14 .11.10 M. Galilee

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Water Quality and FishWater Quality and Fish

HealthHealth

איכות מים ומחלות דגיםאיכות מים ומחלות דגים

דר. יצחק בז'רנומגיש :

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Selye 1950Selye 1950

• General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S)General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S)– Sum of the responses activities keeping or rehabilitating normalSum of the responses activities keeping or rehabilitating normal

metabolic rate (Interaction between external stimulations andmetabolic rate (Interaction between external stimulations andphysiological mechanisms, maintaining homeostasis.).physiological mechanisms, maintaining homeostasis.).

• The G.A.S sequence can be divided to three stages. The G.A.S sequence can be divided to three stages.

• 1. Alarm reaction1. Alarm reaction stage.stage.

– Releasing Corticosteroids & Catecholamine hormonesReleasing Corticosteroids & Catecholamine hormones – – antiantiinflammatory and reacting the sympathetic system, respectively.inflammatory and reacting the sympathetic system, respectively.

• 2.2. Resistance reaction stage.Resistance reaction stage.• Characterized by internal and external activities.Characterized by internal and external activities.

• 3. Exhaustion reaction3. Exhaustion reaction stage.stage.– Over exposureOver exposure – – time, intensity or both.time, intensity or both.

– Irritation without capability to rehabilitated.Irritation without capability to rehabilitated.

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Selye 1950Selye 1950

•General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.SGeneral Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S((

סך כל התגובות המביאות למצב או שיקום מטבוליזםסך כל התגובות המביאות למצב או שיקום מטבוליזם•

פיזיולוגיים השומרים על הומהוסטזיס.פיזיולוגיים השומרים על הומהוסטזיס.נורמאלי. )אינטראקציה בין גירויים חיצוניים למנגנוניםנורמאלי. )אינטראקציה בין גירויים חיצוניים למנגנונים

רצף התגובות מאופיין בשלשה שלבים:רצף התגובות מאופיין בשלשה שלבים:•

שלב ההזעקה.1.1

– הפרשת הורמונים– הפרשת הורמונים((((Alarm reactionAlarm reactionשלב ההזעקה

קורטיקוסטרואידים וקטכולאמינים. נוגדי דלקת ומפעיליקורטיקוסטרואידים וקטכולאמינים. נוגדי דלקת ומפעיליהמערכת הסימפטתית בהתאמה.המערכת הסימפטתית בהתאמה.

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Selye 50Selye 50 (cont(cont.(.(

-- .((Resistance reactionResistance reactionשלב ההתגוננות. שלב ההתגוננות22

מאופיין בתגובות הסתגלות, פנימיות וחיצוניות.מאופיין בתגובות הסתגלות, פנימיות וחיצוניות.

.((Exhaustion reactionExhaustion reactionשלב אפיסת הכוחות. שלב אפיסת הכוחות33- המצב שלאחר גירוי ממושך מידי או גירוי בעל- המצב שלאחר גירוי ממושך מידי או גירוי בעל

עוצמה גבוהה מידי, ממנו האורגניזם לא מסוגלעוצמה גבוהה מידי, ממנו האורגניזם לא מסוגל

להשתקם.להשתקם.

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Stress and Fish DiseasesStress and Fish Diseases

Snieeszko 1957Snieeszko 1957

1+2+3

1

Fish

2

Pathogen

3

Environment

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Wedemeyer 1981Wedemeyer 1981היילס לדומל הבחרה(היילס לדומל הבחרה(

שינויים ראשוניים – הורמונאליים.שינויים ראשוניים – הורמונאליים.•

הפרשת הורמונים על ידי ההיפופיזה.הפרשת הורמונים על ידי ההיפופיזה.–

הפרשת קורטיקוסטרואידים וקטכולאמינים.הפרשת קורטיקוסטרואידים וקטכולאמינים.–

שינויים משניים – פיזיולוגיים.שינויים משניים – פיזיולוגיים.•

שינויים כימיים והמטולוגיים – שינויים כימיים והמטולוגיים – –

עליה בריכוז סוכר הדם.עליה בריכוז סוכר הדם.•עליה בריכוז החומצה הלקטית בדם.עליה בריכוז החומצה הלקטית בדם.•

