadatabasewithinformationconcerningthenationalcivilprotectioncapabilitiesavail-ableforassistanceinterventions.Italsoreceivescontentsofthemilitarydatabase,compiledbytheEUMilitaryStaff,providingapictureofallavailableresourcestomanagetheconsequencesofdisasters.Theresponsibilitytoco-ordinatethecontributionsreceivedthroughtheCPMduringoperationswithintheEUremainswiththerequestingstate.42

3

39. Council Decision 2007/162/EC, Euratom establishing a Civil Protection Financial Instrument. 40. Council De-cision 2007/779/EC, Euratom (n 36). 41. ibid art 2.

42. ‘Improving the Community Civil Protection Mechanism’ COM(2005) 137 final 5.

Official request for EU assistance

from affected country

MIC appoints EU team

on the ground

MIC sends info & situation report to MS

Mechanism activated:MIC issues request to national contact points

Member states assess resources and send offers back to MIC

MIC compiles offersand sends

to affected country

Country accepts/rejects offers; notifies MIC and sends further requests

Civil Protection phase is over:handover to humanitarian teams

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TheCPMDecisionprovidesthebasisforitsimplementinglegislation.ThisincludesCommissionDecision 2004/277/EC, Euratom laying down rules for the implementation of [the CPMDecision],whichformallyimplementsmostofthesuggestedactionintheCPMDecision,suchas:(1)thecreationoftheMICandCECIS;(2)mandatoryinformationexchangebetweenMemberStatesregardingavailableresources;and(3)proceduresforrequestsforassistancebyadisaster-affectedstate.ThisDecisionwasamendedbyCommissionDecision2008/73/EC,Euratomwhichprimarilycoversthetasksandrulesgoverningcivilprotectionmodules.

Article8(2)oftheCPMDecisionprovidesthattheMemberStateholdingthePresidencyoftheCouncil is responsible for theoverall co-ordinationofcivilprotectionassistance,whereas theCommissionischargedwithoperationalco-ordination,thelatterpertainingspecificallytoindi-vidualreliefoperationsasdifferentiatedfromgeneralco-ordinationoftheCPMasawhole.Thisoperationalco-ordinationischieflyhandledbytheMICwhichservesasthecontactpointforas-sistancerequestsandresponsesandhandlingthedialoguebetweenMemberStates.AcontactintheEU’sCivilProtectionUnitstatedthatalthoughintheorythiscouldincludetechnicalconsiderationssuchastransitandcustoms,inpracticeitdoesnot.Forexample,inasituationwhereaBelgianpumpingteamwastravellingfromBelgiumtoRomaniaandencounteredpracticaldifficultiesatbordersorwithregulationssuchasrestrictionsondriving,theMICwouldtrytofacilitatethereso-lutionoftheseproblemsbycontactingtherelevantcivilprotectionpointsofthecountrywherethereisadifficulty.However,thisactionisveryadhocandtherearenoformalagreementsonthesubject.

TheCPMhasvarioustoolsatitsdisposaltoaidtheMemberStatestobeasbestpreparedfordis-astersituationsaspossible.TheCPMusestrainingcourses,simulationexercisesandtheexchangeofexpertstoimprovecompetencyandtopromotecomplementarityandcompatibilityamongre-sponseteams.Trainingcoursesareaimedatawidevarietyofparticipants,fromassessmentandco-ordinationexperts,toenvironmentalexperts.Theyconsistoftheoryandfieldexperience,aswellasoverviewsofapplicableinternationalguidelines.43AccordingtotheCPMwebsite,sinceitslaunchin2004,thetrainingprogrammehasexpandedinto11coursesteachingoverathousandexpertsamongtheparticipatingstates.44ExercisesattheCommunitylevelaretypicallyorganisedbytheMemberStatesandpartiallyfundedbytheCommission.TheyareofferedtoallactorsinvolvedinCPMoperationsandarefocusedoncontingencyplanning,decision-makingproceduresandles-sonsregardingtheprovisionofinformationtothepublic.Alreadyin2009,therehavebeenfoursimulationexercisescoveringfloodingandearthquaketraining.Inthepast,exerciseshavecovereddisasterssuchaschemical,biological,radiologicalandnuclearattacks,terrorism-relatedaccidentsandforestfires.Theexpertexchangemechanismoperatesaccordingtoasecondmentprocedurewherebynationalcivilprotectionexpertsaresenttotheadministrationsofotherparticipatingstatestogainexperienceandknowledgeonallaspectsofdisasterpreventionthroughfamiliarisa-tionwithnewtechniquesandapproaches.

TheCPMframeworkisessentially justthat:a frameworkforco-operationagainstwhichtheMemberStatescanco-ordinatetheiractionintimesofdisaster.EUactivityitselfisquitemodest,ascivilprotectionhasbeendeemedtobelargelyamatterforMemberStatesundertheprincipleofsubsidiarity.45Therefore,civilprotectionisnecessarilylinkedtootherpolicyareassuchasenvir-onment,humanitarianaid,agriculture,immigrationandcustomswheretheEChascompetencetotaketherelevantactionsrequired.

43. ‘The European Community Civil Protection Mechanism Training Programme’, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/prote/pdfdocs/Training_Civil_Protec-tion.pdf. 44. ‘Training and exchange of experts’, at: http://

ec.europa.eu/environment/civi l /prote /activities.htm. 45. Vade-mecum of Civil Protection in the European Union, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/pdfdocs/vademec.pdf, p 8.

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ii. The CPM and Non-Governmental OrganisationsTheCPMgenerallydoesnotworkdirectlywithnon-governmentalorganisations(NGOs);itisastate-to-statemechanism.AccordingtoanofficialattheEU’sCivilProtectionUnit,NGOsareengagedonanadhocbasisonly.EvenincasesofexternalactionbasedonArticle8oftheDecisionestablishingtheCPMFinancialInstrument,46actiontakesplaceviastate-to-stateco-ordinationwithoutthedirectinvolvementofNGOsorotherinternationalorganisations.TheCPMworksontheassumptionthatthegovernmentisthesovereigninthesesituationsandshouldberespected.Therefore,withintheCPM,therearenoeligibilitycriteriaforNGOparticipation.Incontrast,theEU’shumanitarianaidoffice,DGECHO,whichoperatesexternally,anditshumanitarianaidprogramme,engagewithnotonlyNGOs,butalsoUnitedNations(UN)agencies,andtheRedCrossandRedCrescentMovement.

iii. The Civil Protection Mechanism in Practice

SinceJanuary2002,theMIChasbeeninvolvedwithover200eventsmanyofwhichhaveoc-curredwithintheEU.Forexample,in2005,theMICco-ordinatedoffersofassistancebyFrance,Italy,Germany,theNetherlands,Slovakia,SpainandNorwaytoaidPortugalinitsstrugglewithforestfires.Thatsameyear,theMICfieldedrequestsforandoffersofassistancetoBulgaria,RomaniaandCentralEuropeanMemberStateswhichwereinundatedwithflooding.Similaras-sistanceandco-ordinationwasprovidedinrelationtofloodinginBulgaria,Romania,HungaryandtheSlovakRepublicin2006,CypriotandBulgarianforestfiresin2007,andmostrecently,forestfiresinItalyandFranceinJuly2009.

iv. Reviewing the Civil Protection Mechanism

InFebruary2009,theCommissionrequestedanimpactassessmentontheCommunityapproachtothepreventionofnaturalandman-madedisasters.47ThepurposeofthedocumentwastoassesswhethertheCommunityshoulddevelopitsownstrategyondisasterpreventioninanefforttoimprovetheprotectionofpeople,theenvironmentandproperty.TheassessmentwasbasedonexternalconsultationwiththeMemberStatesandstakeholderswhoidentifiedgapsinthecurrentframeworkforprevention.ThedocumentstatesthatthecurrentapproachtodisasterpreventionisfragmentedinboththeEUandtheMemberStatesandthatthereisaneedfordevelopingdisasterpreventionas“adisciplineinitsownright”.48Theconclusionoftheassessmentwasthatthebestwaytoachievethestatedgoalwasthroughthepursuitofthreeobjectives:(1)developingknow-ledgeofdisasterpreventionpoliciesatalllevelsofgovernment;(2)linkingsectoralpoliciestoim-proveco-ordinationandsupportanoverallapproachtodisasterprevention;and(3)strengtheningexistingdisasterpreventioninstruments.

On4June2009,theCouncilpublishedconclusionsonraisingcivilprotectionawareness.49TheconclusionscallformorefocusedactionbytheCommissionandtheMemberStatesregarding(1)targetedpublicinformationand/oreducationonhowtoprepareandreacttoemergencies;(2)enhancedsecurityforrescuepersonnelintheEU;and(3)enhancedknowledgeandskillfordiplomaticpersonnel.ItwouldseemthattheEUistakingamorepracticalapproachtocivilpro-tection,whichwillperhapsleadtoincreasedregulationinthoseareasthatwillaffecttheeffectivefunctioningoftheCPMandwhicharecoveredbytheIDRLGuidelines.Specificallyinrelationto

3

46. 2007/162/EC, Euratom (n 39). 47. ‘A Community approach for the prevention of natural and man-made disas-ters: Impact Assessment’, COM(2009) 82, SEC(2009) 203.

48. ibid 13. 49. 2946th Justice and Home Affairs Council meeting Luxembourg, 4 June 2009.

22


thesecurityofrescuepersonnel,theCouncilhasinvitedtheCommissionto“developanoverviewofthesecurityofrescueservicepersonnelbasedonMemberStates’experience”andtomakerec-ommendationstotheCouncilastopossiblemeasuresthatmaybeneededinthisarea.

On25-26November2009,theEUwillbeholdingaCivilProtectionForumtoprovideanopportunitytodiscussthegovernanceofEuropeandisastermanagement,withaspecificfocusonresilience.50

EstablishingacomprehensivedisastermanagementstrategywouldenableEuropetoimproveitsresilience,tobetterprotectitscitizensbothinsideandoutsideEurope,andtobecomeastrongerpartnerinthemanagementofemergenciesontheinternationalscene.TheForumaimsto:

n strengthenEurope’semergencymanagementcapacity,focusingonthepreventionandpre-parednessphaseoftheemergencylifecycle;

n developthenetworkbetweenallcivilprotectionactorsandinterestedparties,includingtheprivatesector;

n increasetheknowledgeofnewprevention,preparednessandresponsetechnologiesavail-ableonthemarket;and

n raisepublicawareness.

TheForumdemonstratestheCommission’songoingcommitmenttoeffectivedisastermanage-mentandawillingnesstopromoteanevenmorecomprehensivemanagementstrategy.

v. EU Member States and NATO

InadditiontoandseparatefromtheEUCivilProtectionMechanism,theMemberStatesalsohavetheoptionofparticipatinginNATO’sframeworkfordisasterresponse,whichisledbyNATO’sCivilDefenceCommittee.51AlthoughNATOisprimarilyaimedatmilitaryoperations,ithashadalonghistoryofinvolvementininternationaldisasterassistance.In1951,NATOestablishedtheCivilDefenceCommitteetooverseetheprotectionofthecivilianpopulation.52Sincethen,NATOcivilprotectionhasevolvedintothecreationoftheEuro-AtlanticDisasterResponseCoordinationCentre(EADRCC)in1998andtheEuro-AtlanticDisasterResponseUnit(EADRU)bytheEuro-AtlanticPartnershipCouncil(EAPC)anditsPolicyforDisasterAssistanceinPeacetime.ThePolicyabidesbythreemainprinciples:(1)theaffectedStateretainsresponsibilityfordisastermanagement,(2)theUNhastheprimaryroleinco-ordinationofinternationaldisasterreliefoperationsandsoEADRCCeffortsshouldbecomplementaryandsupportiveofUNreliefoper-ations;and(3)theEADRCC’sprimaryroleisthatofco-ordinationratherthandirection.ThemainresponsibilitiesoftheEADRCCare(1)toco-ordinateresponsestodisastershappeningintheterritoryoftheEuro-AtlanticPartnershipCouncil;(2)toactasaninformation-sharingclear-ancehouse;and(3)toliaisecloselywithUNOfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs(OCHA),theEUandanyotherorganisationsinvolvedininternationaldisasterresponse.MostrecentlywithintheEU,theEADRCCco-ordinatedassistanceinrelationtothe2008Bulgarianforestfires.NATO’sdisasterresponsealsoinvolvestheEuro-AtlanticDisasterResponseUnitcon-sistingofvolunteersfromEAPCcountries,suchasrescueandmedicalpersonnel,andalsoequip-mentandmaterialsvolunteered.

50. ‘Towards a More Resilient Society – Civil Protection Forum 25-26 November 2009 Brussels’, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/forum2009/index.htm. 51. The North Atlantic Treaty was adopted in 1949 and created the

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) which currently consists of 28 member countries, including 21 EU Member States. 52. The Civil Defence Committee was renamed the Civil Protection Committee in 1995.

23



3b. Operational Regulation

PartVoftheIDRLGuidelinesdiscussesthetechnicalmeasuresforfacilitationofentryandoper-ationsregardingpersonnel,equipmentandgoods.Theseprovisionsacknowledgetheexistenceofadministrativeandlegalbarrierstotheefficientdeliveryofdisasterassistance.InJuly1991,theCouncilandrepresentativesoftheMemberStatesadoptedaresolutiononimprovingmutualaidbetweenMemberStatesintheeventofanaturalortechnologicaldisaster.53ThisResolutionpro-videdformanyoftheconsiderationsunderPartVoftheIDRLGuidelines.Itenvisionedthedis-patchofaidteamsandequipmenttotheAffectedStateandinreturnaskedthattheAffectedState:

(1)granttheaidteamsallaccesstotheareaswheretheirco-operationisrequired(paragraph5);(2)examineproceduresfortherapidissueofthenecessarypermitsandfreeuseofinfrastruc-

tureswherefeesarenormallycharged(paragraph5);(3)endeavourtoreduceborderchecksandformalitiestoaminimumforaidteams(para-

graph6);and(4)authoriseaircraftfromotherMemberStatestakingadirectpartintherescueoperations

ortransportingequipmenttooverfly,landandtakeoffitsterritory(paragraph7).

ThisResolutionhelpedformthebasisoftheexistingCPMlegislation.However,theprovisionsre-latingtolegalfacilitationofentryandoperationwerenotincludedinthefinallegislation.Asthereisnoharmoniseddocumentfortechnicalco-operation,disasterassistanceteamsmustsatisfythegeneralrequirementsofEUlawrelatingtothespecificareasbelow.Althoughresolutionsarenotlegallybinding,theirvaliditydoesnotlapse.Itisthereforeconceivablethatthebasictenetsoftheresolutioncanberevisitedandusedasapossiblebasisforfuturelegislation.

i. Entry into EU territory

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection16oftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesthatAffectedStatesshouldprovideforexpeditedorfree-of-chargevisaandworkpermitproceduresforrecoverypersonnel.

n Directive2004/38/ECprovidesgeneralrulesfortheentryandexitofEUCitizens,allowingthemtomovefreelythroughouttheEUwithouttheneedforavisaorworkpermit.Thisincludesthirdcountrynationalswhoareconnectedinasignifi-cantwaytoanEUCitizen.

n Regardingthirdcountrynationals,theSchengenAreahasbeensetupunderacommonframeworkofconditionsforentryintotheEUatitsexternalborderssothatonceanon-EUnationalhasbeengrantedentrybyoneMemberState,heorshewillbeallowedaccessintotheterritoryoftheotherparticipatingSchengenstates.TherulesrelatingtovisasareuniformintheMemberStates.

n EClegislationpermits,butdoesnotrequire,MemberStatestoexemptreliefper-sonnelfromthevisarequirementintheeventofadisasteroraccident,ortodero-gatefromtheSchengenvisaproceduresintheeventofnationalurgency.

n Bycontrast,theproceduresrelatingtothegrantingofworkpermitsisamatterofnationallaw.

3

53. Resolution of the Council and of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council of 8 July 1991 on improving mutual aid between Member States

in the event of natural or technological disaster, OJ C-198, 27/07/1991 p 1.

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Since1985,therehasbeenestablishedaterritorywithoutinternalfrontiersknownasthe‘Schengenarea’whichnowincludeseveryMemberState.54After theTreatyofAmsterdamin1999,theSchengenareabecamepartofthecompetenceoftheCommunityaspartoftheattainmentoftheobjectiveoffreemovement.Somenon-EUcountrieshavechosentoparticipateintheschemeaswell:Iceland,Norway,SwitzerlandandLiechtensteinhaveallsignedagreementswiththeEUinthisregard.TheSchengenImplementingAgreementcoversfreemovementofpersonsandcontainsprovisionsrelatingtoshortandlong-stayvisasandtheshort-termfreemovementofthirdcountrynationals.UnderSection1ofChapter3onVisas,theContractingPartiesaretoadoptacommonpolicyonvisaarrangementsforthirdcountrynationalsforstaysofnolongerthanthreemonths.Thesecommonarrangementsmaybederogatedfromin“exceptionalcases”if“overridingreasonsofnationalpolicyrequireurgentattention”.Thetypeofvisareferredtomaybeeitheratravelvisavalidforoneormultipleentries,oratransitvisawhichallowsitsholdertopassthroughtheter-ritoriesoftheContractingPartiesenroutetoathirdState.BasedontheSchengenImplementingAgreement,theSchengenparticipantsestablishedacommondefinitionoftheconditionsforentryatexternalbordersandcommonrulesandproceduresforchecksthereandharmonisationoftheconditionsofentryandvisasforshortstays.55

CouncilRegulation539/2001/ECliststhosecountrieswhosenationalsmustpossessavisatocrosstheexternalbordersoftheEUandanyexemptions.56Article1(1)statesthebasicprinciplethatthirdcountrynationalslistedintheincludedAnnexmusthaveavisawhencrossingtheexternalbordersintotheMemberStates.Article4(1)permitsMemberStatestomakeexceptionsfromthevisarequirementincertainsituationsincluding:(1)civilianairandseacrew,and(2)flightcrewandattendantsonemergencyorrescueflightsandotherhelpersintheeventofdisasteroraccident.

Furthermore,asdiscussedabove,Directive2004/38/ECprovidesgeneralrulesfortheentryandexitofEUCitizens,allowingthemtomovefreelythroughouttheEU.Italsoincludesprovisionforthosenon-EUnationalswhohavesomeconnectiontoanEUcitizen,forexample,aspouse,partnerorcaretaker.

ii. Rights of workers and recognition of professional qualifications

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection20oftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesthattheAffectedStatesshouldgrantassistingorganizationsandtheirpersonneltemporarydomesticlegalstatus,allowingthemtoenjoycertainprivaterightswhiletheyareintheaffectedstate.

54. Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985 between the Govern-ments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders. The participation of the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark in Schengen varies and is beyond the scope of the current study. See also the Agreement between the European Union, the European Com-munity and the Swiss Confederation on the Swiss Confederation’s association with the implementation, application and develop-ment of the Schengen acquis, 26/10/2004, fully implemented on

12 December 2008. 55. see Common Manual OJ C-313/98 (2002) (Common Border Code) regarding common conditions for entry from external borders and Common Consular Instruc-tions on Visas for the Diplomatic Missions and Consular Posts, OJ C-313/01 (2002) on harmonisation. 56. Council Regula-tion 539/2001/EC listing the third countries whose nationals must be in possession of visas when crossing the external borders and those whose nationals are exempt from that requirement. This Regulation replaces Regulation 574/1999/EC which covers similar subject matter.

