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ENG 12 Comp 01: page 1

The Writing Process in Five Steps1--Prewriting: Choosing a topic and gathering details

Search for a meaningful writing idea—one that truly interests you and meets the requirements of the assignment.

Use a prewriting strategy (listing, webbing, clustering, free writing, outlining, and so on) to identify possible topics.

Learn as much as you can about your topic. Decide on an interesting or important part of the topic—your controlling idea—to

develop. Express your controlling idea in a sentence to help map out your writing. Think about an overall plan or design for organizing your writing. This plan can be

anything from a brief list to a detailed outline.

2--Writing the Rough Draft: Composing Write the first draft while your prewriting is still fresh in your mind. Set the right tone by giving your opening paragraph special attention.

Introduction/Opening Paragraph: should help clarify your thinking about your topic and accomplish three things: (1) GAIN YOUR READER’S ATTENTION, (2) INTRODUCE YOUR TOPIC, and (3) IDENTIFY YOUR THESIS.Thesis Statement: identifies the focus for your academic essays. It usually highlights a special condition or feature of the topic, expresses a specific feeling, or takes a stand. This is your controlling idea in sentence form.Middle Paragraphs: should support your thesis with many examples, details, and evidence. Make sure to use your pre-write (outline, list, cluster) as a general guide for your writing.Conclusion/Closing Paragraph: allows you to tie up your essay neatly. Discuss your topic again in general, then emphasize your main idea by stating your thesis in a different way, and then refer back to your introduction and/or attention-getter.

Any of the following can be used for your Introduction and Conclusion: Share some thought-provoking details about the subject. Begin with an interesting quotation Provide a dramatic, eye-opening statement. Open with an engaging story. Identify the main points you plan to cover. Refer to your plan for the main part of your writing but be flexible. A more interesting

route may unfold as you write.

Don’t worry about getting everything right at this point; just concentrate on developing your ideas.

3--Revising: Improve your writing, focusing on content - add information, delete information, reorder material, rework material, add transitions.


Review your rough draft, checking the ideas, organization, voice, word choice, and sentence fluency of your writing.

Ask at least one classmate to react to your work. Add, cut, reword, or rearrange ideas as necessary (you may have to change some

parts several times before they say what you want them to say). Make sure you have used transitions within and between paragraphs. Carefully assess the effectiveness of your opening and closing paragraphs.

4--Editing and Proofreading: Checking for accuracy Edit your revised writing for conventions—punctuation, spelling, grammar, “small

stuff.” Ask a reliable editor—a friend, a classmate, a relative—to check your writing for

errors you may have missed. Proofread the final draft for errors before submitting it.

5--Publishing: Sharing your work Share the finished product with your teacher, writing peers, friends, and family

members. Decide if you will include the writing in your portfolio. Post your writing on your personal or class Web site or elsewhere online.

Audience and PurposeBefore you begin writing, it is a good idea to think about your audience—whom you’re writing for. Think about the audience’s age, race, level of education, where they live, what experiences they might have had, etc. Try seeing your topic from their perspective. It is very important to use language that fits your audience and matches your purpose—the reason, or why, you are writing. Inappropriate language or word choice can damage your credibility, undermine your argument, or alienate your audience.

Levels of Formality: Writing in a style that your audience expects and that fits your purpose is key to successful writing.

In-Group Jargon: Jargon refers to specialized language used by groups of like-minded individuals. Only use in-group jargon when you are writing for members of that group. You should never use jargon for a general audience without first explaining it.

Slang and idiomatic expressions: Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general academic writing.

Deceitful language and Euphemisms: Avoid using euphemisms (words that veil the truth, such as "collateral damage" for the unintended destruction of civilians and their property) and other deceitful language.

Biased language: Avoid using any biased language including language with a racial, ethnic, group, or gender bias or language that is stereotypicalParagraphs


A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one main idea. A paragraph is the building block of writing; a series of paragraphs is called an “essay.”

Violence as a way of achieving racial justice is both impractical and immoral. It is impractical because it is a descending spiral ending in destruction for all. The old law of an eye for an eye leaves everybody blind. It is immoral because it seeks to humiliate the opponent rather than win his understanding; it seeks to annihilate rather than to convert. Violence is immoral because it thrives on hatred rather than love. It destroys community and makes brotherhood impossible. It leaves society in monologue rather than dialog. Violence ends by defeating itself. It creates bitterness in the survivors and brutality in the destroyers.

--Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Main idea: That violence as a way of achieving racial justice is impractical and immoral. The main idea is presented in the first sentence. The other sentences provide reasons that develop and support that idea.

Important Aspects of a Paragraph

-Topic SentencesA topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. It is the most general sentence of

the paragraph; all the other sentences serve to explain, describe, or support this main-idea sentence. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence, but it may come anywhere in the paragraph.

Identify the topic sentences of the following paragraphs:

Mountains of disposable diapers are thrown into garbage cans every day. Tons of water bottles, soda cans, and other plastic items are discarded without so much as a stomp to flatten them out. If the old Chevy is not worth fixing, tow it off to sit with thousands of others on acres of fenced-in junkyards. Radios, televisions, and microwaves get the same treatment because it is easier and often less expensive to buy a new product than to fix the old one. Who wants a comfortable old sweater if a new one can be bought on sale? No thought is given to the fact that the new one will look like the old one after a number of washings. We are the great “Let’s junk it!” society.

