1

１．3．CALL 第２期:　コミュニカティブアプローチと PC の時代　　　　ー CAI から CALL へ ー

1980 1990

CAI CALL

multimedia hypermedia

１．３．１．CALL 第２期の教授理論的な背景60

1970 80

CAI (Hart 1995; 32) CALL

1 LL

(Richards/Rodgers 2001; 65) (Johnson/Johnson 1998; 22) (Underwood 1984;

35)( / / 1989; 57)

Chomsky

Chomsky

(functional linguistics) (social linguistics)

(pragmatics) (discourse

analysis)

(communicative

competence) Chomsky

2

(linguistic competence) Hymes (1972: 278)

1971

Modern Languages CEFR(Common

European Framework of References for Languages)

EU

van Ek Wilkins2

(Notional-Functional Syllabus) (van Ek 1975)(Wilkins 1976)

(discourse)

(Widdowson

1978) task-based

Total Physical Response the Silent

Way Community Language Learning Suggestopedia

1970 80

(Krashen/Terrell 1983)3

the Natural Approach4 Total Physical Response the

Silent Way Community Language Learning Suggestopedia

(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 71)

alternative approaches

and methods (Underwood 1984) (Ahmad

et al 1985) (Higgins/Jones 1984) CALL

(form) (meaning) (sentence)

(test/context) (accuracy) (fluency)

3

(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 156)

M. Finocchiaro C. Brumfit (Finocchiaro/Brumfit 1983)

Functional-Notional Methodology

(Finocchiaro/Brumfit 1983: 91)

No. Audio Lingual Method Functional-Notional Methodology

1. Attends to structure and form morethan meaning.

Meaning is paramount.

2. Demands memorization of structure-based dialogs.

Dialogs, if used, center aroundcommunicative functions and are notnormally memorized.

3. Language items are not necessarilycontextualized.

Contextualization is a basic premise.

4. Language Learning is learningstructures, sound, or words.

Language Learning is learning tocommunicate.

5. Mastery, or “over-learning” is sought. Effective communication is sought.6. Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.7. Native-speaker-like pronunciation is

sought.Comprehensible pronunciation issought.

8. Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device which helps the learners isaccepted varying according to theirage, interest, etc.

9. Communicative activities only comeafter a long process of rigid drills andexercises.

Attempts to communicate may beencouraged from the very beginning.

10. The use of student’s native language isforbidden.

Judicious use of native language isaccepted where feasible.

11. Translation is forbidden at early levels. Translation may be used where studentsneed or benefit from it.

12. Reading and writing are deferred tillspeech is mastered.

Reading and writing can start from thefirst day, if desired.

13. The target linguistic system will belearned through the overt teaching ofthe patterns of the system.

The target linguistic system will belearned best through the process ofstruggling to communicate.

14. Linguistic competence is the desiredgoal.

Communicative competence is desiredgoal (i.e., the ability to use the linguisticsystem effectively and appropriately).

15. Varieties of language are recognizedbut not emphasized.

Linguistic variation is a central conceptin materials and methodology.

4

16. The sequence of units is determinedsolely by principles of linguisticcomplexity.

Sequencing is determined by anyconsideration of content, function, ormeaning which maintains interest.

17. The teacher controls the learners andprevents them from doing anything thatconflicts with the theory.

Teachers help learners in any way thatmotivates them to work with thelanguage.

18. “Language is habit” so errors must beprevented at all costs.

Language is created by the individualoften through trial and error.

19. Accuracy, in terms of formalcorrectness, is a primary goal.

Fluent and acceptable language is theprimary goal: accuracy is judged not inthe abstract but in context.

20. Students are expected to interact withthe language system, embodied inmachines or controlled materials.

Students are expected to interact withpeople, either in the flesh, through pairand group work, or in their writings.

21. The teacher is expected to specify thelanguage that the students are to use.

The teacher cannot know exactly whatlanguage students will use.

22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from aninterest in the structure of the language.

Intrinsic motivation will spring from aninterest in what is being communicatedby the language.