25



n OneofthefundamentalfreedomsoftheEuropeanCommunityisthefreedomofmovementofpeopleunderTitleIIITEC.ThisprincipleallowsthenationalsofMemberStatestoresideinotherMemberStatesandbetreatedwithoutdiscrimin-ation.Therefore,theprivaterightsavailabletonationalsoftheaffectedstatewouldalsobeavailabletonon-nationalEUcitizens.Rightsofthirdcountrynationalsinthisrespectarethesubjectofnationalregulation,unlessthethirdcountrynationalhassomeconnection(i.e.,spouse,partner,caretaker)toanEUcitizen.

n RulesregardingthetemporarydomesticlegalstatusofrelieforganisationsarenotgovernedbyEUlaw,butbytheMemberStates’domesticlaws.

PartVSection16oftheIDRLGuidelinessuggeststhatAffectedStatesshouldestablishproceduresforthetemporaryrecognitionofprofessionalqualificationsofforeignmedicalpersonnel,architectsandengineers.

n EClegislationhasprovidedforageneralsystemfortherecognitionofEU-obtainedqualificationsinrelationtomostprofessions,includingarchitects,doctors,lawyersandengineers.ThedecisionofwhetheraqualificationobtainedoutsidetheEUisrecognisedisamatterfortheMemberStatestodecide.

n EClegislationrequiresthatMemberStatespermitthetemporaryprovisionofser-vicesbyapersonestablishedinanotherMemberStatewithoutbeingsubjecttocertainauthorisationandregistrationrequirements.

AspartoftheCommunity’sfreemovementofpersonsprinciplebasedinTitleIVLisbonTFEU(exTitleIIITEC),EUcitizensareentitledtomovefreelybetweentheMemberStates.57Chapter1concernstherightsofworkerstomovefreelyintheUnionandtonotbesubjecttodiscrimin-ation.ThefreedomofmovementofworkerswasfirstsecuredthroughRegulation1612/68/EEConfreedomofworkerswithintheCommunity.ThatRegulationhasbeensignificantlyamendedbyDirective2004/38/EContherightofcitizensoftheUnionandtheirfamilymemberstomoveandresidefreelywithintheterritoryoftheMemberStates.ThisDirectiveprovidesnotonlyforthefreemovementofEUcitizens,butalsofornon-EUcitizenswhohavesomeconnectiontoanEUcitizen,forexample,aspouse,partnerorcaretaker.Therefore,anyreliefassistancepersonnelwhoareEUcitizensshouldnotencounteranybarrierstoentryifprovidingreliefwithintheEU.Non-EUcitizenswillhavetocomplywiththebasicrulesregardingentryabove.Itisimportanttonotethat,asisdiscussedbelowinsubsectionc,thematterofdoingbusinesswithintheEUislargelylefttotheMemberStatestoregulate.ItisthereforeuptotheMemberStatestodetermineanybenefitsthatwouldattachtocompaniesornon-profitbodiesintermsofdomesticlegalstatus.

EClegislationprovidesaprocedurefortheautomaticrecognitionofprofessionalqualificationspossessedbyEUcitizens,butnotnecessarilyobtainedfromwithintheEU.58Theuseoftheterm‘automatic’maybesomewhatmisleading,however,asaproceduremustbefollowedtoac-quiresuchrecognition.TheDirectivedistinguishesbetweenthoseindividualsestablishedinotherMemberStateswhowanttoprovideservicesinanother,andindividualswantingtore-locateandestablishthemselvesinanewMemberState.WhereanindividualwishesonlytoprovideservicesinaMemberStateonatemporarybasis,theDirectiveprovidesunderArticle5(1)that

3

57. See also the Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Swiss Confeder-ation, of the other, on the free movement of persons, 21/06/1999.

58. Directive 2005/36/EC on the recognition of professional qualifications.

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theMemberStatesmaynotrestricttheindividual’sfreedomtoprovideservices.However,Article7permitstheMemberStatestorequirethattheserviceproviderissueawrittendeclarationtothehostMemberState’scompetentauthoritytotheeffectthattheindividualintendstoprovideservicesinthatMemberState.Thecompetentauthoritymaythenrequireadditionaldocumenta-tionsuchasproofofestablishment,proofofnationalityorevidenceofprofessionalqualifications.Thecompetentauthoritythenhasonemonthtocometoadecisionastowhethertheauthorityisgoingtocarryoutanin-depthcheckoftheindividual’squalifications.Thereisnoexpeditedprocedure.Presumably,mostMemberStateswillchoosetoincludethisdeclarationintheirim-plementinglegislation,andindeed,thatwasthechoicemadebytheUnitedKingdominitsim-plementingRegulations.59

TheDirectivebrieflyreferstoapplicationsforrecognitionbythirdcountrynationalsandprovidesthatMemberStatesarenotprohibitedfromrecognisingqualificationsobtainedbysuchindividualsiftheyrespecttheminimumrulesregardingtraining.60This,however,isamatterforeachMemberStatetodecideunderitsownnationalrules.

iii. Customs and Taxation

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection17oftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesfortheexemptionfromcustomsduties,taxes,tariffs,importrestrictionsandfeesongoodsandequipmentintendedforrecovery.Section18oftheIDRLGuidelinesdiscussesthereductionofbarrierstotheimportationofspecialgoodsandequipment.EClegislationprovidessomereliefintheseareasbysus-pendingimportdutieson:

n Goodsimportedintendedforfreedistributiontovictimsofdisaster;n Goodsimportedtomeettheneedsofdisasterreliefagenciesduringtheiractivityin

theMemberStates;n Relief materials temporarily imported to meet the needs of disaster-affected

territories;n Medical,surgicalandlaboratoryequipment;andn Certainweaponsandmilitaryequipmentusedforcivilpurposesinthecaseof

naturaldisasters.

Thedefinitionof‘goods’underEClawisbroadandshouldbeinterpretedtoincludefoodandmedicines.EClegislationalsoexemptsdisastergoodsandcertaintransactions,suchashospitalandmedicalcare,fromVATasprovidedforintheIDRLGuidelinesunderPartVSection21.

Customs

Article28LisbonTFEU(exArticle23TEC)providesforthefreecirculationforCommunitygoodsthroughouttheEuropeanUnion.Theprincipleoffreecirculationappliestogoodsmadein

59. The European Communities (Recognition of Profes-sional Qualifications) Regulations 2007 SI No 2781, reg 12. 60. ibid Preamble 10.

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theCommunityandimportedgoodsthathavebeenreleasedforfreecirculationafterpaymentofanydutiesforwhichtheyareliable.Releaseofnon-CommunitygoodsintofreecirculationgivesthegoodsthestatusofCommunitygoods.Acustomsdeclarationisthemeansbywhichgoodsareenteredintothefreecirculationprocedure.UnderEClawthedefinitionof‘goods’isbroad.Thebasicunderstandingofthetermistoinclude“anymoveablephysicalobjecttowhichpropertyrightsorobligationsattach(andwhichcanthereforebevaluedinmonetaryterms,whetherposi-tiveornegative)”.61Thisbroaddefinitionincludesfoodandequipment.Therefore,rulesexemptinggoodsintendedfordisasterrelieffromcustomsdutiesandVATwillalsoincludecustomsdutiesonfoodandequipmentintendedforrelief.

Customsruleshavebeenmoreinclusiveofprovisionsrelatingtodisasterassistancethananyotherpolicyarea.Regulation2454/93/EEC,whichimplementstheCommunityCustomsCode,62con-tainsprovisionsregardingtemporaryimportationandexemptsfromdisasterreliefmaterialsduties.Suchmaterialsaredefinedas:“materialstobeusedinconnectionwithmeasurestakentocountertheeffectsofdisastersaffectingthecustomsterritoryoftheCommunity”.Theexemptionwillapplyaslongasthegoodsare(1)importedonloanfreeofcharge,and(2)intendedforstatebodiesorbodiesapprovedbythecompetentauthorities.63Inthiscontext,‘competentauthorities’referstothecustomsauthoritiesoftherelevantMemberState.

Article677relatestothetemporaryimportationofmedical,surgicalandlaboratoryequipmentfreefromduties.Suchequipmentwillbeexemptifit:(1)isintendedforhospitalsorothermedicalinstitutions;(2)hasbeendispatchedonanoccasionalbasis,onloanfreeofcharge;and(3)isin-tendedfordiagnosticortherapeuticpurposes.‘Dispatchedonanoccasionalbasis’isdefinedas:“dispatchedattherequestofahospitalorothermedicalinstitutionwhichisfacingexceptionalcircumstancesandhasurgentneedofsuchequipmenttomakeupfortheinadequacyofitsownfacilities.”64

CouncilRegulation918/83/EECsettingupaCommunitysystemofreliefsfromcustomsdutysetsforthinTitleXVI,PartCthat:

“goodsimportedbyStateorganizationsorothercharitableorphilanthropicorganizationsapprovedbythecompetentauthoritiesshallbeadmittedfreeofimportdutieswhentheyareintended:

fordistributionfreeofchargetovictimsofdisastersaffectingtheterritoryofoneormoreMemberStates;ortobemadeavailablefreeofchargetothevictimsofsuchdisasters,whileremainingthepropertyoftheorganizationsinquestion.”65

TheRegulationalsosuspendsimportdutiesforgoodsimportedtomeettheneedsofdisasterreliefagenciesduringtheiractivityintheMemberState,66butdoesnotapplytomaterialsandequip-mentintendedforrebuildingdisasterareas.67AnygrantforreliefissubjecttoadecisionbytheCommissionattherequestoftheaffectedMemberState(s);however,MemberStatesmaysuspendtheimpositionofanychargeableimportdutiespendingtheCommission’sdecision.68

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61. Case C-2/90 CommissionvBelgium[1992] ECR I-4431 (opinion of AG Jacobs), reiterated in CinéthèquevFédérationNationaledesCinémasFrançais,para10. 62. Commission Regulation 2454/93/EEC laying down provisions for the imple-mentation of Council Regulation (EEC) 2913/92 establishing the Community Customs Code. 63. art 678. 64. art 677(3).

65. art 79(1). It seems that the main thrust of these provisions is that as long as the goods are either being given directly to the vic-tims or being made available for them to obtain themselves, free of charge, the exemption applies. 66. art 79(2). 67. art 80. 68. art 81.

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TheproceduregenerallyapplicabletogoodsenteringtheEUterritoryinvolvesapre-arrivaldec-laration.Thisdeclarationmustbemadeelectronicallywithinthetimelinesetundercustomslegis-lation.69Thiscanbeanywherebetweenoneand24hours,dependingonthetransportationmodeandthedurationofthetransportcarryingthegoodsintotheEU.Article76oftheCommunityCustomsCodeandTitleIXofitsimplementinglegislationallowforsimplifiedprocedures.UnderTitleIX,Article254allowsforincompletedeclarationsatthediscretionofthecustomsauthorities,providingthatcertaininformationisincluded,suchasadescriptionofthedocuments,thevalueofthegoods,andanyotherparticularsdeemednecessarybythecustomsauthoritiestoidentifythegoods.Article260describesthesimplifieddeclarationprocedurewhichallowsfortheuseofotherdocumentsratherthanthestandardSingleAdministrativeDocument.Finally,Article263discussesthelocalclearanceprocedurewheregoodsareenteredatthepremisesofthecustomsdeclarantoranyotherplaceapprovedbythecustomsauthorities.Insuchcases,thedeclarationmayalsobein-completeorsimplified,andthedeclarantmaybepermittednottopresentthegoodstocustoms.70

AnofficialattheUK’sHMCustomsandRevenueOfficecommentedonthepracticalaspectsofcustomsdeclarationsandexemptions.Hestatedthatlargelytheprocedurestakenarequitereactivetotheneedsofthesituation.Inthecontextofanemergencysituation,itmaybethecasethattheau-thorisationisrelativelyinstantaneous,especiallywherethebodyimportingthegoodsisalreadyrec-ognisedasanapprovedbody.ThiswouldbethecasefortheRedCross.Whereotherprivatebodieshavebeenhiredtoimportthegoods,documentationregardingtheirstatuswouldberequiredatthetimeofimport.Healsocommentedthatthereisscopefora‘blanket’authorisationcoveringasettimeperiodforall importsofhumanitariangoodsarrivinginanaffectedMemberState.

Taxation

TitleVIIofCouncilDirective83/181/EC71exemptsgoodsimportedforthebenefitofdisastervictimsfromtheCommunityharmonisedVAT72wheretheyareintendedfordistributionfreeofchargetovictimsofdisastersaffectingtheterritoryofoneormoreMemberStates,ortobemadeavailablefreeofchargetothevictimsofsuchdisasters,whileremainingthepropertyoftheorgan-isationsinquestion.73AswiththecustomsRegulationdiscussedabove,noreliefwillbeappliedtogoodsintendedfortherebuildingofdisasterareas.74

TherecastCouncilDirective2006/112/EConthecommonsystemofvalueaddedtaxappliestotheproductionanddistributionofgoodsandservicesandmandatesthatMemberStatesmustexemptcertaintransactionsfromVAT,including(1)hospitalandmedicalcareandcloselyrelatedactivitiesundertakenbybodiesgovernedbypubliclaw;(2)theprovisionofmedicalcareintheex-erciseofthemedicalandparamedicalprofessions;(3)thesupplyofhumanorgans,bloodandmilk;(4)thesupplyofservicesandgoodscloselylinkedtotheprotectionofchildrenandyoungpersonsbybodiesgovernedbypubliclaw;and(5)thesupplyoftransportservicesforsickorinjuredper-sonsinvehiclesdesignedforthatpurpose.75PursuanttoArticle131,itisfortheMemberStates

69. Guidance on the applicable time limitations is avail-able in the European Commission’s guidance: ‘Guidelines on entry and summary declarations in the context of Regu-lation 648/2005/EC’, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/customs/security_amendment/procedures/import_entry_guidelines_en.pdf. Regulation 648/2005/EC amends the Community Customs Code. 70. Details concerning specific import scenarios may be found in Commission Guidance document, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/

customs/security_amendment/procedures/import_sce-narios_en.pdf. However, import in the context of disaster is not considered in this document. 71. Council Directive 83/181/EC determining the scope of Article 14(1)(d) of Directive 77/388/EEC as regards exemption from value added tax on the final importation of certain goods. 72. Established in Directive 77/388/EEC, ibid and recast in Council Directive 2006/112/EC on the common system of value added tax. 73. art 49. 74. art 50. 75. art 132.

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todeterminetheconditionsfortheseexemptions.Thisprovisiondoesnot,however,specificallyrefertodisasterreliefandsoitisunclearwhetheritwouldbeapplicableinsuchcircumstances.However,asthesituationsdescribedin(1)through(5)mayariseinthecontextofadisaster,itseemslikelythattheVATexemptionswouldapplytoatleastsometransactions.

In2003theCounciladoptedRegulation150/2003/EC.WhilethisRegulationismainlydirectedatsuspendingdutiesoncertainweaponsandmilitaryequipment,whichisoutsidethescopeofthisreport,italsoappliestotheuseofgoods“forcivilpurposesduetounforeseenornaturaldis-asters”.76Whenusedtemporarilyforsuchpurposesbythemilitary,certaingoodscanbeimportedintotheEUcustomsareafreefromcustomsduties.77

iv. Food

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection17oftheIDRLGuidelinescontemplatestheexemptionorsimplificationofproceduresrelatingtocustomsandtaxesforgoodsandequipmentexportedby,oronbehalfof,assistingStatesandhumanitarianorganisations.

n ThereisextensiveEClegislationconcerningthequalityoffooditemsforpurposesofmarketingandsaletoconsumers.Noneofthislegislationincludesprovisionsrelatedtofoodintendedasdisasteraid.

n Regardingtheapplicablecustomsandtaxrules,asdiscussedaboveinPartIII.b.iii,foodisconsidereda‘good’underCommunitylawand,ifintendedasdisasterrelief,wouldthereforebeexemptfromtheapplicableduties.

BeforefoodcanbeimportedintotheEUfordistribution,itmustsatisfyseveralgeneralandspecificpiecesoflegislationregardingfoodhygiene,planthealth,animalhealthandanimalwelfare.MostofthelegislationisapplicabletofoodproducedwithinandoutsidetheEU,butsomeadditionalrequirementsmayapplytofoodcomingfromthirdcountries.Thedefinitionof‘food’underEUlawcanbefoundinRegulation178/2002/EC:“anysubstanceorproduct,whetherprocessed,par-tiallyprocessedorunprocessed,intendedtobe,orreasonablyexpectedtobeingestedbyhumans.‘Food’includesdrink,chewinggumandanysubstance,includingwater,intentionallyincorporatedintothefoodduringitsmanufacture,preparationortreatment”.78Obligationsareincurredwhenfoodisplacedonthemarket.Thisconcept,underArticle3(8)oftheRegulation,includes:“theholdingoffood…forthepurposeofsale,includingofferingforsaleoranyotherformoftransfer,whetherfreeofchargeornot,andthesale,distribution,andotherformsoftransferthemselves”.RelieforganisationspurchasingfoodanddistributingitasaidfreeofchargearethuslikelytoberesponsibleunderforensuringthatanyfoodtheypurchaseanddistributesatisfiestherequirementsofEUfoodlaw.

Regulation178/2002/ECprovidesaframeworkforspecificlegislationrelatingtofoodhygiene,foodstandardsandanimalfeed.TheRegulationlistsseveralkeydefinitions(above)andplaces

3

76. art 2(4). 77. The goods are specified in Annex I of the Regulation. 78. art 2, para 1, Regulation 178/2002/EC laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. The Regulation also

applies to ‘ feed’ which is defined as ‘any substance or product, including additives, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be used for oral feeding to animals’. However, since this report is concerned primarily with ‘ food’, references to ‘ feed’ have been left out.

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generalobligationsonfoodbusinessoperatorsrelatingtofoodsafety,labellingandpresentation,traceabilityoffoodandproceduresforwithdrawalfromthemarketintheeventthefoodisunsafe.Itappliestoallstagesofproduction,processinganddistributionoffoodandplaceslegalrespon-sibilityforensuringsafetyonfoodbusinessoperators.Article14prohibitsthesaleofunsafefood,thatis,foodthatisinjurioustohumanhealthorunfitforhumanconsumption.Whereanoperatorhasreasontobelievethatfoodwhichhasbeenimported,produced,processed,manufacturedordistributedisnotincompliancewithfoodlawrequirements,theoperatormustinitiateprocedurestowithdrawthefoodfromthemarketandalertthecompetentauthorities.79A‘Foodbusinessop-erator’,isdefinedunderArticle3(3)oftheRegulationas:“thenaturalorlegalpersonsresponsibleforensuringthattherequirementsoffoodlawaremetwithinthefoodbusinessundertheircon-trol”.Thiswouldappeartoencompassindividualsororganisationsimportingordistributingaid.

Inaddition to thegeneral legislation, several regulationsdealwith foodhygiene.Regulation852/2004/ECisthegenerallegislationandisapplicabletoallfoodbusinessoperators,includingthirdcountrybusinessoperators.80Itdoesnotapplytotheproductionoffoodprimarilyfordo-mesticuse.TheRegulationprovidesfor:(1)operatormonitoringofthefoodsafetyofproductsandprocesses;81(2)hygieneduringandafterprimaryproduction;82(3)microbiologicalrequirements;83(4)specialhazardmanagementprocedures;84and(4)registrationofestablishments85.Italsopro-videsforspecificrequirementssuchasthoserelatingto:(1)foodpremises;(2)conveyancesandcontainersforfood;(3)waste;(4)watersupply;and(5)personalhygiene.