Anything can happen at a county agricultural fair. It is the perfect human occasion, the harvest of the fields and of the emotions. To the fair come the girl and her cow, the woman and her cherry preserves, the man and his prized green tomato pickles, each anticipating victory and the excitement of being separated from his or her money by familiar carnival games and rides. It is at a fair that a person can be drunk on liquor, love, or fights; at a fair that a passing horse will pick your front pocket of sugar, and the front of your shirt will be covered in powdered sugar from funnel cakes. Yes, the summer fair is a cultural sampler of the community it represents.-Controlling Ideas


The controlling idea of a topic sentence is the point the writer is trying to make about the topic. The controlling idea of any topic depends on the writer’s focus. Consider:

TOPIC: backpacking

Possible topic sentences: Backpacking trips are exhausting. A family backpacking trip can be much more satisfying

than a trip to an amusement park. Our recent backpacking trip was a disaster. A backpacking trip should be a part of every teenager’s

experience.

-Common Errors in Topic Sentences:

Announcements—outright stating the topic. I am going to be writing about gun control laws. The topic of this essay will be criminal behavior.

Statements that are too broad—trying to cover too much information. Animals are smart. People often make stupid decisions.

Statements that are too narrow—not enough information. The dog has brown fur. My brother wears size 32 x 34 in jeans.

Vague or non-specific key words—to be effective, you should use specific, clear, key words to present your controlling ideas. Avoid flat, catch-all terms that lead nowhere in particular. Compare the following:

a. My best friend is great.b. My best friend is reliable, helpful, and caring.

a. California is pretty neat.b. California offers a lot of possibilities for the outdoor enthusiast.

a. We shouldn’t do surface mining in the U.S.b. Surface mining erodes the soil, disrupts wildlife, and

leaves ugly scars in the earth.

-Supporting Details


A supporting detail is a piece of evidence used to make the controlling idea of the topic sentence convincing and interesting. Evidence can be in the form of examples, reasons, facts, statistics, description, anecdotes, etc.Whatever evidence you provide, you must be specific and use plenty of detail!

Poor supporting details: Many people died of a virus in the 1960s.

Effective supporting details:In 1968 in the United States, seventy thousand people died of the Hong Kong flu.

There are many types of support and evidence you can use to develop your main idea:

Details: sight, sound, touch, hearing, smell, taste; specific and unique description of your topic.

Facts: statements that can be proven. Facts remain constant, regardless of the type of paragraph you write.

Statistics: present significant numerical information about a chose topic.

Examples: individual samples that illustrate a main point.

Anecdotes: brief stories or “slices of life” that helps you make your point. They can illustrate a point more personally than a matter-of-fact listing of details.

Quotations: words from another person that you repeat exactly in your writing. Quotations can provide powerful supporting evidence.

-Arranging your DetailsA writer chooses supporting details according to what best fits the method of development:

Chronological order (time) is effective for sharing personal narratives, summarizing steps, and explaining events in the order in which they occurred

Order of location (spatial) is useful for many types of descriptions. Details can be described from left to right, from right to left, from top to bottom, from edge to center, and so on.

Illustration (example) is a method of arrangement in which you first state a general idea (thesis statement) and follow with specific reasons, examples, and facts.

Compare-contrast is a method of arrangement in which you show how one topic is different from and similar to another topic.


Cause-effect is a type of arrangement that helps you make connections between a result and the events that came before it. Usually, you begin with the cause of something, and then you discuss a number of specific effects.

Process writing explains how something is done, or how something works, through a series of steps.

Problem-solution is a type of arrangement in which you discuss a problem and explore possible solutions.

Classification is a type of arrangement that can be used to explain a term or a concept (a machine, a theory, a game, and so on). Begin by placing the topic in the appropriate class, and then provide details that show how your subject is different from and similar to others in the same class.

Definition writing analyzes at some length the meaning of a word or concept (such as “justice” or “democracy”).

-Avoid restating the topic sentence—develop your topic with details instead

Writers need to recognize the difference between a genuine supporting detail and a simple restatement of the topic sentence. Consider the following. Which is easier to “picture” as you read?

The wedding day was the highest point in a girl’s life—a day to which she looked forward all her unmarried days and to which she looked back for the rest of her life. All the events of the day were unlike those of any other day in her life before or after. Everyone would remember this day. Each event was unforgettable. The memories would last a lifetime. (generalities)

The wedding day was one of the high points in a girl’s life. The splendor of the old, stone town church, the smell of the carnations and lilies lining the pews, the elegance of her sparkling white gown and veil, the cutting of the three-tiered layer cake, the dancing at the reception, the departure in a limousine amid a shower of rice and confetti, all gave her a feeling of utter excitement to which no previous event could compare. Until recently, all brides’ books and magazines prescribed exactly the same ritual they had prescribed fifty years before: the etiquette governing wedding presents, bridesmaids’ dresses, tuxedos, flowers, invitations and decorations were all specified. Today, almost anything goes; it is completely up to the tastes of the couple getting married…and that is what makes it truly memorable. (specifics & details)

-How do you make supporting details specific?