No. Audio Lingual Method Functional-Notional Methodology

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

5

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

6

ideal teacher taskmaster

facilitator ideal teacher taskmaster

CAI 20

CALL

CAI5

１．３．２．CALL第２期の情報技術的な背景60 70 CAI

(mainframe)

(minicomputer)

(microcomputer)

706

CAI

7

8

(O’Shea 1983 98) CAI9

1975

(Beatty 2003: 23)

10

CAI

7

70 80

CALL

(Davies/Higgins1985: 9) (Underwood 1984: 43)

CALL

teacher

programmer

Basic teacher

programmer

PILOT

MICROTEXT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 72)

CALL

10 CAI

(Wyatt 1984: 47) CAI (Ahmad

et al 1985: 36) dilettantism

CAI

(Davies/Higgins1985: 56)11

CAI CALL

CALL

8

CALL

CALL

Athena Language

Learning Project (Beatty 2003: 26) (Levy 1997: 27)(Morgenstern 1986)

Montevidisco Project (Beatty 2003: 25) (Wyatt 1984: 102) (Davies/Higgns

1985: 41) (Schneider/Bennion 1983)

CALL

teacher programmer

(Wyatt 1984:

102) (Davies/Higgins 1985: 41) (Higgins/Johns 1985)(Underwood

1984)(Kenning/Kenning 1983)(Ahmad et al 1985)(Levy 1989)

(text manipulation) (simulation)

AI CALL12

１．３．３．CALL第２期の事例

テキスト操作プログラムCloze

test

(text deletion) (jumbler)

5 11 7

13

CLOZEWRITE (Graham Davies )

9

18 120 2 9

CLOZEMASTER (Chris Johns )

50 300 5

15 (Davies/Higgins 1985: 113)

(“~”)

TEXTBAG(Tim Johns )

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 56)

STORYBOARD(John Higgins )

Hangman

top-down

STORYBOARD

10

14 (Levy 1997: 24)

STORYBOARD

COPYWRITE(Graham Davis/John Higgins )

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 57) (Davies/Higgins 1985: 133)

John Higgins CLOSE-UP

TEXTBAG

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 57)

(Davies/Higgins 1985: 112)

(Davies/Higgins

1985: 50)

CAI The Stony Brook Project

SENTENCE SEQUENCING (Aconrsoft/ESN )

SATZSALAT 15

JUMBLER(Tim Johns )

16 SHUFFLER(John Higgins )

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 58)

11

DIALOGUE-SHUFFLER

CAI

top-down

シュミレーション型プログラム

real-time

move-base

(role-play)

(branching

stories)

(register)

(FrancisDrake1543?-1596) DRAKE

CLASSIC ADVENTURE

THA DARK CASTLE

12

(authentic)

(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 40) (Higgins/Johns 1985: 64) (Wyatt 1984: 89)(Underwood

1984: 94)17 move-base

CALL

FAST-FOOD (Davies/Higgins 1985: 118)

LONDON ADVENTURE (Davies/Higgins 1985: 46)

British Council Granville

GRANVILLE Cambridge Micro Software (Davies/

Higgins 1985: 28)

MURDER(John Higgins )

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 69)

creative reading

ACTION MAZES(Mario Rinvolucri ) text mazes

(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 29) (Higgins /Johns 1985: 65)18

STORYWRITER BRANCHING STORY(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 133, 111)

(motivation) (concentration)

13

ゲーム型教材

Hangman

ANAGRAM WORD SEQUENCE ANAGERM

WORTSALAT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 109,138,139)

(vocabulary Learning) Goethe-Institut

MEMORY (Davies/Higgins 1985: 126)

NAME THE OBJECT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 128)

JACKPOT(Chris

Jones ) (Higgins/Johns 1985:

47)

FACEMAKER(ASK ) (Higgins/Johns

1985: 118)

QUELLE TETE KOPFJÄGER (Homerton College )

PHOTOFIT(JOHN HIggins ) PHOTOFIT

compare

task transfer (Widdowson 1978 98)

14

Intelligent CALL50

(Artficial Intelligence)

Joseph Weizenbaum 1966

ELIZA DOCTOR

(Weizenbaum 1976)

Alan Turing Turing (Turing

1950)

19

ELIZA DOCTOR

FAMILIA(John Underwood )(Underwood 1984: 75)

SPION(Ruth

Sanders )20

Terry Winograd 1972

SHRDLU(Winograd 1972)

15

A B C

A

C B

Winograd SHRDLU

GRAMMARLAND

JOHN AND MARY(John Higgins/Tim Johns )

16

QUESTION(Underwood )(Underwood 1984: 72)

(Twenty Questions)

ANIMALS

ANIMALS JACKASS

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 81) GETRÄNKE

(Ahmad

et al 1985: 112)

fuzzy matching

(ellipsis)

SHRDLU

17

自己発見学習型プログラム(explorative)

(generative program)

Intelligent CALL

morphology

S-ENDING(John Higgins/Tim Johns )

A/AN(Tim Johns ) (Daies/Higgins 1985: 109, 131)

syntax

WALTER(Mike Sharples )

(Ahmad et al 1985: 111) (pragmatics)

100

LOAN Tim Johns

(Higgins/Johns1985: 73)

APOLOGIES John Higgins

(Higgins/Johns1985: 73) Intelligent CALL

(language awareness)