BusinessesestablishedintheEUandhandlingproductsofanimaloriginwillalsohavetocomplywiththerequirementsofRegulation853/2004/EC.86ThisRegulationmainlyrequiresthatsuchbusinessesgainpriorapprovalfromtherelevantfoodauthoritybeforetheyarepermittedtotradeinthatMemberState.FoodbusinessoperatorswithintheEUmustshow(1)thatimportedfoodandfoodcomponentsarefromathirdcountryappearingontheCommunitylistandsatisfyanyappli-cablespecificfoodlawrequirements;(2)thattheestablishmentfromwhichthecomponentsoriginatemustappearsonanapprovedCommunitylist;and(3)supportingdocumentationoftheforegoing.87

OtherlegislationincludesRegulation854/2004/EC,whichlaysdownspecificrulesforthecon-trolofproductsofanimalorigin,suchasinspections,certifications,auditsandfoodsampling.88Regulation882/2004/ECelaboratesontheproceduresapplicabletoMemberStateofficialcontrolstoensuretheverificationofcompliancewithfoodandfeedlaw,andanimalhealthandwelfarerules.ThecontrolproceduresthereinaretoapplytofoodandfeedfromwithintheEUandalsofromthirdcountries,withoutprejudicetoothermorespecificlegislationthatmightbeapplicable.89ChapterIIestablishesanimportprocedureforfoodsnotofanimalorigin,suchasfruitsandveg-etables.TheCommissionhastheresponsibilityofensuringthatthirdcountriesintendingtoexportgoodsintotheEUprovideinformationrelatingto:(a)anysanitaryorphytosanitaryregulationsadoptedorproposedwithinitsterritory;(b)anycontrolandinspectionprocedures,productionandquarantinetreatment,pesticidetoleranceandfoodadditiveapprovalproceduresoperatedwithinitsterritory;(c)riskassessmentprocedures,factorstakenintoconsideration,aswellasthedetermina-tionoftheappropriatelevelofsanitaryorphytosanitaryprotection;and(d)anyfollowupfrom

79. art 19. 80. Regulation 852/2004/EC on the hygiene of foodstuffs. 81. art 3. 82. arts 4.1 and 4.2. 83. art 4.3. 84. art 5. 85. art 6. 86. Regulation 853/2004/EC laying down specific hygiene rules on the hygiene of foodstuffs. Article 1 specifies that establishments involved in producing products of animal origin made from ready processed ingredients, such as cooked meat, fish or cheese, are exempt from the requirements of the Regulation. Production primarily for domestic use is also

exempt. 87. The third country establishment lists are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/establishments/third_country/index_en.htm. 88. Regulation 854/2004/EC laying down specific rules for the organisation of official controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption. Further detailed rules regarding the veterinary certification of an-imals and animal products are presented in Directive 96/93/EC. 89. Directive 97/78/EC (discussed below).

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recommendationsmadebytheCommissionduringitsevaluationofthecomplianceorequivalenceofthirdcountrylegislationwithEUfoodlawunderArticle46.90

Inadditiontohygieneandfoodsafetyrequirements, importersmustalsocomplywith legis-lationconcerningveterinarychecksonproductsenteringtheCommunityfromthirdcountries.AccordingtoDirective97/78/EC,importsofproductsofanimaloriginmustbepresentedataCommunityborderinspectionpostfollowingpriornoticeofthearrivaloftheproducts.NoticeistobemadeinaccordancewiththenationalrulesoftheMemberStateinwhichtheborderinspectionpostissituated.FoodconsignmentswillonlybeacceptediftheyoriginatefromanEC-approvedcountry,regionorestablishment.Somespecificcaseswilltriggerspecialimportrestric-tionsorconditions.91Theveterinarycheckconsistsofthefollowing:(1)anidentitycheck(e.g.,verificationthatpackaging,labellingorhealthmarksaregenuine),and(2)aphysicalchecktoascertainwhetherCommunitylegislationrequirementshavebeensatisfied.Followingasatisfac-toryveterinaryinspection,theofficialveterinarianwillissueacertificatefortheconsignmentthatwillremainwiththegoodsuntilarrivalattheirdestination.Regulation136/2004/ECupdatesanddetailstheproceduresdiscussedintheDirective.92

FoodofanimaloriginfromthirdcountriesmustalsocomplywithDirective2002/99/ECwhichgovernsthepreventionoftheintroductionofanimaldiseasesintotheEU.TheDirectivesetsoutanimalhealthrulesfortheproduction,processing,distributionandintroductionofproductsofanimaloriginforhumanconsumption.Finally,animalwelfarerequirementsmustberespectedunderDirective93/119/ECwhichgovernsprotectionrequirementsatthetimeofslaughter.

Inadditiontotheaboverequirements,thereisalsolegislationconcerningspecificareasoffoodqualitysuchas:(1)geneticallymodifiedfoodandfeed;93(2)contaminationandenvironmentalfactors;94(3)prohibitedplantprotectionproducts;95(4)requirementsconnectedtoorganicallygrownagriculturalproducts;96(5)foodadditives;97(6)theadditionofvitaminsandminerals;98(7)authorisedcolorants;99(8)sweeteners;100(9)hormonesinmeat;101(10)foodsforspecialmedicalpurposes;102(11)pesticideresidues;103and(12)residuesofveterinarymedicines104.

3

90. Article 46 allows the Commission with the aid of experts, to verify through official controls, the compliance or equivalence of third country legislation and systems with Community feed and food law and animal health legislation. 91. Specific cases are listed in Articles 9 to 15. Article 11 concerns specific rules for goods in transit; Article 12 concerns goods intended for a free zone, a free warehouse or a customs warehouse. 92. Regulation 136/2004/EC laying down procedures for veterinary checks at Community border inspection posts on products imported from third coun-tries. 93. See, e.g., Regulation 1829/2003/EC on genetically modified food and feed; Regulation 1830/2003/EC concerning the traceability and labelling of genetically modified organisms and the traceability of food and feed products produced from geneti-cally modified organisms and amending Directive 2001/18/EC; Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the envir-onment of genetically modified organisms and repealing Council Directive 90/220/EC. 94. See, e.g., Regulation 315/93/EC laying down Community procedures for contaminants in food; Regulation 1881/2006 setting maximum levels for certain con-taminants in foodstuffs. 95. See, e.g., Directive 79/117/EEC prohibiting the placing on the market and use of plant protection products containing certain active substances; Directive 91/414/EEC concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market; Directive 2000/29/EC on protective measures against the introduction in to the Community of organisms harmful to plants or plant products and against their spread within the Community.

96. See, e.g., Regulation 834/2007/EC on organic production and labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation 2092/91/EC; 97. See, e.g., Directive 89/107/EEC on the approxima-tion of the laws of the Member States concerning food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption; Directive 95/2/EC on food additives other than colours and sweet-eners; Directive 81/712/EEC laying down Community methods of analysis for verifying that certain additives used in foodstuffs satisfy purity criteria. 98. Regulation 1925/2006/EC on the addition of vitamins and minerals and of certain other substances to foods; Regulation 108/2008/EC on the addition of vitamins and minerals and of certain other substances to foods. 99. Directive 94/36/EC on colours for use in foodstuffs. 100. Directive 94/35/EC on sweeteners intended for use in foodstuffs. 101. Directive 96/22/EC concerning the prohibition on the use in stockfarming of certain substances having a hormonal or thyrostatic action and of ß-agonists, and repealing Directives 81/602/EEC, 88/146/EEC and 88/299/EEC (as amended by Directive 2003/74/EC). 102. Directive 1999/21/EC on dietary foods for special medical purposes (as amended by Directive 2006/141/EC); Directive 2001/15/EC on substances that may be added for specific nutritional purposes in foods for particular nutritional uses. 103. Regulation 296/2005/EC on pesticide residues. 104. Regulation 2377/90/EEC laying down a Community procedure for the establishment of maximum residue limits of veterinary medicinal products in foodstuffs of animal origin.

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EUfoodlegislationdoesnotcontemplatescenariosorsimplifiedproceduresrelatedtonaturalortechnologicaldisasters.AnofficialattheEuropeanCommissionintheFood&VeterinaryOfficecommentedthatfoodproducedwithinanEUMemberStatebeingtransferredtoanotherMemberStateshouldencounternoimpedimenttoitstravel,asitshouldhavebeenproducedinaccordancewithCommunityregulations.FoodenteringtheCommunityfromthirdcountriesmustsatisfyEUimportrequirements.However,asfoodisconsideredtobeincludedinthescopeofthedefinitionof‘goods’underCommunitylaw,anyapplicablecustomsdutyexemptionsrelatingtodisasterreliefgoodsshouldencompassfoodaswell,asdescribedabove.

v. Medicines

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection18oftheIDRLGuidelinesdiscussesspecialgoodsandequipment,specifi-callyregardingthereductionoflegalandadministrativebarrierstotheexportation,transitimportationandre-exportationofmedicationsbyassistingStates.

n EClegislationonpharmaceuticalsismainlyrestrictedtogoodmanufacturingprac-ticeandproceduresfortheauthorisationofcertainmedicalproductsforhumanandveterinaryuse,withtheultimateaimofsafemarketingoftheproduct.Thereisnorelevantlegislationconcerningtheimportorexportofsuchproducts.However,asdiscussedaboveinPartIII.b.iiioncustoms,medicinalproductsareconsidereda‘good’underCommunitylawandwouldthereforereceiveexemptionsfromother-wiseapplicableduties.

n TheEUhaslimitedcompetencetolegislateintherealmofcontrolledsubstances.It is anareaof competence that ismostly left to theMemberStates, specifi-callywithregardtothecriminalisationofcertainactsandcustomsprocedures.However, theEUhas legislated in theareaof illicitdrug traffickingandhassoughttoharmonisetheMemberStates’lawsinordertosupportco-ordinationandco-operation.TheEUhasalsolegislatedtorequireMemberStatestopenalizecertainactivityrelatingtotrafficking,suchastheunlawfulexportorimportofcontrolledsubstances.

Pharmaceuticals

ThebasisfortheregulationofmedicinalproductsbytheECisfoundinitsprovisionsontheap-proximationoflaws.Article114(1)LisbonTFEU(exArticle95TEC)providesthattheCouncilmustadoptmeasuresfortheapproximationoflawsintheMemberStatesthatareaimedattheestablishmentandfunctioningoftheinternalmarket.Article115LisbonTFEU(exArticle94TEC)providesthepreciselegalbasisfortheadoptionoflegislation.Article168LisbonTFEU(exArticle152(4))alsoprovidesaspecificbasisforlegislatingintheareaofhumanhealth,particularlywithregardtotheadoptionof:(1)measuressettinghighqualitystandardsforsafetyoforgansandsubstancesofhumanorigin;(2)veterinaryorphytosanitaryrulesaimedatprotectingpublichealth;and(3)incentivemeasuresaimedatimprovingandprotectingpublichealth.TheArticle352LisbonTFEU(exArticle308TEC)catch-allprovisionrelatedtothecommonmarkethasalsobeencitedasalegalbasisinpharmaceuticallegislation.ItshouldbenotedthattheEEAstateshaveadoptedtheCommunityacquisonmedicinalproductsandsothelegislationdiscussedbelowisalsoapplicabletothosestates.

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EClegislationonmedicinalproductsrangesfromgeneraltoveryspecificrequirements.Legislationcoverspharmaceuticalsforhumanuse,andrulesrelatingtomedicaldevices.105Therearetwomaintextsrelatingtoproductsforhumanuse:(1)Directive2001/83/EContheCommunitycoderelatingtomedicinalproductsforhumanuse;106and(2)Directive2003/94/EClayingdowntheprinciplesandguidelinesofgoodmanufacturingpracticeinrespectofmedicinalproductsforhumanuseandinvestigationalmedicinalproductsforhumanuse.Theover-archinggoalofthislegislationisfreemovementofmedicinalproductswithintheEU.

Directive2001/83/ECisapplicabletoindustriallyproducedmedicinalproductsforhumanuseintendedtobeplacedonthemarketinMemberStates.TheDirectivedoesnotprovideadefinitionforthephrase‘intendedtobeplacedonthemarket’,butasinthecontextoffood,itmayalsoincludemedicinedistributedwithoutcharge.ProductsbothmanufacturedwithintheEUandoutsideofitmustcomplywiththeDirective’sstandards.TheDirectivelaysdownaprocedureforanationalmarketingauthorisationandthemutualrecognitionofsuchanauthorisationthroughouttheEU.MemberStateshave90daystorecognisethemarketingauthorisation(unlesspublichealthgroundsapply).Article51statesthatthequalityofmedicinalproductsoriginatingfromathirdcountrymustalsosatisfytherequirementsofamarketingauthorisation.Whetheranauthorisationisgrantedisdependentuponthesubmissionofdocumentationattestingtoconsiderationssuchastheproduct’squalityofmanufacture,contentandtestingresults.107AnnexItotheDirectivecontainsdetailsoftheanalytical,pharmacotoxicologicalandclinicalstandardsandprotocolsap-plicabletotestingmedicinalproducts.

Directive2003/94/EClaysdownguidelines forgoodmanufacturingpractice.ProductsbothmanufacturedwithintheEUandoutsideofitmustcomplywiththeDirective’sstandards.TheseguidelinesareelaborateduponinadditionalguidancecreatedbytheCommission.108Essentially,theDirectiveprovidesbestpracticerulesrelatingtoqualitymanagement,personnel,premisesandequipment,documentation,production,qualitycontrolandcomplaintsprocedures.

Regulation726/2004/ECestablishesacentralisedCommunityauthorisationprocedurethatiscompulsoryforcertaintypesofmedicinalproductslistedinitsAnnex.Itisapplicabletomedicinalproductsforhumanuse.WheretheCommunityproceduredoesnotapply,theproceduresintheDirectivesestablishingtheCommunitycodesonhumanmedicine(i.e.,nationalprocedures)willapply.TheholderofaCommunityauthorisationmustbeestablishedinoneoftheMemberStates.Itthereforedoesnotapplytothirdcountries.Oncetheauthorisationisgranted,itwillbevalidacrosstheEUandIceland,NorwayandLiechtenstein.TheholdercanthenmarketitsproductinallEUcountries.TheRegulationalsocreatestheEuropeanMedicinesAgencywhosemainroleistoassesseverymedicineforwhichacentralisedauthorisationapplicationhasbeensubmittedandtomakerecommendationstotheCommission.

Inadditiontothegenerallegislationdescribedabove,specificlegislationhasbeendraftedinsev-eralareas:(1)goodpracticewithregardtoclinicaltrials intheMemberStates;109(2)orphan

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105. Much of the legislation is also applicable to medicinal products for veterinary use which is outside the scope of this Report. 106. As amended by Directive 2004/24/EC and Directive 2004/27/EC. 107. art 8. 108. These guidelines (and all pharmaceutical guidelines) are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/pharmaceuticals/documents/eudralex/index_en.htm . 109. See, e.g., Directive 2001/20/EC on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative

provisions of the Member States relating to the implementation of good clinical practice in the conduct of clinical trials on medic-inal products for human use; Commission Directive 2005/28/EC laying down principles and detailed guidelines for good clinical practice as regards investigational medicinal products for human use, as well as the requirements for authorisation of the manufacturing or importation of such products.

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medicalproducts;110(3)medicinesforpaediatricuse;111(4)bloodandbloodplasmaproducts;112and(5)advancedtherapymedicines.113

TheECalsohasasystemfortheregulationofmedicaldevicescoveringproductsrangingfrombandagesandspectaclestolifemaintainingimplantabledevicesandsophisticateddiagnosticim-agingandminimalinvasivesurgeryequipment.Thesystemisparticularlyfocusedonmarketaccess,internationaltraderelationsandcompetition.ThebasiclegislationonmedicaldevicesisDirective93/42/ECconcerningmedicaldevices.Itcontainsprovisionsregardingtheapproxi-mationofMemberStatelaws,rulesregardingclassificationandassessmentandessentialdevicerequirementsofdesignandconstruction.ItalsoprovidesforanEC-procedureallowingforverifica-tionthatthedeviceconformstotheDirective.DependingonthetypeofdeviceasspecifiedintheDirective,themanufacturerwillhavetoconformtovariousproceduresassetoutintheannexesrelatingtofullqualityassurance,productionqualityassurance,productqualityassurance,oracombination.TheDirectivedoesnotcontemplateexemptionsintheeventofnaturaldisastersintheMemberStates,nordoesitprovideforanyexpeditedprocedures.

Controlled Substances

Inadditiontopharmaceuticalmedicinesdiscussedabove,itmaybethecasethatrelieforganisa-tionsneedtoimportcontrolledsubstancesformedicalpurposes.Drugssuchasmethadone,mor-phine,opium,codeineandtranquilisersareoftennecessaryforlegitimatemedicaltreatment.RelieforganisationsthereforeruntheriskofbeingconstruedasdrugtraffickersiftheyarenotawareofthetypesandamountsofcontrolledsubstancesthatcanbebroughtintotheMemberStates.

TheEUhaslimitedcompetencetoactwithinthedrugfield.TheTEUwasthefirstEuropeanTreatytospecificallyreferencedrugs inthecontextofpublichealth(Article129)andjusticeandhomeaffairs(Article29).UsingthosebasesalongwiththeprovisionsintheTECrelatingtotheinternalmarket,theEUhaslegislatedinthefieldsofdrugtraffickinganddrugdepend-ence.However,itslegislativerolehasbeenmainlyfocusedatco-operationinenforcementandthecommoncriminalizationofoffencesrelatingtodrugtrafficking.114

WhiletheEUisnotitselfapartytotherelevantinternationalagreementsoncontrolledsubstances,all27MemberStatesareparties.Therefore,theEUdoesnothaveitsownsystemfortheclassifi-cationofnarcotics.Rather,itusesthesystemadoptedintheUNSingleConventiononNarcoticDrugs(1961)andtheUNConventiononPsychotropicSubstances(1971).115However,theEU

110. Orphan medicinal products are intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of life-threatening or very serious condi-tions that affect not more than 5 in 10,000 persons in the Eu-ropean Union. See, e.g., Regulation 141/2000/EC on orphan medicinal products; Regulation 847/2000/EC laying down the provisions for implementation of the criteria for designation of a medicinal product as an orphan medicinal product and defi-nitions of the concepts ‘similar medicinal product’ and ‘clinical superiority’. 111. See, e.g., Regulation 1901/2006/EC on medicinal products for paediatric use and amending Regulation 1768/92/EEC, Directive 2001/20/EC, Directive 2001/83/EC and Regulation 726/2004/EC; Regulation 1902/2006/EC amending Regulation 1901/2006/EC on medicinal products for paediatric use. 112. Directive 2002/98/EC setting stand-ards of quality and safety for the collection, testing, processing, storage and distribution of human blood and blood components and amending Directive 2001/83/EC. 113. Regulation

1394/2007/EC on advanced therapy medicinal products and amending Directive 2001/83/EC and Regulation 726/2004/EC. 114. In fact, the European Community’s first legislative action in the field of drug policy was to ratify Article 12 of the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psy-chotropic Substances (1988) on drug precursors control. See also, Council Joint Action 96/750/JHA adopted by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union concerning the approximation of the laws and practices of the Member States of the European Union to combat drug addiction and to pre-vent and combat illegal drug trafficking; Joint Action 96/698/JHA on cooperation between customs authorities and business organisations in combating drug trafficking; Framework Deci-sion 2004/757/JHA laying down minimum provisions on the constituent elements of criminal acts and penalties in the field of drug trafficking. 115. Discussed in Part IV.b.