In writing effectively, the ability to go beyond the general statement and get to the accurate, specific pieces of information is what counts. A writer who uses a color, a quote, an anecdote, a historical example, a descriptive detail, etc. has the advantage and can make the writing real and interesting. Consider the following:

Doctors are terrible. They cause more problems than they solve. I don’t believe most of their treatments are necessary. History is full of the mistakes doctors have made. We don’t need all those operations. We should not ingest all those drugs doctors prescribe. We shouldn’t allow them to give us all those unnecessary tests. I’ve heard plenty of stories to prove my point. Doctors’ ideas can kill you. (generalities)

Evidence shows that “medical Progress” has been the cause of tragic consequences and even death for thousands of people. X-ray therapy was thought to help patients with tonsillitis. Now many of those people are found to have developed cancer from the X-rays. Not so long ago, women were kept in bed for several weeks following childbirth. Unfortunately, this cost many women their lives because they developed fatal blood clots from being kept in bed day after day. One recent poll estimates that thirty thousand people each year die from the side effects of drugs that were prescribed by doctors. Recently, the Center for Disease Control reported that twenty-five percent of the tests done by clinical laboratories were done poorly. All this shows that it would be foolish to rely totally on the medical field to solve all our health problems. (specifics & details)

-Unity

In order for your paragraph to make sense to the reader, your supporting sentences should somehow all relate to your topic sentence. Irrelevant, unclear information will simply confuse the reader. Consider the following. Which stays more on topic and includes more specifics?

My mother is a wonderful person. She is always there when I need her, and she supports me in everything I do. When I was growing up, she taught me many things about life. Whenever I wanted something, she was always there to get it for me. She is five feet four, has black hair, and speaks with a slight Dutch accent. She always emphasized the importance of education and wanted us to become bilingual speakers.

My sister is the most systematic organizer I know. She runs her day like clockwork: up at 6:00, showered and dressed by 6:30, finished with breakfast and out the door by 6:45. She is always at least ten minutes early for work at the bank, and arranges her desk so that she can start off the day’s work without a letter or memo out of place. She even knows where to go on her lunch break to avoid waiting in line. When she gets home in the evening, she already has the food and utensils arranged so that her dinner never takes more than thirty minutes to prepare. Then, it’s early to bed, to start all over again.

Notice that the more effective paragraph, the second one, has very specific key words in its topic sentence: “systematic organizer.” On the other hand, the key word in the disorganized paragraph is vague and non-specific: “wonderful.”-Closing or Clincher Sentence


The clincher sentence wraps up the paragraph by re-emphasizing the main idea. Sometimes the topic sentence is simply restated in a different way. In a longer essay, however, a transition might be used at the end of a paragraph to move smoothly into the next paragraph.

PARAGRAPHS PRACTICE WORKSHEET


TOPIC SENTENCES

A. Directions: Underline the topic sentences of the following paragraphs.

1. This was one of the worst situations I had ever been in. There was a tube in my nose that went all the way to the pit of my stomach. I was being fed intravenously, and there was a drain in my side. Everybody came to visit me, mainly out of curiosity, I think. My friends were all anxious to know where I had gotten shot. They had heard all kinds of tales about where the bullet struck. The bolder ones wouldn’t even bother to ask: they just snatched the covers off me and looked for themselves. In a few days, word got around that I was still in one piece.

2. Last night at a party, a complete stranger asked me, “Are you a Libra?” Astrology is enjoying increasing popularity all across the world. My friend hurries every morning to read her horoscope in the paper. At the local stores, cards, books, T-shirts, and other useless astrological products bring fat profits to those who have manufactured them. Even some public officials, like the British royal family and some former Presidents, are known to consider the “science” of astrology before scheduling an important events.

B. Directions: Answer the following questions, using the reading for a guide.

3. What is a topic sentence?

4. What are supporting sentences?

5. At least how many pieces of evidence are needed to fully support a main point?

6. When a paragraph sticks to one subject and doesn’t “wander off” to unrelated topics, the paragraph is said to have what?

7. When a topic sentence tries to cover too much information, it is said to be too what?

8. When a topic sentence doesn’t cover enough information, it is said to be too what?

9. When a writer outright states what the paragraph will be about, it is the example of what kind of topic sentence?

10. What type of key words should you use in your topic sentences?


C. Directions: Write TB next to the statement in each pair that is too broad for a topic sentence.

11. a. I’ve always done poorly in school. b. I flunked math last year for several reasons.

12. a. Parties can be fun. b. One must party responsibly.

13. a. Ryan has learned a lot of lessons growing up. b. Ryan’s grandmother taught him the meaning of courage.

14. a. Married life is the best way of living. b. Teenage marriages often end in divorce for several reasons.

15. a. Professional ice hockey is a dangerous sport. b. Professional sports are violent.

D. Directions: Write TN next to the statement in each pair that is too narrow for a topic sentence.

16. a. Jemal wears a size 16 shoe. b. Jemal’s large feet create a lot of problems for him.