שינויים בהרכב גופיפי הדם.שינויים בהרכב גופיפי הדם.•

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Wedemeyer 1981Wedemeyer 1981 (Cont(Cont.(.(

•ךשמה( םיינשמ םייונישךשמה( םיינשמ םייוניש

שינויים ברקמותשינויים ברקמות–

..CCירידה בריכוז הגליקוגן בכבד, חסר ויטמיןירידה בריכוז הגליקוגן בכבד, חסר ויטמין•

–.?( ילילש ןקנח ןזאמ – םיילובטמ םייוניש.?( ילילש ןקנח ןזאמ – םיילובטמ םייוניש

שינויים בריכוז האלקטרוליטים בדם.שינויים בריכוז האלקטרוליטים בדם.–

שינויים שלישוניים.שינויים שלישוניים.•

עיכוב גדילהעיכוב גדילה–

קושי בהטלהקושי בהטלה–

–הדידנ – תויתנוע( תויתוגהנתה תוערפההדידנ – תויתנוע( תויתוגהנתה תוערפה

עליה בשיעור התחלואה .עליה בשיעור התחלואה .–

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Research topicsResearch topics

• What is the connection betweenWhat is the connection between

stress condition and development of stress condition and development of

fish diseases.fish diseases.• Development of simulation systemDevelopment of simulation system

• Field observations and applications.Field observations and applications.

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Tilapia, Tilapia, In constant volumeIn constant volume

Phenomena of Phenomena of

““socialsocial

””

stress instress in

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Timeh

r(

Number of fish

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Changes in physical & hematologicalChanges in physical & hematological

parameters, under stress conditionparameters, under stress condition..

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

C o r t i s

o l

G l u

c o s e

L a c t a t e

R . B . C H b . H

c t .

AcuteThermal

Chronic

P

ercentageo f

normal

Cl f b t i ftCl f b t i ft

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Clearance of bacteria afterClearance of bacteria after

challengechallenge (Viable count of (Viable count of VibrioVibrio

parahaemolyticus parahaemolyticus((

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 10 20 30 40 50

Time after injection hr(

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 20 40 60

Blood

Liver

Spleen

Kidney

Bacteria

log10,Num

ber/g(

Stressed fishNon stressed fish

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The relationship of environmental conditions The relationship of environmental conditions

and other biological factors in aquacultureand other biological factors in aquaculture

that influence infectious diseases of fishthat influence infectious diseases of fish

Reduced

ResistanceInfectious diseases(

Culture

speciesStocking

density

Feeding

rate

Water

enrichment

Water qualityO2, CO2, pH,

NH3, NO2

Availability

of Fresh water

Growth

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Some variables of the infectious agent, host,Some variables of the infectious agent, host,

and the environment that influence theand the environment that influence the

potential occurrence of fish diseasespotential occurrence of fish diseases

a. Infectivity

b. Virulence

c. Pathogenicityd. Viability

e. Strain

a. Species

b. Age

c. Nutritional statusd. Physiological condition

e. Population density

a. Temperatureb. Oxygen concentration

c. Water alkalinity

d. Water hardness

e. Other water quality

parameters

f. Season

Pathogen Host

Environment

Disease

potential

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0

10

20

30

40

50

6070

80

90

100

110

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Toxicity of component x to fish Toxicity of component x to fish

(LC(LC5050

((

Concentration mg/l(

Mortality%(

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Fish mortality as a result of Fish mortality as a result of

harvest by vacuum pumpingharvest by vacuum pumping

1

10

100

1000

10000

1 2 3 4 5

Days after handling

M

ortalitynumb e

roffish(

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Beit-Shan Valley, May 2005. Poly Culture , more than 20 tones/hectare. Mortality over 60 tones.