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doeshaveitsownsystemfortherapidclassificationofallnewpsychoactivesubstances.116Themainthrustofthesystemisathree-stepprocedurefor(a)earlywarningregardingnewdrugs;(b)assessmentofriskscausedbytheuseofortraffickinginthedrug;and(c)controlmeasuresforspecificdrugs.

TheEUhasalsoadoptedCommunitylegislationrelatingtotradeindrugprecursorsbetweentheCommunityandthirdcountries.Thislegislationintroducesauthorisationandlicensingrequire-mentsforthoseoperatorswithintheEUengagedinimportingorexportingprecursorsubstances.117Itisalsofocusedonthecreationofharmonisedmeasuresformanufacturingandlicensingsys-tems.118However,itisdifficulttoseehowthislegislationwouldaffectrelieforganisations,asitisaimedsolelyatmanufacturersofnarcoticsubstances.Thislegislationdoesnotprovideforanyex-emptionsformedicaluse.ItseemsthatsuchconsiderationsareleftfortheMemberStatesinlightoftheirobligationsunderinternationalconventions.

vi. Animals

IDRL Guidelines

Section18oftheIDRLGuidelinesdiscussestheexemptionofspecialgoodsandequipmentfromlegalandadministrativebarrierstoexportation,transitimportationandre-exportationorprovisionsprovidingforthereductionofsuchbarriers.Snifferdogsmaybeconsideredwithinthescopeofthisprovision.

n CommunitylawprovidesforthefreecirculationofpetanimalsbetweenMemberStatesifaccompaniedbyapassport,andofanimalsfromthirdcountriesifac-companiedbyanapprovedhealthcertificate.Theseanimalswillthereforenotbesubjecttolengthyverificationand/orveterinarychecksattheborder.Althoughnotspecificallycited,itislikelythatsnifferdogsareincludedinthisregime.

n Non-petanimalsfromthirdcountriesmuststillbesubjectedtolengthydocumen-taryandveterinarychecks

n Communitylegislationdoesnotprovideforexceptioninrelationtoanimalsre-quiredforreliefassistance.

RescueoperationsinEuropesometimesinvolvespecially-traineddogs.Accordingly,regulationontheirentryintoaffectedstatesmaybeimportant.TheECregulatesthenon-commercialmove-mentofanimalswithintheCommunityandalsofromthirdstates.Regulation998/2003/EContheanimalhealthrequirementsapplicabletothenon-commercialmovementofpetanimalsessentiallyprovidesthatpetanimalsmaybemovedbetweentheMemberStatesifaccompaniedbyapassportissuedbyaveterinariancertifyingthattheanimalhasreceivedtherequisitevaccina-tions.119Article3oftheRegulationdefines‘petanimal’as:“animalsofthespecieslistedinAnnexIwhichareaccompanyingtheirownersoranaturalpersonresponsibleforsuchanimalsonbehalfoftheownerduringtheirmovementandnotintendedtobesoldortransferredtoanotherowner.”

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116. Council Decision 2005/387/JHA on the information exchange, risk-assessment and control of new psychoactive sub-stances. 117. Regulation 111/2005/EC laying down rules for the monitoring of trade in drug precursors between the Commu-nity and third countries. 118. Regulation 273/2004/EC on drug precursors; Commission Regulation (EC) No 1277/2005

of 27 July 2005 laying down implementing rules for Regula-tion (EC) No 273/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council on drug precursors and for Council Regulation (EC) No 111/2005 laying down rules for the monitoring of trade between the Community and third countries in drug precursors Text with EEA relevance. 119. art 5.

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AnofficialattheCommission’sDGforHealthandConsumersexplainedthatthereisnospecificregimeapplicabletosnifferdogs.Ifthesnifferdogfallswithinthescopeofthatdefinition,thentheymayenterbasedontheRegulation.Iftheydonot,thentheymustsatisfytherequirementsofDirective92/65/EEC.120BecausetheDirective92/65/EECconcernstradeincertainspecies,itcanbeassumedthatsnifferdogswouldnotbeincludedwithinitsscopeandwouldthereforebeallowedentrybasedonRegulation998/2003/EC.TheUnitedKingdom,Ireland,Malta,SwedenandFinlandhavebeenallowedtomaketheentryofpetanimalsintotheirterritorysubjecttoad-ditionalconstraintswithregardtocertaindiseases,suchasrabies,echinococcosisandtickbornediseases.However,thisisatransitionalregimethatwillexpireattheendofJune2010,althoughthereisaCommissionproposaltoextendthesystemuntiltheendof2011.121ChapterIIIde-scribestheconditionsrelatingtomovementsofanimalsfromthirdcountries.Article8coversthevariousrequirementsofhealthdependingonthecountryoforigin.Subsection2providesthatthirdcountrypetanimalsmustbeaccompaniedbyacertificateissuedbyanofficialveterinarian.TheproceduresapplicabletotheissueofsuchcertificatearefoundinDecision2004/203/EC.122Thecertificateshouldbeissuedandsignedbyanofficialveterinariandesignatedbythecompetentauthorityofthecountryofdispatch.

CommissionDecision2003/803/ECestablishesamodelpassportfortheintra-Communitymove-mentofspecificanimalswhichisrequiredtocontaindetailsoftheanimals’healthinaccordancewithRegulation998/2003.123

CouncilDirective91/496/EECisspecificallyfocusedtheproceduresforveterinarychecksonthirdcountryanimalsthatarenotfamilypetsaccompanyingtravellersfornon-commercialpurposes.Article4providesthattheMemberStatesmustensurethattheanimalsaresubjectedtoadocu-mentaryandidentitycheckattheborder,aswellasanofficialveterinariancheckbeforetransitthroughtheterritoryisauthorised.Thislegislationdoesnotspecificallydiscusstheentryofani-malsfromthirdcountriesinthecontextofdisasterassistance,ormakeanyprovisionforexpeditedproceduresinexceptionalcircumstances.

vii. Transport

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection19discussesseveralprovisionsrelatingtotransport,includingspeedypassageofland,marineandairvehiclesoperatedbyrelieforganisations.

n TheECpolicyofcommontransportprovidesforthefreedomtotravelwithintheCommunityforland,airandseavehiclesthatareregisteredintheMemberStates.

n Thelegislationpertainingtothecarriageofgoodsbyroadincludesanexemptionrelatedtotheauthorisationsystemfordisasterreliefgoods.

120. Directive 92/65/EEC laying down animal health require-ments governing trade in and imports into the Community of animals, semen, ova and embryos not subject to animal health requirements laid down in specific Community rules referred to in Annex A (I) to Directive 90/425/EEC. 121. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Regulation (EC) No 998/2003 on the animal health

requirements applicable to the non-commercial movement of pet animals, COM(2009) 268 final, 16 June 2009, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2009:0268:FIN:EN:PDF. 122. Establishing a model health certificate for non-commercial movements from third countries of dogs, cats and ferrets. 123. Specifically, dogs, cats and ferrets.

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Section16(c)oftheIDRLGuidelinesrecommendsexpeditedproceduresfortherecogni-tionofdrivinglicenses.

n EClegislationharmonisestheconditionsforissuingdriverslicensesinMemberStatesandprovidesforthemutualrecognitionofEU-issuedlicensesacrosstheter-ritoryfordriversofland,airandseavehicleseitherthroughspeciallegislationofthroughthegeneraldirectiveonmutualrecognitionofprofessionalqualifications.

n However,thislegislationdoesnotprovideforanyexpeditedprocedureincaseofemergency.

TransportisoneoftheCommunity’scommonpoliciesgovernedunderTitleVILisbonTFEU(exTitleVTEC).ThepolicyisfocusedoneliminatingbordersbetweenMemberStatesandcontrib-utingtothefreemovementofgoodsandpeople.ProvidedthatthevehiclesoriginatefromanotherEUMemberState,movementofvehiclesbetweenMemberStateswouldnotpresentaproblem.Inmuchofthelegislation,relationshipswiththirdcountriesaretheprovinceoftheMemberStateswithinaframeworkofthedutytoco-operatewiththeprinciplesoftheCommunity.HarmonisinglegislationhasbeendevelopedinthekeyareasrelevanttotheIDRLGuidelines.

Road Transport

In1998,recognisingthatmostEUMemberStateswerepartytothe1968ViennaConventiononRoadTraffic(discussedinPartIV.b),theCounciladoptedRegulation2411/98/EContherecog-nitioninintra-CommunitytrafficofthedistinguishingsignoftheMemberStateinwhichmotorvehiclesandtheirtrailersareregistered.ThisRegulationappliestovehiclesregisteredanddrivenwithintheCommunity.TheRegulationcreatesauniformdistinguishingsignforvehicleregis-trationplatesthatmustberecognisedasequivalenttoanyotherdistinguishingsignthataMemberStatemayrecogniseinordertoidentifytheStateofregistration.

TheEChasalsointroducedlegislationharmonisingtheconditionsforissuingdriverslicensesinMemberStatesandaCommunitymodellicense.Directive91/439/EECondrivinglicensespro-videsforthemutualrecognitionofdrivinglicensesissuedbyMemberStates.ThislegislationhasbeenpartiallyrepealedbyDirective2006/126/ECwhichisarecastingofthefirstdirectiveandwillnotbewhollyoperativeuntil2013.TherecastdirectiveisaimedatreducingthepossibilitiesoffraudandguaranteeingtruefreedomofmovementforEUdrivers,butnotthirdcountrydrivers.Itincludesfurtherharmonisationmeasuresforotherformsofroadtransport,suchasmopedsandmotorcycles.Partsoftherecastdirectivehavebeeninforcesince19January2009,includingthoseregardingmutualrecognitioninArticle2.

Regulation881/92/EEConaccesstothemarket inthecarriageofgoodsbyroadwithintheCommunitytoorfromtheterritoryofaMemberStateorpassingacrosstheterritoryofoneormoreMemberStatesprovidesforanauthorisationsystemforthecarriageofgoodsbyroadcarriedoutinEUterritoryonbehalfofathirdparty.TheauthorisationisapplicabletocarriersestablishedinanEUMemberStateandoncegrantedisvalidforfiveyears.Ifathirdstateisinvolved,asep-arateagreementbetweentheEUandthatthirdstateisnecessary.TheAnnextotheRegulationprovidesanexceptiontotheauthorisationprocedurefor“Carriageofmedicinalproducts,appli-ances,equipmentandotherarticlesrequiredformedicalcareinemergencyrelief,inparticularfornaturaldisasters”.Regulation3118/93/EECelaboratesontheconditionsbywhichnon-residentcarriersmayoperatewithinaMemberStateafterobtaininganauthorisationunderRegulation881/92/EEC.Itprovidesthatdriverswhoarenationalsofathirdcountrymustbeinpossessionof

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38


adriverattestationinordertooperatewithintheEU.However,itdoesnotincludeanyexceptionregardingcarriageofdisastergoods.Presumably,onceacarrierhasacquiredanauthorisationorhasproventhatauthorisationisunnecessaryinlightoftheexceptionintheAnnex,thedriverat-testationwouldnotberequired.

AnofficialattheEuropeanCommissioninDGEnergyandTransportclarifiedtheprocedureforthetransportofdisasterreliefgoodsbybothEUandnon-EUcarriers,withreferencetotheInternationalTransportForum(ITF).124Currently,26EUMemberStatesbelongtotheITF.125EUhaulerstravellingwithintheEUandcarryingdisasterreliefmaterialswillnotneedalicenseorauthorisation,aslongastheycanprovethattheirtransportisgenuinelyfortheprovisionofemergencyassistance.Thereisnopriorapprovalnecessary;thecheckstakeplaceattheborder.IfthecarrierisanenterprisesuchasadedicatedRedCrossvehicle,thesituationisquickandsimple;ifthecarrierisaprivatecompanyhiredtotransportreliefitemsbyanenterprisesuchastheRedCross,theprivatecarrierwillhavetohavethepaperworkrecordingthecontractforhaulageaspartoftheapprovalprocess.Non-EUcarrierswillalwaysneedalicensewhentravellingintheEU.Thelicensemaybegrantedbilaterally(betweentheindividualMemberStateandthenon-EUcountryorbetweentheEUasawholeandthenon-EUcountry,asisthecasewithSwitzerland)ormultilaterallythroughtheITF.UndertheITFrules,disasterrelieftransportsareexemptedfromthelicensingrequirementandnospecialproceduresapply.Fornon-EUandnon-ITFcarriers,therelevantbilateralagreementsmustbeconsulted.Furthermore,asregardsnon-EUandnon-ITFcarriers,twotypesofbilateralpermitsorauthorisationsmightapply:oneforloadingorunloadingandonefortransitingacrossaterritorytoreachthefinaldestination.Astheofficialexplained,ifgoodsaretransportedbyaMacedonianhaulertotheUnitedKingdomviaCroatiaandSerbia,thehaulerwillneedapermitforunloadingintheUKaswellaspermitstotransitthroughCroatiaandSerbia.Theapplicablebilateralagreementswilldictatetheexactlegalsituation.

Directive96/26/EC126relatestothemutualrecognitionofdiplomas,certificatesandotherevi-denceofformalqualificationsofroadhaulageandroadpassengeroperators.Operatorsmustsatisfythreecriteria:(1)goodrepute;(2)financialstanding;and(3)professionalcompetence.CertificatesanddocumentsissuedbyaMemberStatemustbeacceptedbyotherMemberStatesassufficientproofthattherequisiteconditionsforoperationhavebeensatisfiedbytheirholder.

TheEUhasenteredintoagreementswiththirdcountriesconcerninglandtransport.TheEC/SwitzerlandAgreementbetweentheEuropeanCommunityandtheSwissConfederationontheCarriageofGoodsandPassengersbyRailandRoadenteredintoforceon1July2002andisaimedatliberalisingaccesstotheparties’transportmarkets.TheagreementpermitsECandSwissroadandrailhaulerstofreelycarryouttransportsbetweenaMemberStateandSwitzerland.TheEEAAgreementbetweentheEU,Norway,IcelandandLiechtensteinrequiresthatthelatterthreecoun-triesapplyCommunityroadtransportrulesinthesamewayastheEUMemberStates.127Finally,theCommunityentered into the INTERBUSagreementwithAlbania,Bosnia-Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia.FormerYugoslavianRepublicofMacedonia,Moldova,RomaniaandTurkeywhichprovidesforaharmonisedregulatoryframeworkforpassengerservices.Theagreementen-teredintoforceon1January2003.128

124. Formerly the European Conference of Ministers of Trans-port (ECMT). The ECMT transformed into the ITF in 2007. 125. Cyprus is not a member. 126. As amended by Directive 98/76/EC. 127. Annex XIII of the EEA Agreement contains

the Community transport acquis. 128. Council Decision 2002/917/EC on the conclusion of the Interbus Agreement on the international occasional carriage of passengers by coach and bus.

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Air Transport

Regulation1008/2008/ECestablishingcommonrulesfortheoperationofairservices intheCommunity(Recast)129regulatesthelicensingofCommunityaircarriers,thelawapplicabletothemandthepricingofairservices.UndertakingsestablishedintheCommunitycannotcarrypas-sengers,cargoormailbyairunlesstheyhaveobtainedanoperatinglicenseundertheconditionsofthisRegulation.Specifically,theundertakingisrequiredtoholdanAirOperatorCertificate,complywithownershipandinsurancerequirementsandsatisfythefinancialrequisites.LicensedCommunityoperatorsarepermittedtooperateairservicesthroughouttheCommunitywithoutrestriction.130TheRegulationdoesnotdiscussanysituationsregardingdisasterreliefoperations;however,Article21onemergencymeasuresprovidesthattheMemberStatesmayrefuse,limitorimposeconditionsontheexerciseoftrafficrightstodealwithsuddenproblemsresultingfromunforeseeablecircumstances.

CouncilDirective91/670/EEConthemutualacceptanceoflicencesforpersonsworkingincivilaviationprovidedtheconditionsunderwhichMemberStatesmustrecogniselicensesissuedbyotherMemberStates,aswellasanyassociatedprivilegesorcertificates.TheconditionsintheDirectivehavebeencarriedoverandelaborateduponinthenewRegulation216/2008/EConcommonrulesinthefieldofcivilaviationandestablishingaEuropeanAviationSafetyAgency.ThenewDirectivespecifiesthequalificationsnecessaryforthedistributionofpilotandcabincrewlicensesandtheconditionsfortheirissue.Neitherpieceoflegislationreferstoanydisaster-specificexceptionorscenario.Theyareprimarilyfocusedoncivilaviationsafety.

Rail Transport

Directive95/18/ECestablishesthecriteriaapplicabletothelicensingofrailwayundertakingses-tablishedintheCommunity.Onceissued,alicensewillbevalidacrosstheterritoryoftheEU.TheDirectivedoesnotcoverundertakingswhoseactivitiesarelimitedexclusivelytourban,suburbanorregionalservicesorundertakingstransportingroadvehiclesthroughtheChannelTunnel.ThereisnoprovisionwithintheDirectivespecificallyrelevanttodisasterreliefsituations.ThisDirectivewasextendedbyDirective2001/13/ECtootherformsofrailwayundertakingsestablishedintheEUandnotcoveredbyDirective95/18/EC.

Directive2007/59/EConthecertificationoftraindriversoperatinglocomotivesandtrainsontherailwaysystemintheCommunityprovidesfortheconditionsforgrantingadriverslicensetotraindriversoperatingwithintheCommunityandtheproceduresforobtaininganinfrastructurecertificateindicatingwhereandwhattheoperatorispermittedtodrive.TheDirectiveincludesmandatoryexemptionstotheinfrastructurecertificaterequirement,including“whenadisturbanceoftherailwayservicenecessitatesthedeviationoftrainsormaintenanceoftracks”131butdoesnotprovideforanyexceptionsorexpeditedproceduresapplicableintheeventofadisaster.MutualrecognitionofqualificationsinthissectorisgovernedbyDirective2005/36/EConthegeneralsystemofrecognitiondescribedabove.

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129. This Regulation repeals and replaces three Regulations from the “Third aviation package”: Regulation No 2407/92 on licensing of air carriers, Regulation No 2408/92 on access for Community air carriers to intra-Community air routes, and Regulation No 2409/92 on passenger fares and air cargo rates. 130. Agreement between the European Community and the

Swiss Confederation on Air transport, 21/06/1999. This agreement is applicable to Swiss airline companies and is more commercial in nature. The agreement allows such companies to fly to all destinations in the EU Member States without restriction. 131. art 4(2)(a).

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Inland Waterways

Aspartofthecommontransportpolicy,Directive87/540/EEClaysdownrulesregardingaccesstotheoccupationofcarrierofgoodsbywaterwayandmutualrecognitionofdiplomas.132Itoper-ateslikesimilardirectivesdiscussedabovebyprovidingcommonconditionsgoverningaccesstotheprofessionandtheissuanceofacertificateuponconfirmationthattheapplicantpossessestherequisitecompetences.Aswiththeotherdirectives,thisappliestocarriersestablishedwithintheCommunityandformspartofthefreedomofmovementforworkersregimeintheEU.ItalsoprovidesformandatorymutualrecognitionofdiplomasobtainedintheMemberStates.