17. a. I was bummed-out yesterday for many reasons. b. I stubbed my toe yesterday.

18. a. When I wash jeans, they always shrink. b. I have my own special way of doing laundry.

19. a. Learning how to make a Spanish omelet can be a difficult experience. b. Friends often ask my mother for her Spanish omelet recipe.

20. a. The Minnesota Vikings’ colors are purple and gold. b. The Minnesota Vikings are a successful football team.

E. Directions: Write A next to the statement in each pair that announces the topic.

21. a. I am going to be writing about life as a night club singer. b. Working as a night club singer is demanding.

22. a. This essay will be dealing with school ID’s.


b. School ID’s are sometimes more trouble than they are worth.

23. a. There are several steps to stop procrastinating. b. My paper is going to be about procrastination.

24. a. Our public library is convenient. b. This paragraph will address the public library and its convenience.

25. a. In this essay, I will tell you about the driver’s test. b. The driver’s test is not difficult if you take the following steps.

UNITY

F. Directions: Read the following paragraphs carefully. Each has two sentences that do not relate to the main idea. Cross out the unrelated sentences.

26.-27. When we remember something, our brains use more than one method to store the information. Short-term memory helps recall recent events, such as last night’s ball game. Long-term memory brings back items that are further in the past, like our first steps; deep retrieval gives access to long-buried information that is sometimes difficult to recall. The same is true for our pets’ brains. Whether these processes are chemical or electrical, we do not yet know, and much research remains to be done before we can say with any certainty. The brain is also responsible for interpreting pain signals from the nerves. The brain certainly is one of the most remarkable organs, and it will be ears before we even begin to understand all its complexity.

28.-29. Annie Peck’s career as a mountaineer was astonishing for a nineteenth-century woman. This internationally acclaimed climber first became interested in mountaineering when she saw the majesty of the Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps. She climbed Mount Shasta in California and then, in 1895, ascended the Matterhorn. The Matterhorn attracts several thousand visitors each year. Climbing Mount Orizaba in southern Mexico won her recognition for achieving the highest point in the Americas reached by a woman up to that time. Peck was not satisfied with achieving something no woman had achieved before; she wanted to reach a height no person had ever reached before. Some people considered her climbing costume as daring as her accomplishments. She continued searching for the right mountain, and finally climbed the north peak of Huascaran in central Peru. The peak was named Ana Peck in her honor.

PROVIDING SUPPORTING DETAILS


G. Read the following paragraph, then answer the questions that follow. Notice how many methods of development are used: specific examples, facts, statistics, information from experts, etc.

Everyone has heard of surefire formulas to prevent getting a cold. Popular home methods include a hot shower, regular exercise, and daily vitamins. Some people swear by cod-liver oil, tea with honey, orange juice, or keeping one’s feet dry. Americans spent billions last year for cold and cough remedies. Advertisers have claimed preventive and curative virtues for decongestants, antihistamines, antibiotics, bioflavonoids, nose sprays, and other remedies. There are at least three hundred over-the-counter products, most of which are a combination of ingredients sold for the treatment of symptoms of the common cold. Many of these drugs neither benefit nor harm the cold victim, but there is no doubt that they benefit the drug manufacturers. Americans will suffer two to three colds a year on average, with the infectious stages lasting about a week, regardless of any diet, drug, or “remedy.” Public Health Service studies show that, during the winter quarter of the year, fifty percent of the population experiences a common cold; during the summer quarter, the figure drops to eighteen percent. The increased incidence of colds in winter reflects the fact that people spend more time indoors, thereby allowing the viruses to travel from person to person. In fact, one is less likely to catch a cold after exposure to the elements than after mixing with a crowd of people.

30. Underline the topic sentence in the above paragraph.

31. What is an example of a home remedy?

32. What is an example of an over-the-counter remedy?

33. What fact is given?

34. What expert is named?

35. What is the statistic given by that source?

H. Directions: Provide three specific details that logically support the following statements. Be creative.


36.-38. Anna-Marie wore a crazy outfit yesterday.

39.-41. Mr. Rockwell has some strange habits.

42.-44. After lunch, the Commons is in poor condition.

45.-47. James is a dangerous driver.

48.-50. The food at Buffet 4U is terrible sometimes.

I. Directions: Read the example below. Your task is to rewrite a weak paragraph by adding supporting details to develop the paragraph’s main idea. (10 pts.)

Example: Weak: It was warm in the kitchen. Steam rose from the kettle, and every

little noise seemed loud.

Effective: It was warm in the kitchen. A fly buzzed, a fan of white steam came out of the kettle, and the lid kept up a rattling jig as the water bubbled. The clock ticked in the warm air, slow and deliberate, like the click of an old woman’s knitting needle, and sometimes -- for no reason at all, for there wasn’t any breeze -- the blind swung out and back, tapping the window.

Note how the example emphasizes the sense of hearing and how many details are given to appeal to that sense. Whatever you write, make it clear, precise, and specific.

Now, add plenty of supporting sentences to the following weak paragraph. Use examples, description, facts, reasons, etc. as necessary. Topic sentence? Clincher/closing sentence?