B i killi i l fB t i killi t i l f

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Bacteria killing rate in spleen of Bacteria killing rate in spleen of

contaminated tilapiacontaminated tilapia ((OreochromisOreochromis

SpSp.(.(

NoNo.. pHpH TreatmentTreatment Cells/gCells/gspleenspleen

11 99 ControlControl 00

22 99 ControlControl 1.6x101.6x1022

33 99 NONO22 32 mg/l32 mg/l 6.6x106.6x1066

44 99 NONO22 32 mg/l32 mg/l 3.0x103.0x1055

55 99 NHNH44-N 2 mg/l-N 2 mg/l 6.0x106.0x1044

66 99 NHNH44-N 2 mg/l-N 2 mg/l 7.6x107.6x1044

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Comparison of conditions in theComparison of conditions in the

aquatic and terrestrialaquatic and terrestrial

environmentsenvironmentsVariant AquaticVariant Aquatic TerrestrialTerrestrial• OxygenOxygen Low and variableLow and variable Nearly constant,Nearly constant,

00 – – 12 mg/l 300 mg/l12 mg/l 300 mg/l

• PressurePressure Variable Nearly constantVariable Nearly constant• Temperature Temperature Variable VariableVariable Variable

• ChemistryChemistry Variable ConstantVariable Constant

• DensityDensity High: 800 x air, significant Low: No significantHigh: 800 x air, significant Low: No significant

energy cost toenergy cost to ““breathbreath”” energy to breathenergy to breath

• ViscosityViscosity High: Significant energy Low: No significantHigh: Significant energy Low: No significantcost to swim limitation to ovementcost to swim limitation to ovement

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Temperature (oC( Oxygen)mg/l)

Temperature )oC) Oxygen)mg/l(

1 14.2 21 8.9

2 13.8 22 8.7

3 13.5 23 8.6

4 13.0 24 8.4

5 12.7 25 8.2

6 12.4 26 8.1

7 12.1 27 8.0

8 11.8 28 7.8

9 11.5 29 7.7

10 11.3 30 7.5

11 11.0 31 7.4

12 10.7 32 7.3

13 10.5 33 7.2

14 10.3 34 7.1

15 10.0 35 6.9

16 9.8 36 6.8

17 9.6 37 6.7

18 9.4 38 6.6

19 9.2 39 6.5

20 9.1 40 6.4

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1 liter of oxygen (gas) = 1.4 gram

1 gram of oxygen (gas = 0.7 ( liter

1 liter of liquid oxygen = 1.14 kg

1 kg of liquid oxygen = 0.778 liter

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Hyperbolic and Sigmoid Oxyhemoglobin

Dissociation Curve

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Oxygen Tension (mm Hg)

S a t u r a t i o n o f

H e m o g l o b i n ( % )

O2 concentration

at tissues

O2 concentration

at gills

Sigmoid

Hyperbolic

Coldwater fish:Amount O2

unloaded at

tissue

W ar mw a t er f i sh : Am o un t O2

unl o a d e d a t

t i s s u e

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Growth rate &Food consumptio as a function of

dissolved oxygen in the water

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Growthg/d

ay(

orFoodcon

su

mption

0.1g

/gfish/ d

ay(

Dissolved Oxygen mg/l(

Growth

Food

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Oxygen consumption as a functionOxygen consumption as a function

of fish weightof fish weight

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Weight g(

Oxygenconsu

mption

mg/kgfish/hr(

Dissolved O2 = 6 mg/l

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Effect of dissolved oxygenEffect of dissolved oxygen

concentration on oxygen consumptionconcentration on oxygen consumption

by fishby fish

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Dissolved oxygen mg/l(

Oxygen

consumption

m

g/kg

fish/hr(

Fish weight = 500 g

xygen m a ons an

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xygen m a ons anrequirementsrequirementsO2mg/l

Species Effect Reference

2-32-3 Tilapia Tilapia Lowest levels forLowest levels forgrowthgrowth

Balarin & HattonBalarin & Hatton19791979

2.82.8 CyprinidsCyprinids Possible mortalities,Possible mortalities,long exposurelong exposure..

Downing &Downing &

Merkens 1957Merkens 1957

>>33 CyprinidsCyprinids Growth decreaseGrowth decrease Itazawa 1971Itazawa 1971

77 CyprinidsCyprinids Maximum growthMaximum growth.. Huisman 1974Huisman 1974

55 SalmonidsSalmonids Minimum sustainedMinimum sustainedlevellevel

Forster et. 1977Forster et. 1977

33 S. salarS. salar 7272hr, LChr, LC5050 fresh waterfresh water Alabaster et. 79Alabaster et. 79

44//66 Peneus japPeneus jap Feeding reduced / optFeeding reduced / opt.. Liao 1969Liao 1969

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Respiration in pond divided toRespiration in pond divided to

componentscomponents

SourceSource Mg/lMg/l %%of totalof total

DiffusionDiffusion 2.112.11 25.625.6

FishFish 1.081.08 13.113.1

PlanktonPlankton 4.324.32 52.452.4

BenthosBenthos 0.730.73 8.98.9

TotalTotal 8.248.24 100.0100.0

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Scheme of nitrogen transformations in intensive fish pond.