CouncilRegulation3921/91/EEClaysdowntheconditionsunderwhichnon-residentcarriersmaytransportgoodsorpassengersbyinlandwaterwaywithinaMemberStateinwhichtheyarenotestablished.Anon-residentispermittedtocarryoutthenationaltransportofpersonsorgoodsbyinlandwaterwayinanotherMemberStateprovidedthatheorsheisestablishedinanotherMemberStateandlicensedtocarryouthisorherservicesthere.Thecarriermustcarryonboardacertificateattestingtothoseconditionsatalltimes.Thereisnoprovisionforexclusionsorexpe-ditedprocedures.

CouncilRegulation1356/96/ECisapplicabletothetransportofgoodsorpassengersbyinlandwaterwayforjourneysbetweenMemberStatesandintransitthroughthem.Aswithinlandtrans-port,thecarriermust:(1)beestablishedinaMemberStateandbelicensedforcarriagethere;(2)useinlandwaterwayvesselsregisteredinaMemberState;and(3)satisfytheconditionsinArticle2ofRegulation3921/91/EECdiscussedinthepreviousparagraph.Again,therearenorelevantrulespertainingtoemergencyprocedures.

viii. Telecommunications

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection18statesthatAffectedStatesshouldwaiveorexpeditelicensingproceduresregardingtheuseoftelecommunicationsandinformationtechnologyequipment.

n TheECtelecommunicationsFrameworkDirectiveestablishesasystemforauthori-sationandaccesstoelectroniccommunicationsnetworksandradiofrequencies.

n TheFrameworkDirectiveiscomplementedbytheAuthorisationDirectivewhichattachesaconditiontoauthorisationrelatingtospecialtermsofusetoensurecom-municationsbetweenauthoritiesintimesofmajordisaster.

TitleXVILisbonTFEU(exTitleXVTEC)onTrans-EuropeanNetworksallowstheCommunitytocontributetothedevelopmentoftrans-Europeannetworksintheareasoftransport,energyinfrastructuresandtelecommunicationsinordertoachievetheobjectivesofeconomicandsocialcohesionandtheinternalmarket.Article155permitstheCommunitytoimplementanymeasurenecessarytoensuretheinteroperabilityofnetworks.Basedonthis,theEUhasdevelopedareg-ulatoryframeworkforelectroniccommunicationsmainlyaimedatstrengtheningcompetition

132. Council Directive 87/540/EEC on access to the occupation of carrier of goods by waterway in national and international

transport and on the mutual recognition of diplomas, certificates and other evidence of formal qualifications for this occupation.

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throughfacilitatedmarketaccess.TheFrameworkconsistsoffivedirectives(onegeneral,fourspecific)andadecisiononradiofrequencyaccess.133

Directive2002/21/EConacommonregulatoryframeworkforelectroniccommunicationsnet-worksandservices(FrameworkDirective)establishesthegeneralframeworkfortheharmonisationofe-communicationnetworksandservicesregulation.Itconsistsofgeneralrulesregardingscope,definitions,thenationalregulatoryauthoritiesandgrantingaccesstoessentialresourcessuchasradiofrequencies.

Directive2002/20/EContheauthorisationofelectroniccommunicationsnetworksandservices(AuthorisationDirective)appliestoallelectroniccommunicationsandnetworkservices,whetherornottheyareprovidedtothepublic,andalsotorightsofuseofradiofrequencies.UnderArticle3,MemberStatesarerequiredtoensurefreedomtoprovidee-communicationsnetworksandser-vicessubjecttoconditionssetforthintheDirective.Article6statesthattheauthorisationmaybesubjecttoconditionslistedintheAnnex.PartAparagraph12oftheAnnexstatesasoneoftheconditionswhichmaybeattachedtoageneralauthorisation:“Termsofuseduringmajordisastertoensurecommunicationsbetweenemergencyservicesandauthoritiesandbroadcaststothegeneralpublic.”ItisunclearonthefaceoftheDirectivewhomayhaveaccesstocommunicationsfacilitiesundertheseconditions.However,itislikelythattheindividualMemberStateauthoritieswoulddeterminetheexactparametersoftheconditionsattachedtoaccess.PartBparagraph8relatingtoconditionsattachedtotheuseofradiofrequenciesincludesasacondition“Obligationsunderrelevantinternationalagreementsrelatingtotheuseoffrequencies”,forexample,theTampereConventiondiscussedbelowinPartIV.b.Thismeansthatobligationsthatthefreedomtoprovidee-communicationsnetworksandservicesmaybesubjecttocertainobligationsundertheTampereConventionoranyotherrelevantinternationalagreement.

ThereisnospecificreferencetotheimportationoftelecommunicationsequipmentintotheEU.However,providedthatsuchequipmentisconsidereda‘good’underEClaw,normalcustomsruleswouldapply,includinganyexemptionondutiesfordisasterreliefgoods.

ix. Currency

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection20(2)oftheIDRLGuidelinesurgesthatAssistingStatesandorganisationsbegrantedtherighttofreelybringthenecessaryfundsandcurrenciesinoroutoftheaf-fectedcountryandtoobtainlegalexchangeratesinconnectionwiththeirdisasterrelieforrecoveryassistance.

n TheTECcreatedanareaofeconomicunionwithasinglecurrencythatcontributestothegeneralpolicyoffreemovementofcapitalbetweentheMemberStates.

n EClawlimitstheamountofcashanaturalpersoncancarryintooroutoftheEUto€10,000oritsequivalentinothercurrencies.

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133. This Report will not discuss Directive 2002/22/EC on universal service and users’ rights relating to electronic commu-nications networks and services (Universal Services Directive), Decision 676/2002/EC on a regulatory framework for radio

spectrum policy in the European Community, or Directive 2002/19/EC on access to, and interconnection of, electronic com-munications networks and associated facilities (Access Directive) as these are not pertinent to the discussion herein.

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OneofthefourfreedomsoftheEuropeanCommunityisfreemovementofcapitalunderTitleIV,Chapter4LisbonTFEU(exTitleIII,Chapter4TEC).Article56prohibits“allrestrictionsonthemovementofcapitalbetweenMemberStatesandbetweenMemberStatesandthirdcountries”thatcausesorthreatenstocauseseriousdifficultiesfortheoperationoftheeconomicandmonetaryunion.

TitleVIIILisbonTFEU(exTitleVIITEC)establishes theEconomicandMonetaryUnion(EMU).TheEMUisbasedoncloseco-ordinationoftheMemberStates’economicpolicyatEUleveltopromotestabilityandgrowth.TheEMUledtothedevelopmentofthesinglecurrency,theeuro,in1999.NotalloftheEUMemberStatesparticipateintheeuro:currently15of27MemberStateshaveintroducedthecurrency;theUnitedKingdomandDenmarkhaveoptedoutoftheschemeundertheTEU;therestareintheprocessofqualifyingforthesinglecurrencyframework.

Freemovementofcapitalwasfirst fullyrealizedinDirective88/361/EEC.Article1requiresMemberStatestoabolishanyrestrictionsonmovementsofcapitaltakingplacebetweennaturalorlegalpersonsresidentinMemberStatesandimposesasingleexchangerateonforeigntransactions.

CountriesintheprocessofbecomingfullparticipantsinthesinglecurrencyframeworkarepartytotheAgreementof16March2006betweentheEuropeanCentralBankandthenationalcentralbanksoftheMemberStatesoutsidetheeuro-zone.TheAgreementisaimedatmaintainingstableexchangeratesbetweentheeuroandparticipatingnationalcurrenciesthroughthecreationofacentralexchangerate.134PeopleandorganisationsbasedinMemberStatesthathaveadoptedtheeuroshouldnotencounteranydifficultiesregardingtherighttobringcurrencyinoroutofthecountryorinrelationtoexchangerates.

TherearerulesregardinghowmuchcashcanbebroughtintoandoutoftheEU.Article3ofRegulation1889/2005/EConcontrolsofcashenteringorleavingtheCommunitystatesthatapersoncarryingmorethan€ 10,000(oritsequivalentinothercurrencies)intooroutoftheEUterritorymustdeclareittothecustomsofficials.Article2oftheRegulationdefinescashas:

(1) Bearer-negotiableinstruments,includingmonetaryinstrumentsinbearerformsuchastravellerscheques;

(2) Negotiableinstruments(includingcheques,promissorynotesandmoneyorders)thatareeitherinbearerform,endorsedwithoutrestriction,madeouttoafictitiouspayee,oroth-erwiseinsuchformthattitletheretopassesupondelivery;

(3) Incompleteinstruments(includingcheques,promissorynotesandmoneyorders)signed,butwiththepayee’snameomitted;

(4) Currency,i.e.banknotesandcoinsthatareincirculationasamediumofexchange.135

Theobligationtodeclarethecashisonanynaturalperson.Whereapersoniscarryingcashforalegalentity,heorshemustgivethenameofthecompanyinthedeclaration.Thelimitappliesto

134. Agreement of 16 March 2006 between the European Cen-tral Bank (ECB) and the national central banks (NCBs) of the Member States outside the euro area laying down the operating procedures for an exchange rate mechanism in stage three of Eco-nomic and Monetary Union (EMU). Member countries are: Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hun-gary, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sweden, United Kingdom. Romania and Bulgaria became parties with the Agreement of 21 December 2006 between the European Central Bank and

the national central banks of the Member States outside the euro area amending the Agreement of 16 March 2006 between the European Central Bank and the national central banks of the Member States outside the euro area laying down the oper-ating procedures for an exchange rate mechanism in stage three of economic and monetary union. 135. More information is available at: http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/customs/customs_controls/cash_controls/article_6140_en.htm.

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personsindividuallytravellinginagroup.DependingontheMemberStateatissue,declarationsmaybemadeeitheronacommonform,oranationalform.136Thereisnospecialexemptionforemergencysituations.

x. Extended hours

IDRL Guidelines

PartVSection23oftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesthatAffectedStatesshouldensurethatstate-operatedofficesandservicesessentialtothetimelydeliveryofinternationaldisasterreliefoperateoutsidenormalbusinesshoursintheeventofadisaster.

n ExistingEClegislationonworkingtimeprovidesfordiscretionaryoptionsforMember States in this regard, specifically concerning derogations from themaximumworkingweektimeformanagingexecutivesorotherswithdecision-takingpowers.Suchpeoplemightbeinvolvedintheprovisionofdisasterassist-ance,forexample,customsorimmigrationofficials.

n However,nothingintheEClegislationrequiresgovernmentofficestoremainopenintimesofdisaster.

ECDirective2003/88/ECconcerningcertainaspectsoftheorganisationofworkingtimeisin-tendedtolaydowntheminimumrequirementsregardingthesafetyandhealthofallworkersintheEUinallsectorsofactivity,bothpublicandprivate.Itappliesspecificallyto(a)minimumperiodsofdaily,weeklyandannualrest/leaveand(b)certainaspectsofnightwork,shiftworkandworkpatterns.137TheDirectivealsosetsoutamaximumweeklyworkingtimeof48hours.138Article17providesforanumberofdiscretionaryderogationsfromthebasicprinciplesduetothe“specificcharacteristicsoftheactivityconcerned”.Thosemostrelevanttothisstudyaresub-paragraph1(a)“managingexecutivesorotherpersonswithautonomousdecision-takingpowers”andregardingtheneedforcontinuityofservice,subparagraph3(c)(iii)“press,radio,television,cinematographicproduction,postalandtelecommunicationsservices,ambulance,fireandcivilprotectionservices”and3(c)(iv)“gas,waterandelectricityproduction,transmissionanddistri-bution,householdrefusecollectionandincinerationplants”.WhiletheDirectiveappliestokeygovernmentofficials,nothinginitrequiresgovernmentofficestoremainopenintimesofdisasteroranyotherspecialcircumstance.

3c. Criteria for Eligibility for Action

Section14oftheIDRLGuidelinesprovidesthatStatesshouldestablishcriteriaforassistinghu-manitarianorganisationsseekingeligibilityforlegalfacilities.ThereisnoprovisioninEUlaw,includinginthenewLisbonTreaty,thatregulatesthisissue.

3d. Public Procurement Rules

ECDirective2004/18/ECregulates theprocedures for theawardofpublicworkscontracts,publicsuppliescontractsandpublicservicescontractsbystate,regionalorlocalauthorities,bodies

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136. More information concerning the type of form used by Member States is available at: http://ec.europa.eu/tax-

ation_customs/customs/customs_controls/cash_controls/dec-laration_form/index_en.htm. 137. art 1(2). 138. art 6.

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governedbypubliclaw,associationsformedbyoneorseveralofsuchauthoritiesorbodiesgovernedbypubliclaw.Itappliestowrittencontractsonlyandexcludesseveralthingsfromitsscope,in-cludingcontractsinthewater,energy,transportandpostalsectors,139contractsaimedatprovidingorexploitingpublictelecommunicationsnetworks,secretcontractsrelatingtosecuritymeasures,contractsrelatingtoimmovablepropertyandemploymentcontracts.140TheDirectivealsodoesnotapplywherecontractsareawardedpursuanttointernationalagreementsinconformitywiththeTECsuchastheWTOAgreementonGovernmentProcurement.141Furthermore,inorderfortheDirectivetobeapplicable,certainthresholdamountsmuchbereacheddependingonthetypeofcontractatissue.142However,evenwheretheDirectivedoesnotapply,orthethresholdvaluehasnotbeenmet,theECJhasheldthattheprocurementprocedureusedbytheMemberStatemustcomplywiththefundamentalprinciplesofCommunitylaw,inparticular,theprincipleofnon-discrimination.143

Intheinterestoftransparencyandnon-discrimination,theDirectiverequiresthatthecontractingbodypublicizeanoticesettingoutitsneedsandrequirements.144Itthenprovidesforthreetypesofprocedures:(1)openprocedures,inwhichanyinterestedeconomicoperator145maysubmitatender;(2)restrictedprocedures,wherebyanyeconomicoperatormayrequesttoparticipate,butonlythoseinvitedbythecontractingauthoritymaysubmitatender;and(3)negotiatedprocedures,wherethecontractingauthoritiesengageeconomicoperatorsoftheirchoiceandnegotiatethetermsofcontractwithsuchoperator.ItispreferredundertheDirectivethatprocedures(a)and(b)areused.However,inexceptionalcases,acontractingauthoritymaybepermittedtoawardcontractsbynegotiatedprocedure,withoutthepublicationofatendernotice.Article29alsoallowsMemberStatestheoptiontofollowacompetitivedialogueprocedureinthecaseofparticularlycomplexcontracts.Article31(1)(c)providesthatforeachtypeofcontracttheDirectivecovers,contractingauthoritiesmayusethenegotiatedprocedurewithoutpriorpublicationofacontractnotice:

“insofarasisstrictlynecessarywhen,forreasonsofextremeurgencybroughtaboutbyeventsunforeseeablebythecontractingauthoritiesinquestion,thetimelimitfortheopen,restrictedornegotiatedprocedureswiththepublicationofacontractnoticeasreferredtoinArticle30cannotbecompliedwith.Thecircumstancesinvokedtojustifyextremeurgencymustnotinanyeventbeattributabletothecontractingauthority.”146

Theguidanceissuedtoaccompanytheoriginallegislationbeforeitsrecastingin2004,explainsthemeaningoftheexceptionin31(1)(c):

“Theconceptofunforeseeableeventsistakentomeanoccurrencesthatoverwhelminglytran-scendthenormalboundsofeconomicandsociallife(forexample,anearthquakeorflooding

139. Governed by Directive 2004/17/EC. The provisions in this Directive are essentially similar to those in Directive 2004/18/EC, including the derogation provision discussed below. 140. Directive 2004/18/EC arts 14, 16. 141. Concluded in the framework of the Uruguay Round multilateral negotiations. However, Member States must apply the same conditions they apply to third country applicants for procurement contracts to any Member State applicants (art 5, Directive 2004/18/EC). 142. art 7. 143. Joined Cases C-20/01 and C-28/01 Com-mission v Germany [2003] ECR I-3609 para 62; Case C-525/03 CommissionvItaly [2005] ECR I-9405, Opinion of AG Jacobs para 8. 144. art 29. 145. ‘Economic operator’ encompasses the concepts of contractor, supplier and service pro-vider according to article 1(8). 146. The provisions in Article

29 regarding ‘competitive dialogue’ demonstrate that a possibly lengthy procedure of opening dialogue, engaging in dialogue, as-sessing tenders and formally terminating the dialogue is appli-cable. Article 38 governs the time limits for receipt of requests to participate and for receipt of tenders. Paragraph 1 mandates that when fixing the time limits, Member States must take into account the complexity of the contract and the time necessary for drawing up tenders and that, in the case of open procedures, the minimum time limit for receipt of tenders must be at least 52 days from the date the contract notice was sent. Regarding re-stricted procedures, the minimum time limit is 40 days, and re-garding the dialogue referred to above, the minimum time limit for receipt of requests to participate is 37 days.

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inthewakeofwhichessentialsuppliesareneededasamatteroftheutmosturgencyinordertoprovidereliefandshelterforthevictims.”147

Acontractingauthoritycanonlyrelyonthisprovisiontocopewiththeeventimmediatelyafteritoccurs,which,accordingtotheguidance,shouldequalaperiodofapproximatelyonemonth.Anyproducts,suppliesorservicesneededsubsequentlymustbetenderedforaccordingtothenormalproceduresintheDirective.

ThisissuewasbrieflytoucheduponinAdvocateGeneralJacob’sOpinioninthecaseCommission v ItalywhichinvolvedItaly’sacquisitionoffire-fightingaircrafttodealwithseasonalforestfires.148ThecasewasdeclaredinadmissiblebytheECJ,butAGJacobstooktheviewthatthederogationcouldnotbeappliedwhereequipmentorservicesweresoughtforrecurringevents.

ECpublicprocurementrulesmaythereforeinterferewithaMemberState’sabilitytoreceiveassist-ance,certainlyinthelongtermaftertheimmediateaftermathhassubsided,butalsopossiblyinrelationtoongoingorrecurringemergencies.

3e. Privileges and Immunities

UnderArticle343LisbonTFEU(exArticle291TEC),theCommunity“shallenjoyintheterri-toriesoftheMemberStatessuchprivilegesandimmunitiesasarenecessaryfortheperformanceofitstasks”.AprotocolwasdraftedandattachedtotheTreatywhichpresentstheconditionsofsuchprivilegesandimmunities.149TheProtocolappliestotheCommunityinstitutionsandstaff,in-cludingtheEuropeanCentralBank,theEuropeanInvestmentBank,theCommunityCourtsandmissionsofthirdcountriesaccreditedtotheEC.Itprovidesprivilegesandimmunitiesregardingdirecttaxationandcustomsduties150andcontainsprovisionsregardingofficialcommunicationsandtravelpassesforofficialsandotherservantsoftheCommunities.151ItalsoprovidesforthefreemovementofMembersofEuropeanParliamentinrespectofcustomsandexchangecontrolwhiletravellingtoandfromitsmeetings152,andgrantsMembersimmunityfromliabilityfromlegalproceedingsduringparliamentarysessions.153ChapterVoftheProtocolgrantscertainprivilegesandimmunitiestoofficialsandotherservantsoftheEuropeanCommunitiesbutdoesnotdefine‘servants’;thus,itisuncertainwhetherconsularmissionstaffcanbenefitfromthisprovisioniftheyareworkingaspartofanEUteam.