Weak: There she was, going into the grocery store right in front of my family. I was mystified by her. She was the most interesting person I had ever encountered before.

The Five-Paragraph Essay


1. Introductory Paragraph

2. First Supporting Paragraph

3. Second Supporting Paragraph

4. Third Supporting Paragraph

5. Concluding Paragraph

Paragraph 1. The introduction attracts the reader’s interest with an attention-getter. Then, a general discussion of the topic or “setting the scene” is in order. Finally, the thesis statement states the main idea of the essay. Sometimes, the main points are presented in the order in which they will be developed in the essay.

Paragraphs 2. - 4. The supporting paragraphs each contain a topic sentence that states the point of development to be covered. The rest of the paragraph provides support for each point in the form of details, examples, reasons, facts, and other strategies for development.

Paragraph 5. The conclusion makes a general wrap-up of the topic, and then restates the thesis in a different way. Sometimes the main points are summarized. Relating the conclusion back to the attention-getter or introduction brings the essay full circle.

Transitions


Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous paragraphs, writers can develop important points for their readers.

Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given way.

To Add:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time:


immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

To Repeat:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

To Emphasize:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

To Show Sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

To Give an Example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

To Summarize or Conclude:

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently

The Thesis Statement


The thesis statement is the sentence that explains the main purpose of the essay. It tells what the essay will be about, or makes a claim. You can think of it as the “topic sentence” of the essay. All the guidelines that apply to topic sentences at the paragraph level also apply to thesis statements at the essay level. A thesis statement can be simple or developed:

Simple: Living in a small town has many advantages.

Developed: Living in a small town has many advantages, such as low crime, friendly people, and better schools.

Simple: SDSU is a better school than USD.

Developed: SDSU is a better school than USD because it offers more classes, nicer dorms and women’s intramural sports.

Simple thesis statements are more open-ended and allow the writer to go many different directions.

Developed thesis statements are more limiting, but guide the reader more by telling more specifically what the essay will cover.

Introductions


An introduction to a piece of writing should capture the reader's interest as well as present the thesis statement. Below are seven standard methods for writing an interesting introduction, followed by a brief example of each.

Open with a question. Is nonconformity foolish or courageous?

Tell an appropriate anecdote (story). Henri was not a popular guy. Sure, he had a small circle of friends, but he was so different from everyone. No sports, no music, no honor roll: this guy was a riddle.

Create a vivid image. When Marc Antony finds Caesar's gory body surrounded by the conspirators with blood-stained hands, he reaches out to shake each hand, thus intentionally staining his own.

Begin with a startling statement. More than 50,000 people will die a preventable death this year in the United States alone—they will do so by choice, because they did not buckle up.

Start with a fitting quotation. “You can't depend on your eyes when your imagination is out of focus.” Mark Twain seemed to have the right idea: life is a matter of perspective.

Begin with a definition. “Non-conformist” as defined in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary is “a person who does not follow a generally accepted pattern of thought.”

Begin with an analogy. Friends in literature are sometimes forced to take a courageous stand for one another. Even though Huckleberry Finn believes that he will “go to hell” for doing so, he bravely supports his friend, Jim. Similarly, Marc Antony risks his own life by speaking publicly against the conspirators of his murdered friend.

Three parts of an introduction:

1. Attention-getter2. General discussion of topic or “setting the scene”3. Thesis statement

CONCLUSIONS

A conclusion to a piece of writing should give a finished feel to the essay—it should bring the


reader full-circle. Below are five standard methods for writing an effective conclusion, followed by a brief example of each.

Close with a rhetorical question. Have not many great leaders been true nonconformists who influenced the course of history?

Refer back to an anecdote (story) begun in the introduction. So, like Henri, just because someone is different, doesn't mean that person isn't also a lot like everyone else.

Close with a simple analogy, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Like Jim Casy from Steinbeck's Grapes of Wrath, Huck Finn is a true friend who exhibits the courage necessary to change a life.

End with a concluding remark about the startling statement made earlier. Make the choice to save your life today and every day. Wear your seatbelt.

Close with an appropriate quote. As Mark Twain put it, “If you always tell the truth, you don't have to remember anything.” It's all about one's values...and we know there are too few of those in the world today.

Three parts of a conclusion:

1. General wrap-up of topic2. Restate thesis statement in a different way3. Refer somehow back to attention-getter

MECHANICS:


Capitalization

BASIC RULES

Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

Capitalize the names of specific things and places.

Specific buildings:I visited the Empire State Building.She uses the Jamestown Post Office.

Specific streets, cities, states, and countries:He lives on Elm Street in Vermillion, South Dakota.Take a left on Reservoir Road.The groups come from Australia and France.

Specific organizations:National Honor Societythe United Nations

Specific institutions or businesses:American Civil Liberties UnionFirst National Bank

Specific bodies of water and rivers:Sheridan Lakethe Pacific Oceanthe Missouri River

Specific geographical and monument names:Death ValleyGulf of Mexicothe Yukon TerritoryMount Rushmorethe Washington Monument

Specific air, sea, space and land craft:Air Force Onethe TitanicDiscovery

Specific names of school classes:Myth & SymbolAmerican History 2Algebra 1

Do not capitalize general class names like math, science, history, etc.