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Percentage of un-ionized ammonia inPercentage of un-ionized ammonia in

diluted fresh waterdiluted fresh water

0

20

40

60

80

100

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Solution pH

Percent

Ammonia

Ammonium

NH4+ = 109.2

NH3 10pH

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Percent NHPercent NH33 in aqueous ammonia solutions,in aqueous ammonia solutions,

for different temperature and pHfor different temperature and pH

TempTemp

((ooCC))

pHpH6.56.5

pHpH7.07.0

pHpH7.57.5

pHpH8.08.0

pHpH8.58.5

pHpH9.09.0

pHpH9.59.5

00 0.0260.026 0.0830.083 0.2610.261 0.8200.820 2.552.55 7.647.64 20.720.755.. 0.0390.039 0.1250.125 0.3940.394 1.231.23 3.803.80 11.111.1 28.328.3

1010.. 0.0590.059 0.1860.186 0.5860.586 1.831.83 5.565.56 15.715.7 37.137.1

1515.. 0.0860.086 0.2730.273 0.8590.859 2.672.67 7.977.97 21.521.5 46.446.4

2020 0.1250.125 0.3960.396 1.241.24 3.823.82 11.211.2 28.428.4 55.755.7

2525 0.1800.180 0.5660.566 1.771.77 5.385.38 15.315.3 36.336.3 64.364.3

3030 0.2540.254 0.7990.799 2.482.48 7.467.46 20.320.3 44.644.6 71.871.8

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NONO22 LimitationsLimitations

• 0.012 mg/l0.012 mg/l – – Stress shown inStress shown in SalmonidsSalmonids..

• 0.15 mg/l0.15 mg/l – – Methaemoglobinemia in Trout.Methaemoglobinemia in Trout.

• 0.5 mg/l0.5 mg/l – – LCLC5050 , fingerlings 24 h, in Trout., fingerlings 24 h, in Trout.

•1.6 mg/l1.6 mg/l – – LCLC

5050

, yearling 24 h, in Trout., yearling 24 h, in Trout.

• 1. 8 - mg/l, Larva growth reduced, in1. 8 - mg/l, Larva growth reduced, in MacrobrchiumMacrobrchium..

• 15.4 mg/l15.4 mg/l – – LCLC5050 , 3-4 wk,, 3-4 wk, MacrobrachiumMacrobrachium..

• 7.55-24.8 mg/l7.55-24.8 mg/l – – LCLC5050 , 96, 96 IchtalurusIchtalurus..

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Eeffect of pH on the relative proportion of total

CO 2 (H2CO 3, Free CO 2), HCO 3-

and CO 3

-0.1

0.15

0.4

0.65

0.9

3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5

pH

M o l e F r a c t i

H2CO3 and

Free Co2

HCO3-

CO32-

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Respiratory as function of Respiratory as function of

dissolved oxygendissolved oxygen

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

COCO

22produced / unitproduced / unit

timetimeR.QR.Q. = ----------------------------------. = ----------------------------------

OO22consumed / unitconsumed / unit

timetime

The respiratory quotient R.Q. The respiratory quotient R.Q.in relation to ambientin relation to ambient

oxygen concentration inoxygen concentration in

Tilapia mosab- bica,Tilapia mosab- bica, in freshin fresh

water at 30water at 30ooCC..

Ambient oxygen mg/l(

R . Q

.

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COCO22 LimitationsLimitations

• Narcotic effect, higher concentrations mayNarcotic effect, higher concentrations may

cause death.cause death.

• Accumulate in blood, cause acidosis.Accumulate in blood, cause acidosis.