TheProtocolisstrictlyconcernedwithprivilegesandimmunitiesoftheCommunitiesanditsstaff.Itmakesnomentionofwhetherhumanitarianorganizations,memberstatecivilprotectionper-sonnelorinternationalorganizationsareconsidered‘servantsoftheCommunities’inthecontextofreliefoperations,nordoesitmakeanyseparateprovisionsforsuchbodies.NeitherdoesthereseemtobeaseparateEUdocumentspecificallyaddressingthisissue.

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147. Guide to the Community Rules on Public Supply Contracts other than in the Water, Energy, Transport and Telecommunica-tions Sectors: Directive 93/36/EEC. Although this guidance is aimed at previous legislation applying specifically to supply con-tracts, it has been stated by the Advocate General in CommissionvItaly (n 143) that “whatever view is reached with regard to one directive will be valid with regard to the other” as the same dero-gation was present in the legislation specifically relating to public

service contracts. Of course, that legislation has been consolidated into the current regime in Directive 2004/18/EC and the dero-gation applies not only to those two types of contracts, but also to public works contracts. 148. (n 143). 149. Protocol (No 36) on the privileges and immunities of the European Commu-nities (1965). 150. Articles 3 and 4. 151. Articles 6 and 7. 152. Article 8. 153. Article 10.

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3f. Other Forms of EU Co-operation

i. Nuclear Safety

TheCouncilhasadoptedlegislationtopromotetheearlyexchangeofinformationintheeventofaradiologicalemergency.154ThedecisionisintendedtoapplytosituationswhereaMemberStatechoosestotakebroadmeasuresinresponsetoaccidentsinvolvingorlikelytoinvolveasignificantreleaseofradioactivematerialorthedetectionofabnormallevelsofradioactivity.155TheMemberStatetakingactionmustnotifytheCommissionandanyMemberStatesthatareormightbeaf-fectedbythemeasuresofitsintentiontotakeactionanditsreasonsfordoingso,andmustprovidethemwithinformationrelatingtotheradiologicalconsequencesoftheincident.156TheinformedMemberStatesmustthendothesameiftheydecidetotakeactionthemselves.157

TheCouncilhasalsoadoptedmeasuresrelatingtopublichealthprotectionmeasuresintheeventofaradiologicalemergency.158ThepurposeoftheDirectiveis“todefine,atCommunitylevel,commonobjectiveswithregardtomeasuresandproceduresforinformingthegeneralpublic”.159TheMemberStatesmustsupplythepubliclikelytobeaffectedwithinformationconcerningtheapplicablehealthprotectionmeasuresintheeventofaradiologicalemergency.Theinforma-tionshouldbeupdatedanddistributedregularly.160Intheeventofaradiologicalemergency,theMemberStatesmustinformtheaffectedpopulationimmediatelyastoanystepstobetakenandanyrelatedhealthmeasures.161

ii. Marine Pollution

TheEuropeanCommunityhasbeen involved inresponse tomarinepollutionsince its1978CouncilResolutionsettingupanactionprogrammeonthe“controlandreductionofpollutioncausedbyhydrocarbonsreleasedatsea”,whichwaslateramendedtodealwithotherharmfulsubstances.TherearethreecurrentpiecesoflegislationrelatingtoCommunityprotectionagainstmarinepollution.ThefirstisDecision2850/2000/ECofParliamentandCouncilsettingupaCommunityframeworkforco-operationinthefieldofaccidentalordeliberatemarinepollutionwhichwasapplicablefrom1January2000to31December2006.Itsaimsareto:

n SupportMemberStates’effortstocombatmarinepollution;n HelpimproveMemberStates’capacitytorespondtoaccidents;n Encourageandstrengthenmutualassistancethroughactivitiessuchasexchangeofex-

perts,trainingandexercises;andn PromoteMemberStateco-operationrelatingtocompensationfordamageaccordingtothe

polluter-paysprinciple.

UnderthisDecision,DGEnvironmentsetupaCommunityInformationSystemfortheexchangeofdataonpreparationandresponsetomarinepollutionandarollingthree-yearplanconsistingoftraining,expertexchange,exercisesandpilotprojectsinordertoimplementtheframeworkforco-operation.

FollowingthisDecision,theCounciladoptedthefirstCPM,whichisalsoapplicabletomarinepollution.TheCPMwasdiscussedaboveinPartIII.a.

154. Council Decision 87/600/Euratom on Community ar-rangements for the early exchange of information in the event of a radiological emergency. 155. ibid art 1. 156. ibid art 2. 157. ibid art 4. 158. Directive 89/618/Euratom on informing

the general public about health protection measures to be applied and steps to be taken in the event of a radiological emergency. 159. ibid art 1. 160. ibid art 5. 161. ibid art 6.

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In2002Regulation1406/2002/ECestablishedaEuropeanMaritimeSafetyAgency.162TheAgency’sobjectiveistoprovidetechnicalandscientificassistancetotheEuropeanCommissionandMemberStatesrelatedtoproperimplementationofEuropeanlegislationbyshipsandtocarryoutspecifictaskswithregardtooilpollutionresponse.

InDecember2006,theCommissionissuedaCommunication163regardingthestateofCommunityactioninthefieldofaccidentalordeliberatemarinepollutionandestablishingitsintentregardingeffortsfrom2007.AccordingtotheCommunication,asof2007,20MemberStates,alongwithNorwayandIceland,participateintheCommunityframeworkforco-operation.ItdiscussedtheroleplayedbytheCPMandtheMICinrelationtothePrestige marinepollutionincidentof2002andaMICresponsein2006tomaritimepollutioninLebanon.Itsgoalsforthe2007+cyclein-cludedimprovingconsistencyofCommunitypolicyregardingpreparedness,enhancingprepared-nessactionsoftheEuropeanMaritimeSafetyAgency,increasingtheexchangeofgoodpracticeatCommunitylevel,enhancingresponsethroughgreaterconsistencyattheEuropeanlevelandimprovingoperationalsupporttotheMemberStates.

TheEuropeanCommunityisalsopartytothefollowingregionalinstruments:

n TheConventionof1974and1992ontheprotectionofthemarineenvironmentoftheBalticSeaarea(HelsinkiConvention);

n TheConventionof1976fortheprotectionoftheMediterraneanSeaagainstpollution(BarcelonaConvention)anditsProtocols;164

n TheAgreementof1983forcooperationindealingwithpollutionoftheNorthSeabyoilandotherharmfulsubstances(BonnAgreement);and

n ThecooperationAgreementsignedin1990fortheprotectionofthecoastsandwatersoftheNorth-EastAtlanticagainstpollution(LisbonAgreement–notyetinforce).

iii. Forests

DGEnvironmentandtheJointResearchCentrecreatedtheEuropeanForestFireInformationSystem(EFFIS)in1998tosupportfirefightingservicesintheMemberStatesandtoprovideser-vicesandParliamentwithinformationonEuropeanforestfiresandstatisticstoaidinresponse.165EFFISconductsscientificandtechnicalresearchonforestfiresandissuesannualreportsonforestfiresinEurope.ItalsomaintainsalargedatabasewhichrecordstheoccurrenceoffireswithinEurope.EFFISissupportedbyateamofexpertsfrom22EUMemberStatesthatmeetsregularly.

iv. Pandemic Influenza

AlthoughitisprimarilytheresponsibilityofMemberStatestoadoptmeasuresbestsuitedtofighttheonsetofhumaninfluenzapandemics,theEUhasstressedthatasingleMemberStatemaybeunabletodealwithanoutbreakonitsown,especiallywheretheoutbreakcrossesitsborderandaffectsitssurroundingneighbours.Tothatend,theEUconsidereditnecessarytodevelopEU-levelco-ordinationmeasurestostrengtheninternationalco-operationandreducetheimpactofany

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162. Information on the Agency is available at: http://www.emsa.europa.eu/. 163. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, to the European Economic and Social Committee and to the Committee of Re-gions: Cooperation in the field of accidental or deliberate marine

pollution after 2007, COM(2006) 863 final. 164. See http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/water_protec-tion_management/l28084_en.htm for more details concerning the adoption of the eight protocols. 165. More information on EFFIS is available at: http://effis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/.

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pandemic.TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)hasissuedguidelines166regardingactiontotakebeforeandduringpandemicsthatarefollowedbymostcountries.AnyEU-levelactionwillalsofollowtheserecommendations,takingintoaccountspecificmeasuresnecessaryduetocir-cumstancesparticulartotheEU.TheEUhasalong-standingrelationshipwiththeWHO,begin-ningin2000withanexchangeofletters.167Theletterswereaimedatstrengtheningco-operationbetweentheCommissionandtheWHOandidentifiedanumberofpriorityareas,includingcom-municablediseases,environmentandhealth.

Bearinginmindtheabove,theECadoptedRegulation851/2004/ECestablishingaEuropeanCentrefordiseasepreventionandcontrol.TheCentreisintendedto“enhancethecapacityoftheCommunityandtheMemberStatestoprotecthumanhealththroughthepreventionandcontrolofhumandisease”.168ThemaintaskoftheCentreisto“identify,assessandcommunicatecurrentandemergingthreatstohumanhealthfromcommunicablediseases”.169IthastheauthoritytoactonitsowninitiativeintheeventofanoutbreakthatmayspreadwithintheCommunitywheretheoriginoftheillnessisunknown.170TheCentreactslargelyasaninformationclearinghouse,providingscientificandtechnicalinformationtotheECinstitutionsandMemberStatesandco-or-dinatinganybodiesoperatinginthefieldscomingwithinthescopeofitsmission.171TheMemberStatesalsohaveadutytoprovidetheCentrewithtimelyinformationrelatedtoitspurposeandtoforwardtotheCentreanymessagesreceivedthroughitsearlywarningnetwork.

ThebasisfortheEuropeanCentreforDiseasePreventionandControlisapreviousDecisionoftheParliamentandCouncilin1998regardingthecreationofanetworkforsurveillanceandcontrolofcommunicablediseases.172ThisDecisioncalledfortheimprovementofexistingnetworksbetweenMemberStatesdedicatedtothemonitoringofintra-Communitycommunicablediseases,aswellasheightenedmeasuresfortheearlyexchangeofinformationbetweenMemberStates.TheDecisionsetupanetworkatCommunityleveltaskedwithsurveillanceandearlywarningandresponsewithaviewtowardstrengtheningco-operationandco-ordinationamongtheMemberStates.173TheMemberStatesareobligedtoconsultwitheachotherandtheCommissioninordertoco-ordinatetheireffortsforthepreventionandcontrolofcommunicablediseases.

Morerecently,theCommissionhasissuedcommunicationsregardingstrengthenedco-ordinationonpreparednessforhealthemergenciesatEUlevel174andonpreparednessandresponseplan-ningspecificallyinrelationtopandemicinfluenza175.Together,thesedocumentsformthebasisforfutureCommunity-levelactionthatwillassisttheMemberStatesindevelopingtheirownplanstodealwithpublichealthemergencies.TheCommissionhasidentifiedsixkeyissuestoaddressatCommunitylevel:(1)informationmanagement;(2)communications;(3)scientificadvice;(4)liaisonandcommandandcontrolstructures;(5)preparednessofthehealthsector;and(6)prepar-ednessinallothersectorsandinter-sectorally.176

166. These guidelines are available at: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/inf luenza/WHO_CDS_CSR_GIP_2005_5.pdf. 167. Exchange of Letters between the World Health Organisation and the Commission of the European Communities concerning the consolidation and intensification of cooperation and attached Memorandum concerning the frame-work and arrangements for cooperation between the World Health Organization and the Commission for the European Communi-ties (2001/C 1/04). 168. Regulation 851/2004/EC art 3(1). 169. ibid. 170. ibid. 171. ibid art 3(2). 172. Decision 2119/98/EC setting up a network for the epidemiological surveil-lance and control of communicable diseases in the Community.

173. ibid art 1. 174. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Eco-nomic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on strengthening coordination on generic preparedness planning for public health emergencies at EU level, COM(2005) 605 final, 28 November 2005. 175. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Eu-ropean Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Pandemic Influenza Preparedness and Response Planning in the European Community, COM(2005) 607 final, 28 November 2005. 176. COM(2005) 605 final (n 174) 5; see also ibid, p 7.

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3

On15September2009,theCommissionadoptedastrategypaperonpandemicH1N1supportingtheMemberStates’effortstorespondtothepandemic.Thestrategypaperemphasisestheco-ordinationofpreparationsinordertoeffectivelyrespondtopandemics.IthighlightsvaccinationsasaneffectivemeansofpreventionandurgesMemberStatestorevisetheirvaccinationstrategiesinlightofcurrentscientifictrends.Thepaperdiscussestheneedtogivesupporttothirdcoun-triesandtoimproveinternationalco-operationtoensureacoherentglobalpublichealthresponse.Businesscontinuityconcernsarealsoaddressed,aspandemicsoftenleadtoothersocialandeco-nomicconsequencessuchaslowerproductivityandadeclineinretailactivity.TheCommissionwasrequestedtoreviewandreportonfivespecificareas177inrelationtopandemicswhichformedthebasisofdiscussionsofthehealthministerson12October2009.

TheInternationalHealthRegulations(IHR)shouldalsobementioned.TheIHRenteredintoforcein2007andisbindingonallMemberStatesoftheWHO,includingalltheEUMemberStates.TheIHRisaimedatco-operationinpreventionandresponsetohealthrisksthathavethepotentialtocrossbordersandcauseaworld-widepandemic.TheIHRincludesreportingrequire-mentsintheeventofanoutbreakandestablishesprocedurestofollowshouldanoutbreakoccur.TheIHRalsoplaceanobligationonmembercountriestostrengthentheirexistingframeworksforpreparationandresponse.

v. Victims of Terrorism

AlthoughthepreventionandpunishmentofterrorismisoutsideofthescopeofthisReport,itshouldbementionedthattheEUhasanextensiveprogrammeinplaceregardingthefightagainstterrorism.Ofparticularrelevance,since2004,theCommissionhasbeenactivelypursuingaprogrammetoaidvictimsofterroristattacks.Thishasmainlybeendonethroughthefinancingofaprojectdedicatedtovictimassistance.TheEUisintheprocessofadoptinglegislationconcerningcompensationforharmsufferedandtheprovisionofmaterial,psychological,medicalandsocialassistance.178CouncilDirective2004/80/ECrelatingtocompensationtocrimevictimsrequiresMemberStatestosetupcompensationschemesforvictimsofviolentinternationalcrimescommittedwithintheirterritories.

3g. Recent Trends in Co-Operation

Inthelasttenyears,theEUhasenteredaphaseofco-operationwiththirdcountriesthatisin-clusiveofconcernsrelatedtodisasterassistance.TheseagreementsdemonstrateawillingnessoftheEUtoshareitsdisasterresponsecapacitywiththosestateslessabletocopewiththeeffectsofdisasters.Theagreementstendtoincludeformlanguagerelatedtoco-operationinnaturaldisas-ters.TheydemonstrateanawarenessonthepartoftheEUoftheimportanceofco-operationinthefieldofnaturaldisasters.Althoughtheyseemspecificallygearedtowardcomingtotheaidoftheirthirdcountrypartners,theagreementsprovidefor‘co-operation’andthereforecontemplatesassistancebetweenallpartners,includingtheEUMemberStates.

Forexample,the2000PartnershipAgreementbetweentheECanditsMemberStatesandtheAfrican,CaribbeanandPacific(ACP)StatesincludesChapter6,HumanitarianandEmergencyAssistance,whichpledgesthatassistancetotheACPpopulationwillbeprovidedinsituations“resultingfromnaturaldisaster,man-madecrisessuchaswarsandotherconflictsorextraordinarycircumstanceshavingcomparableeffects”.179

177. These areas were: vaccine development, vaccine strategies, joint procurement, communication to the public and support to third countries. 178. European Parliament, ‘Protection of

Victims of Crime’, available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/comparl/libe/elsj/zoom_in/17_en.htm. 179. Article 72.1.


Chapter 4: Other Sources of Norms

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Chapter 4. Other Sources of Norms

Chapter 4Other Sources of Norms

Muchoftherelevantregionalmaterialshavebeendiscussedina2007studybytheIFRCentitled‘Lawandlegalissuesininternationaldisasterresponse:adeskstudy’.Somewillberepeatedhere,butthisreportattemptstouncoveradditionalregionalagreementsrelevanttotheEUMemberStatesinrelationtoresponsetodisasters.Asthereaderwillseebelow,asidefromtheConventionslisted, thereare severalEuropeanpartnershipscentredondisaster relief.Beforedetailing therelevantinstruments,itisnecessarytoconsiderbrieflythelegalstatusofsuchinstrumentswithintheEClegalorder.

4a. The Legal Status of Agreements in the EC Order

n ThelegitimacyofanyinternationalagreementmadebytheMemberStatesisdependentuponwhethertheagreementwasconcludedbeforeoraftertheentryintoforceoftheTECin1958.

n WherethereisaconflictbetweeninternationalagreementsandprimaryEClaw,pri-maryEClawhaspriorityunlesstherightsofathirdcountryareaffected.

i. Agreements with Third States

Article351LisbonTFEU(exArticle307TEC)referstointernationalagreementsofMemberStateswiththirdcountriespriortoEUaccession.Itstatesthatanyrightsandobligationsarisingfromagreementswiththirdcountriesenteredintopriorto1958(i.e.whentheTECenteredintoforceandhencewhentheMemberStatesbecameobligatedundertheEClegalorder)willnotbeaffectedbytheTEC.ItthencontinuestoreadthatMemberStatesmusttake”allappropriatestepstoeliminatetheincompatibilities”andworktogetherintheattempttorepairtheincongruities.

ii. Agreements between Member States

Thereareestablishedrulesandjurisprudenceregardingthematterofso-called‘inter-se’agree-mentsbetweenMemberStates.Ingeneral,theconclusionofinter-seagreementsispermissible,eveniftheyfallwithintheCommunitycompetence,aslongasco-operationiscompliantwithCommunitylawanddoesnotimpedeEUco-operationorpolicymaking.

PrimaryEClaw(theTreaties,directivesandregulations)haspriorityoverconflictingnationallaw,includinginternationalagreements,unlesstherightsofathirdcountryareaffected.However,thelegallimitofMemberStateactionininter-seagreementsisfoundinthedutyofco-operationinArticle4LisbonTEU(exArticle10TEC).Statesmaynotuseintergovernmentalco-operationthattheyhaveestablishedamongthemselvesasanargumenttoimpedethedevelopmentofanEUpolicy.

AgreementsconcludedbyaMemberStatefollowingitsaccessiontotheEUmustrespectEClaw.

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Chapter 4. Other Sources of NormsInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

4b. International Agreements

The1970Recommendation of the Customs Co-operation Council to Expedite the Forwarding of Relief Consignments in the Event of DisasterswaspartiallyintegratedintospecificannexesoftheInternationalConventiononthesimplificationandharmonizationofCustomsprocedures(KyotoConvention)of1974(andrevisedin2000).Itsprovisionsrecommendthatpartieswaiveexportandimportconditionsregardingreliefconsignmentsandare largelymirroredinAnnexesB3andJ5.TheConventionalsotakesintoaccounttheUNOCHAModelCustomsFacilitationAgreementbetweentheUNandaStateorGovernment,whichprovidesmeasurestoexpeditetheimport/exportandtransitofreliefconsignments,aswellasthepersonalitemsofreliefpersonnel.