Specific celestial bodies—planets, galaxies, stars,constellations, etc. Do not capitalize sun or moon.

Capitalize days of the week, months of the year, and holidays. Do not capitalize the names of seasons.

The last Thursday in November is Thanksgiving Day.I cannot wait until summer and the Fourth of July!

Capitalize the names of all languages, nationalities, races, religions, and deities (gods).

My Danish friend speaks German and English, too.The Koran is the sacred book of Islam.the Christian God, Buddha, Allah

Capitalize historical events, periods, and documents.

the French Revolutionthe World CupThe Bill of RightsWorld War IIthe Middle Ages

Capitalize directions and sections of the country or world.

My family is from the South.Elada, who is from the Middle East, is our exchange student.Do you come from a Midwestern town?I’ve always wanted to visit China, in the Far East.

Capitalize people’s names and titles, as well as brand names.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.Professor Julie MonteroSergeant MitchellSecretary of StateNike shoesTaco BellChevrolet, Ford

Capitalize family relationships when used in place of names.

“Hello, Mom? Are you coming to the game?”“Hey, there, Brother-in-Law!”My favorite people are Grandpa and Aunt May.

Note: Do not capitalize relationships when not used in place of names:


My mom is coming to the game.Kevin is my brother-in-law.I’m buying a gift for my grandpa and my aunt.

Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation if the word begins a complete sentence.

The director said, “You have been chosen for the part.”

“You have been chosen,” she said, “for the part.”

Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all important words in TITLES. Do not capitalize articles (“a” “an” “the”), prepositions, or short connecting words unless they begin the title.

The Grapes of Wrath BooksThe Crucible PlaysThe Mona Lisa Works of ArtStar Wars MoviesThe Rapid City Journal NewspapersPeople Magazine Magazines“The Road Not Taken” Poems“The Monkey’s Paw” Short Stories“Stairway to Heaven” Songs“America the Beautiful”

CAPITALIZATION PRACTICE WORKSHEET


Draw three lines under the letters that should be capitalized in the following sentences.

1. in 1803, we negotiated the Louisiana purchase from france.

2. The members of the automobile workers union appealed to president reagan.

3. My favorite TV shows are law and order, and storage wars.

4. The law professor wrote a letter to judge wiley.

5. many senior citizens spend winters in the southwest.

6. Every tuesday, the general visits mercy general hospital.

7. The kremlin, located in moscow, once housed the soviet government.

8. He shouted angrily, “why can’t you ever be on time?!”

9. The scholastic aptitude test will be given on saturday, october 19th.

10. My aunt marie is from iowa.

11. The constitution of the united states was signed on september 17, 1787.

12. Everyone knows that converse shoes are the most popular all over the world.

13. It looks like tough times for governor jacobsen.

14. Her uncle lives farther south than the rest of the family.

15. Most people don’t know easter is also a pagan holiday.

16. His great-grandfather lived through the great depression.

17. My math class is taught by a former crew member of the shuttle, challenger.

18. His favorite kind of cheese brand comes in a box: velveeta cheese.

19. The senator replied, “we will do all we can to rescue the survivors.”

20. The movie was based on a story from the old testament in the book of genesis.


Punctuation

BASIC RULES

COMMAS

Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series. These items can be composed of words, phrases, or clauses.

3 words: Our flag is red, white, and blue.3 phrases: The black lab raced out the door, down the steps, and across the front yard.3 clauses: Alex Rodriguez, who joined the Yankees in 2004, who is the highest paid player in baseball, and who is widely viewed as one of the best players ever, tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs.

Use a comma before the conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) separating two complete sentences.

-I work hard, and I get good grades.-The house caught fire, so I called 911.-His car is in good shape, but it’s not worth much.

Use a comma to set off parts of dates, addresses, and geographical names.

-I was born on December 12, 1989, in Michigan.-I lived at 243 Center Street, Chicago, Illinois, for two years.-She dreamed of teaching in Quito, Ecuador, South America.-He always wanted to go to Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.

Use a comma between adjectives that describe the same noun.

-My friend bought a shiny, expensive Challenger.-I wore my favorite, sporty, red sweater.

Use a comma after introductory words, expressions, phrases, or clauses.

-Well, it looks like we lost the election.-As a matter of fact, this clock comes from Germany.-In the beginning of a course, get to know the instructor.-To be quite certain, we ran the blood test twice.-When the food arrived, the dog snarfed it down greedily.


Use commas to set off words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence.

-We will, however, take an X-ray.-Dad, of course, said “no.”-Sandy, the girl with the braids, has a white parrot.-Society, in my opinion, is too focused on money.-The Badlands, which I love to hike in, are just over there.

Use commas around a noun of direct address (the name or title of someone directly spoken to).

-I thought, Rosa, that I saw your picture in the paper.-You, Jerry, will finish working on the motor.-We accomplished the mission successfully, Sir.-She wants you, Amy, to drive to the airport.

Use commas to set off certain titles/abbreviations.