• Interfere with the loading of hemoglobin withInterfere with the loading of hemoglobin with

oxygen.oxygen.

• 1212 – – 55 mg/l, increasing nephroclcinosis in55 mg/l, increasing nephroclcinosis in

trout.trout.• 10 mg/l10 mg/l – – may be tolerated.may be tolerated.

• Up to 60 mg/lUp to 60 mg/l – – most species can survived.most species can survived.

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Effects of pH on fishEffects of pH on fish

33 44 55 66 77 88 99 1010 pHpH

11

22

33

** ** 44

** 55

66

77

88

99

1010

** 1111

• Salmonids growth inhibition (4-5)Salmonids growth inhibition (4-5)

• Warm water fish, no growth (5.5-6)Warm water fish, no growth (5.5-6)

• Warm water fish, no reprod. (6-6.5)Warm water fish, no reprod. (6-6.5)

• Tolerance (6.5-7.5) Tolerance (6.5-7.5)• Grass carp, fry tolerance (9-9.5)Grass carp, fry tolerance (9-9.5)

• Bass mortality (10.2)Bass mortality (10.2)

• Trout mortality (3.6) Trout mortality (3.6)

• No viable fishery (5-5.5)No viable fishery (5-5.5)

• Desirable range fresh water (6.5-7.5Desirable range fresh water (6.5-7.5

• Marine culture system (8.3)Marine culture system (8.3)

• Trout mortality (9.8) Trout mortality (9.8)

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Temperature Temperature

1.1. Hoff Hoff ’’s lows low – – 1010ooC increase, doubles reaction rate.C increase, doubles reaction rate.

2.2. The peak O The peak O22 consumption rate is maintained overconsumption rate is maintained over

a small Temp. range.a small Temp. range.

Tolerate range 5 to 36, max. growth 25 to 30. Tolerate range 5 to 36, max. growth 25 to 30.

44. O. O22 decrease relatively rapidly to lethal.decrease relatively rapidly to lethal.

55. Coldwater or warm water species. Coldwater or warm water species (diversity).(diversity).

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Oxygen consumption as function of Oxygen consumption as function of

temperature (100%=500mg/kg fish/htemperature (100%=500mg/kg fish/h(.(.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 10 20 30 40 50 60Water tmperature (oC)

O x y g e n C o n s u m p t i o n % o f

m a x . r a t e

ooCC OO22

1010 11.311.3

2020 9.29.2

3030 7.67.6

4040 6.66.6

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Seasonal mortalities of GreySeasonal mortalities of Grey

mulletmullet

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Month

N u m b e r o

f c a s e s

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

T e m p e r a

t u r e ( o C )

Temp

Cases

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Changes in bio-filter efficiency inChanges in bio-filter efficiency in

correlation with temperaturecorrelation with temperature

3030 2525 2020 1515 1010

100100 7373 4747 3333 2020

TemperatureoC(

Percentage

%(

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Water quality limits recommended toWater quality limits recommended to

protect health of cold- and warm waterprotect health of cold- and warm water

fishfish• Acidity pH 6Acidity pH 6 – – 99

• Alkalinity >20 mg/lAlkalinity >20 mg/l

• (as CaCO(as CaCO33))

• Ammonia < 0.02 mg/lAmmonia < 0.02 mg/l

• Calcium > 5 mg/lCalcium > 5 mg/l

• Carbon dioxideCarbon dioxide

• <5-10 mg/l<5-10 mg/l

• Chloride > 4.0 mg/lChloride > 4.0 mg/l

• Chlorine <0.003 mg/lChlorine <0.003 mg/l

• CopperCopper• <0.0006 mg/l in soft water<0.0006 mg/l in soft water

• <0.03 mg/l in hard water<0.03 mg/l in hard water

• Iron < 0.1 mg/lIron < 0.1 mg/l

• GasGas super saturationsuper saturation <102%<102%

• HydrogenHydrogen sulfidesulfide <0.003 mg/l<0.003 mg/l

• Nitrate <1.0 mg/lNitrate <1.0 mg/l

• Nitrite <0.1 mg/lNitrite <0.1 mg/l• OxygenOxygen coldwatercoldwater fishfish 6 mg/l6 mg/l