The UN Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations (1946) and theConvention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies(1947)areanexpansionofArticles104and105oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsthatclarifythelegalstatus,rightsandprivilegesandimmunitiesofUNpersonnelandspecializedagenciessuchastheInternationalLabourOrganizationortheInternationalMonetaryFund.Itismuchliketheprivilegesandim-munitiesprotocoloftheTECinthatitdeterminesthestatusofUNproperty,MemberStaterepre-sentativestotheUNandUNofficials,andsetsouttherulesapplyingtotheUNLaissez-Passer.180Onehundredfifty-sevenstatesarepartytothe1946Convention,while116statesarepartytotheConventionrelatingtoSpecializedAgencies.

TheConvention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel(1994)anditsOptional Protocol(2005)appliestoUNoperations:“(i)wheretheoperationisforthepurposeofmain-tainingorrestoringinternationalpeaceandsecurity;or(ii)wheretheSecurityCouncilortheGeneralAssemblyhasdeclared,forpurposesoftheConvention,thatthereexistsanexceptionalrisktothesafetyofthepersonnelparticipatingintheoperation”.181TheConventionisnarrowlyfocusedanddoesnotapply tootherpeacekeepingmissions.Therefore, in2005, theGeneralAssemblyadoptedtheOptionalProtocolinordertoexpandthescopeoftheConventiontoUNandassociatedpersonnel“deliveringemergencyhumanitarianassistanceorprovidinghumani-tarian,politicalordevelopmentassistanceinpeacebuilding”.182TheConventionenteredintoforceon15January1999andcurrentlyhas87parties;theProtocolhas18parties,butisnotyetinforce.

TheTampere Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for Disaster Mitigation and Relief Operations(1999)establishesaframeworkforfacilitatingtheuseoftelecommunica-tionsresourcesintheeventofadisasterbyrequiringstatepartiestoreduceorremoveanybarrierstobringingtelecommunicationsequipmentacrossbordersduringandafteradisaster.Itrequiresstates,non-stateentitiesandintergovernmentalorganisationstoco-operatetofacilitatetheuseoftelecommunicationresourcesfordisastermitigationandrelief.Italsoincludesprovisionforconfer-ringthenecessaryprivilegesandimmunitiesondisasterreliefpersonnel.Therearecurrentlyonly37parties,including25EUMemberStates.Ithasbeeninforcesince8January2005.

TheConvention on Temporary Admission (Istanbul Convention)(1990)isaconsolidationofsev-eralagreementsrelatingtotemporaryadmission.AnnexAconcernstemporaryadmissionpapersandreplacestheA.T.A.Conventionof1961.AnnexB.2coversprofessionalequipment,forex-ample,transmissionandcommunicationequipment.AnnexB.9allowsthefreeimportationofgoodsimportedforhumanitarianpurposessuchasreliefconsignmentsandmedicalequipment,as

180. The UN Laissez-Passer is a travel document issued by the United Nations to its staff which can be used like a national

passport (in connection with travel on official missions for the United Nations only). 181. Article 1(c). 182. Article II.1.

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longastheyareintendedforre-export.AnnexCcoverstemporaryadmissionofmeansoftrans-port.AnnexDallowsforthetemporaryadmissionofrescueanimals.Ithasbeeninforcesince27November1993.TheConventionhas51parties;theECbecameapartyin1993.183

TheConvention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accidentwasadoptedin1986followingtheChernobylnuclearplantaccident.ItestablishesanotificationsystemfornuclearaccidentsthatarecapableofhavinginternationaltransboundaryeffectandrequiresStatestoreportthetime,locationandtypeofreleaseinconnectionwiththeaccidenteitherdirectlytotheaffectedStatesorthroughtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency.TheConventionhas105parties;EuratombecameapartytotheConventionin2005.184Atthesametime,theConvention on Assistance in the Case of Nuclear Accident or Radiological EmergencywasadoptedundertheauspicesoftheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyandhasbeeninforcesince1986.ThisConventionestablishesaframeworkforinternationalco-operationtofacilitateassistanceandsupportintheeventofaradiologicalornuclearemergency.StateshavetonotifytheAgencyoftheiravailablereliefresources,suchasexpertsandequipment,anddecidewhetheritiscapableofrespondingtoanyrequestsforassist-ance.TheAgencyfunctionsastheco-ordinatorbetweenStatesinthisregard.TheConventionhas103parties;EuratomaccededtothisConventionin2005.185

The1992Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidentsenteredintoforceon19April2000andhas37parties,includingtheEC.186ItoperatesundertheframeworkoftheUNEconomicCommissionforEurope.TheConventionappliestoallindustrialaccidentscapableofhavingtransboundaryeffects,includingaccidentscausedbynaturaldisasters,except:

n nuclearaccidentsorradiologicalemergencies;n accidentsatmilitaryinstallations;n damfailures;n land-basedtransportaccidents;n accidentalreleaseofgenetically-modifiedorganisms;andn accidentscausedbyactivitiesinthemarineenvironment.

TheConventionoperatesagainstaframeworkofco-operationandinformationexchange.ItobligestheContractingPartiestoidentifyhazardousactivitieswithintheirjurisdictionandtoinformanyaffectedpartiesastotheirintentiontoconductsuchactivities.ThePartiesarealsorequiredtoestab-lishasystemofnotificationandtodesignateasinglepointofcontacttoreceiveandsendnotifications.

The1968Vienna Convention on Road Trafficreplacedthe1949GenevaConventiononRoadTrafficandisaimedatfacilitatinginternationalroadtrafficandincreasingroadsafety.Itpro-videsthatContractingPartiesmustrecognisethelegalityofvehiclesfromothersignatorycoun-triesandimposesobligationsonsignatoriesregardingthedisplayofvehicleregistrationnumbers.TheConventionenteredintoforceon21May1977.Itcurrentlyhas68parties,including24EUMemberStates.TheConventionhasbeensupplementedbytheEuropean Agreement Supplementing the Convention on Road Traffic,adoptedon1May1971andenteringintoforceon7June1979.Thislateragreementhas33parties,including22EUMemberStates.

183. Council Decision 93/329/EEC concerning the conclu-sion of the Convention on Temporary Admission and accepting its annexes. 184. Decision 2005/844/Euratom concerning the accession of the European Atomic Energy Community to the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident. 185. Council Decision 2005/845/Euratom concerning the

accession of the European Atomic Energy Community to the Convention on Assistance in the case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency 186. Council Decision 98/685/EC concerning the conclusion of the Convention on the Transbo-unary Effects of Industrial Accidents.

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Regardingmedicines,threeUNConventionsarerelevant.TheSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs(1961)andtheConvention on Psychotropic Substances(1971)areaimedatcreatinganinternationalsystemforthecontrolandmonitoringoftheproductionofnarcoticdrugsandpsychotropicsub-stances.Together,theConventionsprohibitanyuseorpossessionofscheduledsubstancesandcallonStatesPartiestotheconventionstocriminalizetheseandrelatedoffences.BothConventionsincludeanexceptionforuseofthesubstanceswhenexclusivelyintendedformedicalpurposes.187The1961Conventionenteredintoforceon8August1975andcurrentlyhas153parties,including24EUMemberStates.188The1971Conventionenteredintoforceon16August1976andhas183parties,includingalltheEUMemberStates,butnottheECitself.

TheUN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic SubstancesrequiresStatesPartiestocriminalizecertainactsrelatingtotheactionsprohibitedunderthe1961and1971UNConventions.Althoughthe1988Conventiondoesnotcitemedicalpurposesasanexplicitexception,becausesuchusageispermissibleundertheearlierconventions,suchuseisalsopossibleunderthe1988Convention.The1988Conventionenteredintoforceon11November1990andcurrentlyhas184parties,includingtheECitself.189

4c. Regional Agreements

TheEUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement(PartialAgreementonthePreventionof,ProtectionAgainst,andOrganizationofReliefinMajorNaturalandTechnologicalDisasters)wasdraftedbytheCouncilofEuropein1987soastoestablishaforumforco-operationbetweenEasternEurope,WesternEuropeandtheSouthernMediterraneanregion.Itsmainobjectiveisto“makeamultidisciplinarystudyoftheco-operationmethodsforthepreventionof,protectionagainst,andorganisationofreliefinmajorandtechnologicaldisasters”.TheAgreementisaso-called‘partial’agreementandisthereforenotaformalinternationaltreaty,butratheramethodofcooperationwithintheCouncilofEurope.Ithasaunilateralaccessionmechanism.Todate,ithas25membersandtheEuropeanCommissionhas‘participant’status.190

TheEuropean Convention on EstablishmentwasdraftedbytheCouncilofEuropestatesin1955andenteredintoforceon23February1965.TheConventionguaranteesseveralbenefitstona-tionalsoftheContractingPartiessuchasfacilitatedentryfortemporaryvisitsandfreetravel,equaltreatmentwithrespecttothepossessionandexerciseofprivaterights,therighttoengageingainfulemploymentandlegalandjudicialprotection.TheConventionhasbeensignedby12EUMemberStatesandratifiedbyten.

The European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations(1986)hasbeeninforcesince1January1991andappearstobethesoleinternationalinstrumentpertainingtotherecognitionofforeignNGOs;however,itonlyhas11ratifications.Itprovidesamethodfortherecognitionof“associations,foundationsandotherprivateinstitutions”satisfyingcertainconditionsviaproductionoftheNGO’smemorandumandarticlesofassociation.

187. art 4.c, 1961 Convention; art 5.2, 1971 Convention. 188. Estonia, Malta and Slovenia are neither signatories nor parties to the Convention. 189. Council Decision 90/611/EEC concerning the conclusion, on behalf of the European Eco-nomic Community, of the United Nations Convention against

Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. 190. A list of acceding states is available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeTableauAP.asp?AP=6&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG. .

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In 1996, under a programme entitled the Central European Initiative, the governments ofAustria,Croatia,Hungary,Italy,PolandandSloveniaconcludedtheCooperation Agreement on the Forecast, Prevention and Mitigation of Natural and Technological DisastersviatheCentralEuropeanInitiative.191Co-operationundertheagreementisbasedontheexchangeofscientificandtechnicalinformation,commonresearchprogrammesandexperttrainingwithaviewtowardsettingupcommonprogrammesonCivilProtectionandDisasterManagement.192Theagreemententeredintoforceon1August1994.

TheEU Euro-Med Civil Protection BridgeisaprogrammeestablishedbytheEU.Thefirstphaseoftheprogrammetookplacefrom2003to2008andsoughttostrengthenthecivilprotectioncapacitiesintheMediterraneanregionthroughinformationandexpertexchangeandtheprovisionoftechnicalassistanceinthecontextofprevention,riskreductionandresponsecapacity.AnewprogrammehasbeenfundedbytheEUfrom2008to2011whichfocusesmorespecificallyonpre-ventionissues.193OthersimilarprogrammesundertheumbrellaoftheEUincludeTheNorthernDimensionandtheCounciloftheBalticSeaStates.The Northern Dimension 194wasestablishedin1999andincludesanEnvironmentalPartnershipwhichseekstostrengthenthedialoguebetweentheEU,Norway,IcelandandtheRussianFederation.TheEnvironmentalPartnershipfocusesonnuclearsafetyandnaturalresources.The Council of the Baltic Sea Stateswasestablishedin1992andconsistsofthe11statesoftheBalticSearegionaswellastheEuropeanCommissionandwasformedwiththeoverarchingpurposeofregionalinter-governmentalco-operation.195Ithasexperi-encedsuccessinfieldssuchasnuclearsafetyandthefacilitationofcross-borderco-operation.The Barents Euro-Arctic CouncilinvolvingNorway,Finland,RussiaandSwedenissimilar.196

EU Member States Bulgaria, Greece and Romania are, together with Albania, Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Ukraine,RussiaandMoldova,parties totheAgreement of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) on Collaboration in Emergency Assistance and Emergency Response to Natural and Manmade Disasters,concludedin1998.197Theagreementenablesthepassageofassist-anceacrosstheterritoryofthestatespartiesandestablishesbodiesandfocalpointsfornotificationandco-ordinationofassistanceincaseofemergencies.Furthermore,theagreementprovidesforfreemedicalassistance,foodandaccommodationfortheassistingpartyaswellassimplifiedbordercrossingprocedures.Itreferstoquarantinerulesforsearchdogteamsandexemptsequipmentandgoodsofassistancefromcustomsduties,taxesandfees.Finally,itexemptsemergencyoperationsaircraftfromroyaltiesforlanding,parkingandtakingoff.Therearealsoprovisionsregardingthebearingofcosts,thewaivingofdamageclaimsandtheprotectionofpersonaldata.

In2005, sevenEUMemberStates signed theConvention on the Stepping Up of Cross-Border Cooperation, Particularly in Combating Terrorism, Cross-Border Crime and Illegal Migration, or the ‘Prüm Treaty’.198ThePrümTreatyisfocusedonmutualexchangeoflawenforcementinformationsuchasDNAprofiles,fingerprintdata,vehicleregistrationdataandotherbitsofpersonaldata.MostrelevanttothisstudyisArticle26,whichprovidesforco-operationinconnectiontomajorevents,disastersandseriousaccidents.Itprovidesforpromptnotificationofanyseriousevent,

191. Information on the Initiative is available at: http://www.ceinet.org/. 192. Article 1. 193. More information on the Euro-Med Bridge is available at: http://www.euromedinfo.eu/site.313.content.en.html. 194. More information on the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership is available at: http://www.ndep.org/home.asp. 195. More information on the Council of the Baltic Sea States is available at: http://www.cbss.org/. 196. More information on the Barents Euro-Arctic

Council is available at: http://www.beac.st/contentparser.asp?deptid=25225. 197. Available at: http://www.ifrc.org/Docs/idrl/I260EN.pdf, last visited 17 August 2009. 198. One year later, the Administrative and Technical imple-menting Agreement to the Prüm Convention was signed in order to make operative certain technical matters of the Treaty. The text has not been published.

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co-ordinationofpolicemeasures,andthedispatchofassistingofficers,specialists,advisersandequipmentifanaffectedStaterequestssuchassistance.In2008,theEUadoptedCouncilDecision2008/615/JHA199recognizingthesubstantiveprovisionsofthePrümTreatyandincorporatingthemintothelegalframeworkoftheEUtherebymakingthemapplicabletotheMemberStates.

4d. Bilateral Agreements between Member States

ThereisamultitudeofbilateralagreementsonmutualdisasterreliefassistanceinEurope.InthisReport,abroadoverviewofthetreatiesthatwerepubliclyavailableandaccessibletotheresearcherswillbepresented.AmoredetailedexaminationofbilateralagreementsbetweenMemberStateswillbepresentedintheindividualnationalreports.

From27EUMemberStates,23werefoundtobepartiestoatleastonebilateralormultilateralagreementonmutualassistanceincivilprotectionordisasterandaccidentoperationsonEUter-ritory.ExceptionsareCyprus,Malta200IrelandandtheUnitedKingdom.ThepostColdWarerahasresultedinseveralbilateraldisasterreliefagreementsinCentralandEasternEurope.Austria,Belgium,FranceandGermanyhaveconcludedagreementswithalltheirEuropeanneighbours.

Theresearchcovered33bilateralagreementsconcludedbetween1973and2002.201Theinstru-mentsrangefromrathervaguegeneraldeclarationsongoodneighbourlyrelations,traininganddataexchange,todetailedtreatiesregulatingthecrossingofcommonbordersofpersonnelandmaterial,dataprotection,exemptionoftaxesandcustomsdutiesandtherepatriationofevacuees.Mostofthemregulatethecompensationofcostsaswellasdeath,injuryanddamageclaims.202

WithaviewtoPartVoftheIDRLGuidelines,thefollowingobservationscanbemade:

i. Personnel

Therulesareinconsistent.Someagreementswaivevisa,residenceandworkpermitrequirementscompletelyfordisasterreliefoperationpersonnel.Othersdonotregulatetheareaatallorarelessspecific,referringtoquickandminimalformalitiesorgrantingfreeaccesstoemergencysites.Teammembersandteamleadersareusuallyrequiredtopresentapieceofidentityoracertificate(permission)issuedbytherequestingstate.InonlyonecasedoestheagreementreferdirectlytotheSchengenacquis.

ii. Goods and Equipment

Mostagreementsprovideforthefacilitationofentryandexitofgoodsandequipmentingeneralterms,reducingfrontiercrossingformalitiestotheabsoluteminimum.Somewaiveimport/export/transitdocumentsandothersexpresslyexemptequipmentfromallduties,tariffsandcharges.Inmostcases,alistofmaterialshastobeshowntotheborderauthorities.Therulesareratherhetero-geneous;13outof33agreementsfounddonotregulatethesubjectmatteratall.

199. Council Decision 2008/615/JHA on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism and cross-border crime. 200. Cyprus and Malta are part of the Co-operation group for the Prevention of, Protection Against, and Organisatin of Relief in Major Natural and Technological Disasters of the European Council (status as of 24 June 2009, see www.conventions.coe.int; see also Council of Europe Resolution

(87)2 as of 20 March 1987. 201. See Annex III for a com-plete table of these bilateral agreements. No agreements have been concluded past 2002. 202. Bochum University for the IFRC, ‘A Preliminary Overview and Analysis of Existing Treaty Law: Summary of the report conducted by Professor Horst Fischer’, January 2003, available at: http://www.ifrc.org/docs/pubs/disasters/idrl_lawtreaty.pdf.

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iii. Special Goods and Equipment

Inseveralcases,agreementsexemptnarcoticdrugsand/orpsychotropicsubstancesfromnationallegislationregardingimportandexportanduseofsuchsubstances.Telecommunication,licenses,theapprovalofmedication,labellingetc.aregenerallynotregulatedtotheextentrecommendedbytheGuidelines.

iv. Transport (speedy passage of land, marine and air vehicles)

Inmostagreements,thereareexplicitprovisionsregulatingtheuseofairspace,overflightandlandingrightsaswellasthefree-of-chargeuseofairfieldsandairports,and,inonecase,theex-emptionofmotorwayandtunnelfees.MorerecentagreementswaivevehiclepermitsormandatoryinsurancerequiredinaMemberState.Seventeenagreementsdonotregulatethesubjectmatteratall.

v. Temporary domestic legal status and Taxation (VAT)

Theseareasareleftunregulatedbyallagreements.

vi. Security

Insomeagreements,therequestingstategrantstheprovisionoffood,temporaryaccommodationandmedicaltreatmentfortheemergencypersonneloftheassistingstate.

vii. Extended Hours

Noagreementcontainsregulationsregardingthisissue.

viii. Costs

Twentyoutof33agreementscontainprovisionsregardingtheallocationofcostscausedbythedisasterreliefoperations.Costsaresometimesbornebytherequestingstate,sometimesbytheas-sistingstate.Inmostagreements,thepartiesmutuallywaiveclaimsfordamagescausedduringtheperformanceoftheoperations.

4e. Bilateral Agreements with Third States

i. United States

In1990theEUandtheUnitedStatessignedtheTransatlanticDeclarationonEC-USRelationsthatprovidesaframeworkforco-operationthroughregularpresidentialsummits.Whilethisagreementdoesnotenvisionco-operationinthefieldofdisasterresponse,theCommunityCPMwasactivatedintheUnitedStatesafterHurricaneKatrinaandrepresentativesfromtheMIChavemetwiththeUSFederalEmergencyManagementAgencyonanumberofoccasions.