A/AN

S-ENDING

(Davies/Higgins 1985:52)

MADLIB

18

リスニング

Kreshan

global listening

selective listening intensive listening21

global listening

selective listening

intensive listening

Storyboad

80

CAI

CAI

ワープロ

19

その他の萌芽的事例CALL

LAN (Local Area Network)

CAI

Geroge Orwel 1984 Big Brother

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 28)(Ahmad et al 1985: 115)

LAN email

(Underwood

1984: 66)(Staton 1983)(Wyatt1984: 113)

(Higgins/Johns 1985: 88)

(autonomous) (explorative)

90 CALL

マルチメディア環境の出現と HyperCardの登場teacher programmer

80

20

Farington

(1989) 80 CALL hobbyist programmer DIY CALL

Do It Yourself CALL

OS

CUI (Character User Interface) MS-DOS GUI (Graphical

User Interface) OS

80 HyperCard

80 90

teacher programmer

HyperCard Apple 1987

HyperCard

HyperCard

(layer)

21

Cyber Physical Response22

Word

Picture Type (Wyatt 1984: 101)

HyperCard HyperTalk

1)

2)

3) if repeat

4) random

5)

6)

Farington (1989)

80 CALL

HyperCard GUI

GUI HyperCard

BASIC

80

90 CALL

22

CALL 第２期の事例の意義CAI CALL CALL

23

CALL

CALL

ideal teacher CAI

(Levy

1997; 178)

(2003.8.20. )

/ (2002):

Turing, A. M.(1950): Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind LIX (236).

Weizenbaum, J. (1976):Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to

Calculation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

Winograd, T.(1972): Understanding Natural Language. New York: Academic Press.

Staton, J.(1983): Dialogue Journals: A new Tool for Teaching Communication. In:

ERIC/CLL News Bulletin 6.2:1-2, 6.

Hymes, D. (1972): On communicative competence. In: J.B.Pride/J. Holmes(eds)

Sociolinguistics, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 269-93.

Richards, J. C./ Rodgers, T. S. (2001):Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching(2nd ed). Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.

/ / (1989): .

NAFL 10. .

Rüschoff & Wolff (1999

Rüschoff & Ritte(2001)

Legutke (1998)

Pennington, M. C.(1996): The Power of the Computer in Language Education. in The

23

Power of CALL, Pennington, M. C.(Ed.), 1-14.

Davies, G./Higgins, J.(1985): Using Computers in Language Learning: A Teacher’s

Guide. Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.London.

Gueulette, D.G.(ed.) (1982): Microcomputers for Adult Learning. Chicago: Follett.

(1992):

(1996): .

87. .

Widdowson, H. G. (1978): Teaching language as Communication. Oxford: Pxford

University Press.

Kemmis, S./Atkins, R./Wright, E. (1977): How do Students Learn? -Working papers on

Computer Assisted Learning Occasional Paper 5, Centre for Applied Research in

Education, University of East Anglia.

Kenning, M.J./ Kenning, M.M.(1983): Introduction to Computer Assisted Language

Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kiesler, S., Siegel,J. and McGuire,T.(1984): Social psychological aspects of computer-

mediated communications. Ameirrcan Psychologist, 39, 1123-1134

Sproull, L. and Kiesler, S.(1986): Reduced social context cues: Electronic mail in

organizational communication. Management Science, 32, 1492-1512

Birdwhistell, R.(1970): Kinesics and Context, Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania

Press.

Mehrabian, A.(1968): Communication without Words, in Psychology Today, II

(September 1968), 52-55.

Rivers(1964): The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher,Univerity of

Chicago Press.

Johnson, K./ Johnson H. ed.(1998): Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics.

Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

(2001)

Wilkins, D. A.(1976):Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

van Ek, J. A. (1975): The Threshold Level in a European Unit/Credit System for

Modern Language Teaching by Adults. Systems Development in Adult Language

Learning. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Underwood, J. H.(1984):Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A

Communicative Approach. Pergamon Institute of English.

24

Ahmad, K./Corbett, G./Rogers, M./Sussex R.(1985): Computers, Language Learning

and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

(1977) . .

Chapelle, C. / Jamieson,J.(1984): Language Lessons on the PLATO IV System. In:

Wyatt, D. H.(1984a), 13-20.

Wyatt, D. H.(1984a):Computer-Assisted Language Instruction. Pergamon Institute of

English.

Wyatt, D. H. (1984b): Computers and ESL. Prentice-Hall.

Hardisty, D./ Windeatt, S.(1989):CALL. Oxford : Oxford University Press.

Merrill, M. D. (1983): Component Display Theory. In: Reigeluth,C. M. (1983):

Instructional-Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status.

London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 279-333.