• warm water fishwarm water fish 4 mg/l4 mg/l

• Total dissolved solids Total dissolved solids<200 mg/l<200 mg/l

• Total suspended solids Total suspended solids

<80 mg/l<80 mg/l• Turbidity <20 NTU Turbidity <20 NTU

cro a s seasescro a s seases

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cro a s seasescro a s seasescommonly considered stresscommonly considered stress

mediatedmediatedDiseaseDisease Predisposing environmental factorsPredisposing environmental factors

Bacterial gill diseaseBacterial gill disease

ColumnarisColumnaris

Cold water diseaseCold water disease

Enteric redmouthEnteric redmouth

FurunculosisFurunculosis

MotileMotile Aeromonas Aeromonas

septicemiasepticemia

Spring viremia of Spring viremia of carpcarp

Ulcer disease of Ulcer disease of goldfishgoldfish

VibriosisVibriosis

**Crowding, unfavorable environmental condition,Crowding, unfavorable environmental condition,and presence of causative bacteria, elevatedand presence of causative bacteria, elevatedammonia, particulate material in waterammonia, particulate material in water

**Crowding, handling, seining, adverse temperature,Crowding, handling, seining, adverse temperature,

other infectious diseasesother infectious diseases** Temperature decrease from 10 - 15 Temperature decrease from 10 - 15ooC to 7 - 13C to 7 - 13 ooCC

**High stocking density, elevated water temperature,High stocking density, elevated water temperature,excessive metabolites, handling, transportexcessive metabolites, handling, transport

**Low oxygen, handling whenLow oxygen, handling when A. salmonicida A. salmonicida isisendemicendemic

**Injury to skin, fins or gills, hauling, improperInjury to skin, fins or gills, hauling, improperhandling, temperature stress, low oxygen, otherhandling, temperature stress, low oxygen, otherdisease organisms, pesticides, seasonal changes,disease organisms, pesticides, seasonal changes,improper nutrition, crowdingimproper nutrition, crowding

**Handling after over- wintering at low temperaturesHandling after over- wintering at low temperatures

Handling and stocking in late winter or early springHandling and stocking in late winter or early spring

**Handlin , oor environmental conditions, mi rationHandlin , oor environmental conditions, mi ration

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Mode of action of prymnesium toxin onMode of action of prymnesium toxin on

fishfish

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Table of chemicals for treating Table of chemicals for treating

PrymnesiumPrymnesium

Temp.Temp.((ooCC))

pHpH Liq. AmmLiq. Amm..(NH(NH33OHOH))

Ammon.Ammon.sulfatesulfate

CopperCoppersulfatesulfate

Over 20Over 20 Over 9.0Over 9.0

8.68.6 – – 9.09.0

Below 8.6Below 8.6

- - - -- - - -

1010 – –1212

1313

1010 – –1212

1515

1515 – –1717

- - - -- - - -

- - - -- - - -

- - - -- - - -

1818 – –2020Over 9.0Over 9.0

8.68.6 – – 9.09.0

Below 8.6Below 8.6

1010 – –1212

1212 – –1313

1313

1515

2020

2525

22

22

- - - -- - - -

1212--1818 Over 9.0Over 9.0

8.68.6 – – 9.09.0

Below 8.6Below 8.6

1313

1313

- - - -- - - -

2525

- - - -- - - -

- - - -- - - -

22 – –33

22 – –33

22--33

Amount for treating 1 d 1 m depth( *

Instructions for preparing aInstructions for preparing a

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Instructions for preparing aInstructions for preparing a

test for identifying Prymnesiumtest for identifying Prymnesium

toxintoxin

BeakerBeaker

typetype

Pond waterPond water(ml(ml))

TapTapwaterwater

(ml(ml))

OrdinaryOrdinarycofa.cofa.

(ml(ml))

SensitivSensitive cof.e cof.

(ml(ml))

Ord. contOrd. cont..

Sens. ContSens. Cont..

¼¼unitunit

11unitunit

55unitunit

--

--

50505050

1010

5050

5050

----

4040

11

--

--11

11

--

11

11--

--

Beaker capacity

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14 .11.10 M. Galilee