203. The Road Maps are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/russia/common_spaces/index_en.htm.

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ii. Russia

In2005theEUandRussiaenteredintopackageagreementofso-called‘roadmaps’,203whichestab-lishedandimplementedfourcommonspaces:economics;freedom,securityandjustice;researchandeducation;andexternalsecurity.Civilprotectionco-operationwithRussiafallsunderthecommonspaceofexternalsecurity.TheRoadMapfortheCommonSpaceofExternalSecuritycites“strengtheneddialogueandco-operationonthe internationalscene”asoneof itsobjec-tivesalongside“co-operationincivilprotection”.204TheRoadMapstatesthattheobjectisto“strengthenEU-Russiadialogueandco-operationtopromotecommonabilitytorespondtodis-asterandemergencies,includinginspecificcrisismanagementsituations”throughtheexchangeofexpertinformation,co-ordinationofcapabilities,continueddiscussiononconcreteareasofco-operationsuchascivilprotectionandassistanceinresponsetonaturaldisasters,sharingofles-sonslearnedfromterroristattacks,andthefacilitationofmutualassistanceinsearchandrescueoperations.205

iii. Ukraine

TheEUand theUkrainehave explicitly endeavoured to co-operate closely in the sphereofcivilprotection.TheMICandtheMinistryofUkraineofEmergenciesandAffairsofPopularProtectionhaveconcludedanadministrativeagreementprovidingforinformationexchangeduringemergencies,includingofoperationalcontactdetails,andforjointcommunicationexercises.206

iv. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

TheparticipationoftheFormerYugoslavRepublicofMacedoniaintheCommunityMechanismwillbepossibleonceaMemorandumofUnderstandingissigned.Thisisexpectedbytheendof2009.

v. Canada, Iceland, Norway, Turkey

Throughitscommonforeignandsecuritypolicy,theEUhas,basedonArticle37LisbonTEU(exArticle24TEU),concludedagreementswithCanada,Iceland,Norway,TurkeyandRomania(beforeitsaccession),establishingaframeworkfortheparticipationofthesecountriesinEUci-viliancrisismanagementoperations.Thoseoperationscanalsoincludecivilprotection.However,theseagreementsregulatetheparticipationofthirdcountriesinoperationsoutsidetheEUter-ritory.TheydonotprovideforanymutualassistanceofthecontractingpartiesindisasterreliefoperationswithintheEU.

Inadditiontotheabovebilateralagreementswiththirdstates,itshouldbenotedthattheMemberStatesthemselveshaveenteredintobilateralagreementswiththirdstatesinthecontextofdisasteras-sistance.DetailsoftheseagreementsarediscussedinthereportsofthenationalRedCrossSocieties.

ItshouldberecalledthatthelegitimacyofanyinternationalagreementtheMemberStatesmakeoutsidethecontextoftheEUisgenerallydependentuponwhethertheagreementwasconcluded

204. Road Map pp 40, 44. 205. ibid. 206. At the time of writing, the text of this agreement could not be located; however, information about the EU-Ukraine co-operation is available at: http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/neigh-bourhood/country-cooperation/ukraine/ukraine_en.htm

and a discussion of the signing can be found in the 2009 Progress Report Ukraine published by the Commission on 23/04/09. As it has the status of an ‘administrative’ agreement; it is unclear whether the text is available to the public.

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beforeoraftertheentryintoforceoftheTECin1958.Wheretheagreementwasconcludedpriorto1958andiswithathirdcountry,theagreementwillnotbeaffectedbytheLisbonTreaty.AgreementsbetweenMemberStatesarepermissibleaslongas:(1)theagreementiscompliantwithexistingCommunitylaw,and(2)theagreementdoesnotimpedeEUco-operationorpolicymaking.

Furthermore,wherethereisaconflictbetweeninternationalagreementsandprimaryEClaw(e.g.,theTreaties,directivesandregulations),primaryEClawhaspriorityunlesstherightsofathirdcountryareaffectedVI.


Chapter 5: Conclusion

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Chapter 5. Conclusion

5

Chapter 5Conclusion

ThisreporthasdemonstratedthewaysinwhichEUlegislationrelatestothesubjectmatteroftheIDRLGuidelines.ThefactthattheEuropeanCommunityisfoundedontheideaofacommonmarketwithfreemovementofgoods,services,personsandcapitalmeansthatpeopleanditemsoriginatingfromEUMemberStatescanfreelytravelacrossEUterritorywithoutbeingsubjecttotheconstraintsthatapplyinthecaseofthirdcountrynationals.Furthermore,asdiscussedinPartII.d,EUlegislationdiscussedinthisreportcouldbebindingonprivateactors,suchasNationalRedCrossSocietiesornon-governmentalorganisations,iftheiroperationsconcernthesubjectmattertoucheduponbythelegislation.ItmayalsocreaterightsthatmaybeassertedbyprivateindividualsorbodiesagainsttheStateorindividuals.

Inseveralareas,EUlawcorresponds,atleastpartially,totheproposedprinciplesintheGuidelines:

n TheEUCPMandtheMICprovideaframeworkforco-operationthatincludesmech-anismsforprevention,notificationandresponsethatcorrespondtoPartsIIandIIIoftheGuidelinescallingforearlywarningproceduresandproceduresfortheinitiationandterminationofreliefandnotification(PartIII.ainfra).

n Section16oftheIDRLGuidelinesconcerningexpeditedorfreevisaandworkpermitpro-ceduresisnotrelevantforEUcitizensunderthegeneralprovisionsforfreemovementofpersonsandworkers.EUlegislationallowsMemberStatestoexemptreliefpersonnelfromnon-EUMemberStatesfromthevisarequirementintheeventofadisasteroraccident(PartIII.b.iinfra).

n TheoverallframeworkforfreemovementofpeopleundertheTECallowsEUcitizenstoresideinanyEUMemberStatewiththesameprivaterightsavailabletothenationalsofthatstate.ThisissimilartothewaythatSection20oftheIDRLGuidelinesenvisionsthatAffectedStatesshouldallowassistingorganisationsandtheiractorstemporarydomesticlegalstatus(PartIII.b.iiinfra).

n EUlegislationprovidesfortherecognitionofprofessionalqualificationsforseveralprofes-sions,includingdoctors,architectsandengineers,whohaveobtainedtheirqualificationsinotherEUMemberStates,andinsomecases,fromoutsidetheEU.ItalsorequiresthatMemberStatespermitthetemporaryprovisionofservices(regulatedundertherelevantEUlegislation)byapersonestablishedinanotherMemberState.However,theproceduresapplicabletosuchrecognitionarecanbetime-consumingwithoutexceptionforemer-gencysituations.Section16oftheIDRLGuidelinesisaimedatthistypeofmeasure(PartIII.b.iiinfra).

n CustomsandVATlegislationattheEClevelgoessomewaytosatisfythestandardsinsections17,18and21oftheGuidelinesrelatingtoexemptionfromcustomsdutiesandVATofgoodscomingfrombothwithinandoutsideoftheEUthatareintendedforreliefandthosegoodsintendedtomeettheneedsofdisasterreliefagenciesduringtheiractivityintheaffectedstate.Certainothergoodsarealsoexempt,includingmedical,surgicalandlaboratoryequipmentthatisintendedfortemporaryimportintotheEUcustomsterritory(PartIII.b.iiiinfra).

n Section17oftheIDRLGuidelinescontemplatestheexemptionfromorsimplificationofcustomsandtaxationproceduresapplicabletogoods,includingfood.EUfoodlawisconcernedprimarilywithfoodqualitystandardsforpurposesofmarketingandsaletoconsumersthatareapplicabletoanyfooditemsproducedwithinorenteringtheEUfrom

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Chapter 5. ConclusionInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

thirdcountries.However,undercustomsandtaxationrules,foodisconsidereda‘good’thatwouldreceivefavourabletreatmentifshippedasdisasterreliefaid(PartIII.b.ivinfra).

n Section17oftheIDRLGuidelinesalsoconsidersrulesrelatingtotheimportationofmedicines.Likefoodlaw,EUpharmaceuticalslawimposesobligationsrelatingtomanu-factureandqualitythatmustbeensuredinproductsmanufacturedinsideandoutsideoftheEU.Undercustomsandtaxationrules,pharmaceuticalswouldbetreatedasa‘good’forcustomsreliefpurposesifintendedasaidinadisastersituation(PartIII.b.vinfra).

n Section17oftheIDRLGuidelinesmayalsoapplytotheimportationofcertaincontrolledsubstancestoaidindisasterrelief.TheEUhaslimitedcompetencetolegislateintheareaofcontrolledsubstances;competenceismostlylefttotheMemberStateswhoaremembersofthethreeUNConventionsondrugs,psychotropicsubstancesandillegaltraffickinginnarcotics.TheseConventionsallowanexceptiontotheprohibitionofuseofcertaincontrolledsubstancesformedicalpurposes,whichwouldbeapplicableintimesofdisaster(PartIII.b.vandPartIV.binfra).

n EUlegislationconcerningtheentryintoEUterritoryofanimalsfromwithintheEUgoessomewaytofulfillingtheaimofSection18oftheIDRLGuidelinesrelatingtotheimpor-tationofspecialgoodsbyprovidingamechanismforthefreecirculationofpetanimals(e.g.snifferdogs)intheCommunitywithoutlengthybordercontrols.Althoughthereisnospecificregimeapplicabletosnifferdogs,ifthedogssatisfytherequirementsofthepetsregulationandare‘Community’animals,theycanmovefreelybetweentheMemberStates(PartIII.b.viinfra).

n Speedypassageofland,marineandairvehiclesisthesubjectofSection19oftheIDRLGuidelinesandismettosomeextentbytheEU’scommontransportpolicy.Air,landandseavehiclesregisteredwithintheCommunityareallowedaccesstotheEUterritorybasedonprinciplesofmutualrecognitionandnon-discrimination.Thereisalsosomediscussionoftheavailabilityofemergencymeasuresinrelationtoairtransportandexemptionsfromauthorisationproceduresforthecarriageofdisasterreliefmaterialsbyroad(PartIII.b.viiinfra).

n Section18oftheIDRLGuidelinesdiscussesreducedbarrierstoaccesstotelecommunica-tionsandinformationtechnology.EClegislationregulatingelectroniccommunicationsprovidesaframeworkforaccessandauthorisationthatisaimedatstrengtheningcompeti-tionthroughtheUnioninthissector.TheECAuthorisationDirectivemakesprovisionforconditionalauthorisationtoensurecommunicationbetweenemergencyservicesandauthoritiesduringtimesofdisaster(PartIII.b.viii).

n Section23oftheIDRLGuidelinesrelatingtoextendedhoursispartiallysatisfiedinthisregardbyEClegislationonworkingtimethatallowsfordiscretionaryderogationsfromthemaximumworkingweektimeforessentialservices(PartIII.b.xinfra).

Consideringtheabove,itisclearthatEUlegislationasitcurrentlystands,alreadymeetstheob-jectivesoftheIDRLGuidelinesinmanyrespects.However,thereareseveralgaps,specificallyinrelationtopeopleandthingsoriginatingfromnon-EUMemberStates.Whilesomeofthelegis-lationaboveconsidersthisissue(i.e.,customsandVATrulesandsomelegislationregardingentryvisas)mostlegislationeitherdoesnotprovideforexpeditedproceduresintheeventofadisaster,ordoesnotmentionthecaseofdisasteratall.Moreover,theredoesnotappeartobeanylegislationrelevanttothefollowingareasintheeventofadisaster:

n Importationofmedicinesindisastersituationsbymethodsotherthanroadcarriage;n Safetyandsecurityofdisasterreliefpersonnelandorganisations;n Temporaryrecognitionofforeignregistrationplates;

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Chapter 5. Conclusion

n Extendedhoursprovisionsexpresslyrelatedtodisasterscenarios;n Provisionsregardingcriteriaforassistinghumanitarianorganisationsseekingeligibilityfor

legalfacilities;n Provisionsundertheair,railandseatransportpolicyregardingexpeditedorexempted

authorisationproceduresandprovisionsrelatingtoaccessbythirdcountryoperators;n ExemptionsrelatingtotheamountofcashindividualscanbringintotheEUintimesof

publicemergencyordisaster;n Expeditedproceduresorexemptionsrelatingtosnifferdogscomingfromthirdcountries

andseekingentryintotheEU;andn ProvisionsrelatingtotheIDRLGuidelinesqualitystandards.

However,onemustconsiderthecharacteroftheIDRLGuidelines.TheGuidelinesincludepro-visionsaffectingseveralareasoflaw,fromgeneralcivilprotectionandtransport,tocustomsandimmigrationlaw.AsdiscussedintheintroductiontothisReport,EUcompetencetolegislateineachoftheseareasdiffers,asdothelegalbasesandassociateddecision-makingprocedures.WhileseveraloftheconsiderationsoftheIDRLGuidelineswerefoundinvariousEUlegislativepol-icies,theywerespreadacrossseveraldocumentsandareasofcompetence.ThereisnotoneunifieddocumentunderEUlawthatprovidesforallofthemeasurescontainedintheIDRLGuidelines.WhiletheCPMprovidesageneralframeworkforco-operation,itdoesnotincludeanyoftheoper-ationalrulesthatnecessarilycomeintoplayduringareliefoperation.ThisisbecausesuchrulesarebeyondthescopeoftheMechanismandfallintootherareasofECcompetence.ItshouldalsoberecalledthatEUlegislationcomprisesanentirelegalsystemencompassingmanyareasoflaw,eachdevelopingatadifferentpaceaccordingtotheapplicablecompetencies.Evenwithinspecificareas,suchastheinternalmarket,competencetoactandthelegalbasisforactionmaydiffersothatsomeareashavebecomemoreadvancedthanothersandconsistofhigherlevelsofregulationbytheEU.

Thesefactorspartlyexplainthelackofintegrationofdisasterconsiderationsintoalltheareasoflawwhereactionasbeentaken.AsidefromthebasicCPMlegislation,alloftheoperationallegislationdiscussedinthisReporthasbeenprimarilyaimedatotherobjectives,mostnotablythefunctioningoftheinternalmarketandfreedomofmovement.Itisnotdraftedwiththeissuesas-sociatedwithdisasterresponseinmind.Therefore,disasterreliefconsiderationsarenotintegratedintoallareasofCommunitypolicyinthewaythatenvironmentalprotectionrequirementshavebeenintegratedunderArticle6TEC.Consequently,provisionsrelevanttointernationalassistanceindisasterhavebeenscatteredamongvariouspiecesoflegislationobviouslyrelevanttodisaster,suchascustomslawandimmigrationrules,butoftenomittedfromotherlegislationthatisstillapplicabletodisastersrequiringinternationalassistance,suchasrulesonanimalquarantineorrulesconcerninggoodsorpeoplecomingfromnon-EUMemberStates.EvenwhereprovisionsoftheIDRLGuidelinesarecoveredbyEClegislation,theymostoftendonotspecificallyrelatetodisasterscenariosormakeitclearthatthereshouldbeexceptionsorexpeditedproceduresincaseofdisaster.

5

64

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Annex 1 | Consulted Parties

Annex IConsulted Parties

ThefollowingpeoplewereconsultedinconnectionwiththisStudy:

1. MrHansDas,DeputyHeadofUnit,CivilProtection,DGEnvironment,EuropeanCommission

2. MsEsméDobson,CivilProtection,DGEnvironment,EuropeanCommission3. MrTimGordon,UKCSDR/RGR/TORPolicyAdvisor,HMRCCustoms

&InternationalDirectorate4. ProfessorMargotHorspool,ProfessorialFellow,BritishInstituteofInternational

andComparativeLaw5. MsHélèneKlein,DGHealthandConsumers,EuropeanCommission6. MrGüntherEttl,DGEnergyandTransport,EuropeanCommission7. MrBrendanHughes,EuropeanLegalDatabaseonDrugs,EuropeanMonitoringCentre

forDrugsandDrugAddiction8. EuropeanFoodandVeterinaryOffice,DGHealthandConsumers,European

Commission

Additionally,thereportwasreviewedandcommentedonby:

1. MrHansDas,DeputyHeadofUnit,CivilProtection,DGEnvironment,EuropeanCommission

2. MsEsméDobson,CivilProtection,DGEnvironment,EuropeanCommission

65


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ncil

of t

he B

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tes

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opea

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nio

nO

ver-

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ing

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po

se is

re

gio

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-gov

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l co

-op

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ber

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e E

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om

mis

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d t

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1 B

altic

Sea

sta

tes;

si

nce

1992

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ents

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ram

me

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g N

orw

ay, F

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ussi

a an

d

Sw

eden

(199

3)

74


Annex 3 | Bilateral Agreements between EU Member StatesA

nnex

3B

ilate

ral A

gre

emen

ts b

etw

een

EU

Mem

ber

Sta

tes

Bila

tera

l A

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ned

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nn

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eed

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atu

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ex

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ost

s b

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ver

of

dam

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ty o

n m

utua

l as-

sist

ance

in t

he e

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aste

rs o

r se

rious

ac

cid

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tria

, C

zech

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3726

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rk

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mits

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erm

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75


Annex 3 | Bilateral Agreements between EU Member States3

Bila

tera

l A

gre

emen

tE

U-

Sta

tes

Sig

ned

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TS

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oni

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eden

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278

min

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es

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y/ex

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arg

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3106

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aivi

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76


Annex 3 | Bilateral Agreements between EU Member StatesB

ilate

ral

Ag

reem

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EU

-S

tate

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ign

edU

NT

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Ger

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/9/1

997

77


Annex 3 | Bilateral Agreements between EU Member States3

Bila

tera

l A

gre

emen

tE

U-

Sta

tes

Sig

ned

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TS

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435

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926

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The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Crossand Red Crescent Movement

HumanityThe International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, born of a desireto bring assistance without discrimination to the wounded on the battle-field, endeavours, in its international and national capacity, to prevent andalleviate human suffering wherever it may be found. Its purpose is to pro-tect life and health and to ensure respect for the human being. It promotesmutual understanding, friendship, cooperation and lasting peace amongstall peoples.

ImpartialityIt makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class orpolitical opinions. It endeavours to relieve the suffering of individuals,being guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgentcases of distress.

NeutralityIn order to enjoy the confidence of all, the Movement may not take sidesin hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial,religious or ideological nature.

IndependenceThe Movement is independent. The National Societies, while auxiliaries inthe humanitarian services of their governments and subject to the laws oftheir respective countries, must always maintain their autonomy so thatthey may be able at all times to act in accordance with the principles ofthe Movement.

Voluntary serviceIt is a voluntary relief movement not prompted in any manner by desire forgain.

UnityThere can be only one Red Cross or Red Crescent Society in any onecountry. It must be open to all. It must carry on its humanitarian workthroughout its territory.

UniversalityThe International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, in which allsocieties have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties inhelping each other, is worldwide.

1933

00 0

3/20

10 E

The International Federation ofRed Cross and Red CrescentSocieties promotes thehumanitarian activities of NationalSocieties among vulnerablepeople.

By coordinating internationaldisaster relief and encouragingdevelopment support it seeks toprevent and alleviate humansuffering.

The International Federation, theNational Societies and theInternational Committee of the RedCross together constitute theInternational Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

Analysis of Law in the European Unionpertaining to Cross-Border Disaster Relief

A publication from the International Federationof Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)

For more information, please contact: [email protected]

Documents

15 Cross-border Disaster Relief Eu Report