(1995): . .

Heermann, B.(1988): Teaching and Learning with Computers : A Guide for College

Faculty and Administrators. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.

O'Shea, T./ Self, J.(1983): Learning and Teaching with Computers : Artificial

Intelligence in Education. Brighton : Harvester.

Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal Behaviour.

T , J (1984) :

. . : .

Hart, R. S. (1995): The Illinois PLATO Foreign Languages Project, in CALICO Journal

12.4: 15-37, 1995.

Loritz, D.(1995): The Adolescence of CALL, Donald Loritz, in CALICO Journal 12.4:

47-56, 1995.

Borchardt, F. L. (1995): Language and Computing at Duke University: or, Virtue

Triumphant, for the Time Being, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 57-83, 1995.

Jones, R. L. (1995): TICCIT and CLIPS: The Early Years, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 84-

96, 1995.

Künzel S. (1995): Processors Processing: Learning Theory and CALL, in CALICO

Journal 12.4: 106-113, 1995.

Elling, B. (1995): The Stony Brook “Experiment” and How it Grew: An Interview with

John R. Russell, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 128-136, 1995.

Ruplin, F. A. (1995): From #2 Pencil to #2 Pencil: Some Musings About the Stony

25

Brook Project, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 137-143, 1976.

Boyle, T. A. / Smith, W. F. / Eckert, R. G.(1976): Computer-mediated testing: A

Branched Program Achievement Test, in Modern Language Journal 60.8: 428-440,

1976.

Decker, H. W. (1976): Computer-aided Instructionin in French Syntax, in Modern

Language Journal 60.5/6: 263-267, 1976.

Allen, J. R. (1972): Individualizing Foreign Language Instruction with Computers at

Dartmouth, in Foreign Language Annals 5.3: 348-349, 1972.

Nelson, G. E./Ward, J. R. / Desch, S. H. /Kaplow, R. (1976): Two New Strategies for

Computer-Assisted Language Instruction, in Foreign Language Annals 9.1: 28-37,

1976.

Turner, R. C. (1970): “CARLOS”: Computer-Assisted Instruction in Spanish, in

Hispania 53: 249-252, 1970

Langr, B. J.,/Seybolt, R. A.(1976): A Computerized Universal Spanish Grammar Drill

Program, in: Seventh Conference on Computers in the Undergraduate Curricula,

Binghamton, State University of New York, 1976, edited by Willoughby, T. C.

Skinner, B. F. (1954): The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching. Harvard

Educational Review, 24:86-97. Reprinted in Lumsdaine, A.A./Glaser, R. edit. (1960):

Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source Book. Washington,

Department of Audio Visual Instruction, National Education Association of the United

States.

Skinner, B. F. (1957): Verbal Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall.

Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee(1966): Language and Machines:

Computers in Translation and Linguistics. National Academy of Sciences, National

Research Council.

Hammond, A. L. (1972): CAI: Many Efforts, Mixed Results, Science, 176, 1005-06.

1

2

Situational Language Teaching

26

(Richards/Rodgers 2001:153)3 (Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis)

(Monitor Hypothesis) (natural Order Hypothesis) (Input Hypothesis) (Affective Filter Hypothesis)

(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 178-) ( 1995:162-)4 input Natural Approach

5 CAI

(Heermann 1988:5 Gueulette 1982: 181 ) 1980

teaching machine(Heermann 1988)

6

1968 A. C. Kay 1996: 45

1992: 1996: 42 1971

4

7 CAI PLATO TICCIT

8 (Nelson et al. 1976; 30) (Hammond 1972; 1006) The Stanford

Project

9(O’Shea 1983 98) PLATO IV35 70 1.17

(BPAT)Branched ProgramAchievement Test

(Boyle et al 1976)10 Apple II BBC micro IBM PC RML

27

380z/480z Commodore PET Commodore 64, Commodore 4032, Commodore VIC TRS-80Sinclair Spectrum Electron11 90 CALL

12 1980 (Davis/Higgins

1985) (p.109-9.144)

13

14

15 WORD SEQUENCING(Aconrsoft/ESN ) WORTSALAT16

17

( 2001?) 18 80 CALL

Hypertext19 Alan Turing(1912-1954)

Turing machine

20

DIALOG-CRIT(Burckhardt Leuschner )

STORTMAKER(DanielChandler )

(Higgins/Johns 1985:60)21

SPEEDREAD(Arthur Rope )(Davies/Higgins 1985: 70)(Wyatt 1984: 56)note taking testing

(Wyatt 1985: 105)22 Mario Rinvolucri 2000 JALT

Total Physical Response Virtual Physical

28

Response23 (Underwood 1984: 52) communikative CALL

13