-Ken Miller, Sr., M.D., made the diagnosis.-Martin Luther King, Jr., was a great orator.-Hills Materials, Inc., employs many people.

Use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.

-“I think, therefore I am,” said a great philosopher.-The author often states, “Believe in yourself.”-“Let them,” she said, “eat cake.”

Use a comma when there is a chance of misreading or confusion.

-What this is, is a mystery.-Before eating, the cat prowled through the barn.-When you can, come and visit us.-Some types of skin cancer can kill, doctors say.

SEMICOLONS (;)A semicolon separates sentence elements. It indicates a more definite break than a

comma does, but a less abrupt break than a period does.

Use a semicolon to join two complete sentences that are somehow related.

-He decided to consult the map; she decided to ask a pedestrian.

Use a semicolon before certain joining words when connecting two separate sentences. Words commonly used with semicolons include:

however, therefore, instead, besides, thus, consequently, in fact, that is, etc.


-He decided to consult the map; however, she decided to ask a pedestrian.-I believe in egalitarianism; that is, I believe everyone should be socially and politically equal.

Note that you should place a comma after the joining word.

Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when the items themselves already contain commas.

-I have lived in Cody, Wyoming; St. Louis, Missouri; and Fort Collins, Colorado.-She had lunch with Kelsey, her best friend; Mrs. Otto, her English teacher, and Bella, my sister-in-law.

COLONS (:)A colon separates sentence elements, and brings marked attention to what follows.

Use a colon to introduce a series of items, providing a full sentence is used before the colon.

-Please bring the following items: two pencils, two pens, two notebooks, and two folders.-We ordered everything in the catalog: shoes, socks, pants, and shirts.

Use a colon between two sentences when the second explains the first.

-She was an exceptional child: at seven she was hitting home runs over the center-field fence.-Martinez knows the state of Arizona: he used to be its governor.-There is one thing I can’t stand: racism.

Use a colon to introduce a long, formal quotation.

-Edward Langley once said: “What this country needs is more unemployed politicians.”

QUOTATION MARKS

Direct Quotation: represents a person’s exact words. -The senator said, “I will work to end poverty.”

Indirect Quotation: reports the general meaning of what was said without using the exact words. Often uses“that.”

-The senator said that she will work to help out the poor.


Use quotation marks to begin and end a direct quote. Capitalize the first word of the quote. Usually, set off the quote with commas.

-Stanley said, “My feelings were hurt.”-“Because of you,” said Kaitlyn, “we are going to be late!”

Always put commas and periods inside the quotation marks. Put question marks and exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they are part of the quote.

-“What is the meaning of life?” asked the little girl.

Use quotation marks for material copied word for word from a source.

-According to the New York Times, “The average adult body contains forty to fifty quarts of water.”

Use quotation marks for TITLES of shorter works:-short stories, poems, songs, newspaper articles, magazine articles, chapters in a book, episodes of a TV series, website articles, etc.

“SMALL STUFF”

UNDERLINING (ITALICS, if typing)

Underline or italicize the names of specific air, sea, space, and land craft.

-the Titanic, Old Ironsides, Challenger

Underline or italicize TITLES of longer works:-Books, movies, albums (CD’s), Newspapers, Magazines, Plays, Works of Art, Television Series

BIG STUFF

DASHES (--)A dash indicates an emphasized interruption of the main idea, usually in the form of an

explanation or remark. Dashes can be used in place of a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or parentheses.

Interrupter at the end of a sentence:-I love Europe—the history is amazing.-Candice is smart—she got a thirty on the ACT.

Interrupter in the middle of a sentence:-He arrived—and I know this for a fact—in a Ferrari.-The city council—made up of six members—took a vote this morning.


HYPHENS (-)A hyphen is shorter than the dash, and is used for many purposes.

Use a hyphen when writing out the numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. twenty-two credits sixty-four days

Use a hyphen with fractions used as adjectives. one-half liter three-fourths majority

Use a hyphen to join words that collectively describe a noun, or act as a noun on their own. out-of-date calendar twelve-year-old girl better-than-average student

a two-year-old a sister-in-law a Jack-in-the-box

PARENTHESESThese are used mainly to insert extra information that your readers might want to know

but that is not essential for the main idea. Such information is not emphasized. Parentheses are the strongest separators a writer can use, and should be used sparingly. The tricky part is the punctuation!

When a phrase or sentence interrupts another sentence, do not use an initial capital or an end mark inside the parentheses.-My car (a heap of crap) isn’t running right now.-My car (it is a heap of crap) isn’t running right now.

When a question or exclamation interrupts another sentence, use both an initial capital and an end mark inside the parentheses.-This house (Could it be haunted?) isn’t selling.-This house (It’s been on the market for years!) isn’t selling.

With any sentence that falls between two complete sentences, use both an initial capital and an end mark inside the parentheses.-My dog is black. (We call it “stealth mode.”) She is difficult to see at night.

In a sentence containing parentheses, place the punctuation for the main sentence after the parentheses.-When I retire (in about forty years), I want to travel.-She was tired (after working a twelve-hour shift).


APOSTROPHES

Use an apostrophe to show that letters or numbers are missing.

-She’ll definitely win the 100-meter dash.

She’ll = She will. The apostrophe stand for the “wi” in “will.”

-I would like to have lived in the ‘20s.

‘20s = 1920s. The apostrophe stands for the “19.” Notice that an apostrophe is not placed before the “s.”

Use an apostrophe to show possession.

Rule A: Add -‘s if the noun does not end in –s.-Robert’s license was taken away.-The hospital’s waiting room was crowded.

Rule B: Add –‘s if the noun is singular and ends in –s.-Charles’s shoe came untied.-The bus’s door jammed.

Rule C: Add only an apostrophe if the noun is plural and ends in –s.-Ten thousand fans’ cars jammed the parking lot.-The mountains’ peaks were not visible.

Add an –‘s to abbreviations that end in periods, letters of the alphabet, numbers, words referred to in a text, etc.

-Clerks check people’s I.D.’s before selling cigars.-Logan hit two 777’s in a row on the slot machine.-Carmen received three A’s and two B’s for finals.-She uses too many “like’s” when she speaks.


COMMAS PRACTICE WORKSHEET

Place commas in the following sentences. Use the reading/rules for help.

1. On Thursday November 14 1977 officials discovered a major body of polluted water in Oswego New York.

2. Problems with the water supply of the United States Europe Canada and other parts of the world are growing.

3. You will use on an average day twenty-four gallons of water for flushing thirty-two gallons for bathing and washing clothes and twenty-five gallons for other uses.

4. American cities often developed next to rivers and industries followed soon after.

5. Many people have not been educated about the dangers to our water supply nor are all our legislators fully aware of the problem.

6. To many people from the East the plans to supply more water to the western states seem unnecessary.

7. When they entered Salt Lake Valley in 1847 the Mormons found dry soil that needed water before crops could be grown.

8. Some parts of our country studies have shown do not have ample supplies of water.

9. The rocky soil of Virginia for example cannot absorb much rainwater.

10. “Dad could I borrow twenty dollars?” I begged.

11. “I won’t” he insisted “be a part of your scheme.”

12. We surveyed the students in the class; out of the twenty seven were college-bound.

13. Well the machine is running but we’ve run out of raw materials.

14. He got his tattoo at a shop called Tattos Inc.

15. To get good grades first pay attention; second hand in all your assignments; third study!

16. Devil’s Tower which is in Wyoming is a beautiful wonder.

17. Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta Georgia and died in Memphis Tennessee.

18. The latest weather report however has predicted snow.

19. The stock market crash occurred on Monday October 29 1929.

20. “I want you William to empty the dishwasher and clean the stove” Dad said.


SEMICOLONS AND COLONS PRACTICE WORKSHEET

Read the following sentences, and decide where semicolons need to be placed. Write them in.

21. Big business wants higher profits customers want lower cost.

22. The committee was made up of Kevin Corey, a writer Anita Poindexter, a professor and Jorge Rodriguez, a politician.

23. British troops fired on a crowd of protesters in Boston in 1770, now known as the Boston Massacre the incident resulted in the death of five colonists.

24. The bank president was very polite however, he would not approve the loan.

25. My sister enjoys spending money my brother-in-law is quite frugal.

26. The work was tedious nevertheless, the goal of finding the solution kept him motivated.

27. When a musician blows air through the tube of a woodwind instrument, a reed vibrates this vibration produces the sound, a very distinctive tone.

28. The oboe, bassoon, and English horn have two reeds the clarinet has only one.

29. We’re going to visit Phoenix, Arizona Taos, New Mexico and San Diego, California.

Place colons in the following sentences.

30. I am taking the following courses Criminal Psychology, Intro. to Sociology, and Physics.

31. The head of security here has one major flaw greed.

32. I prefer my bike to a car for three reasons I don’t pay for gas, I don’t pay for insurance, and it’s all mine.

33. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish Hungarian goulash.

34. My little sister has several items embossed with Snoopy’s picture a poster, pajamas, a notebook, and a clock.

35. A driver’s license is not just a document it is a ticket to freedom.

36. This experiment has two major problems too many calculations, and too many variables.

37. Please bring the following a tent, a flashlight, a sleeping bag, and water.


QUOTATION MARKS and UNDERLINING PRACTICE WORKSHEET

Place quotation marks (“small things”) and underlining (big things) where needed in the following sentences.

38. Star Wars is a movie that has recently been marketed to a new audience more than twenty years after its initial debut.

39. I told you so, said my best friend smugly.

40. Edgar Allan Poe wrote The Tell-Tale Heart, a short story about a man who buries his friend alive under the boards in his bedroom floor.

41. Two of Shakespeare’s plays, Hamlet and Macbeth, continue to be favorites today.

42. Did you read the newspaper article called The Cost of College in the Twenty-First Century?

43. There’s an interesting article in Newsweek that I want you to read.

44. Why do you always pick on me? the girl said, sobbing.

45. The dance company is performing Swan Lake, a ballet by Tchaikovsky.

46. The Terminator is one of my favorite movies, said Rachel.

47. One of the most controversial songs of all time is Imagine, by John Lennon.

48. One of the most famous battleships of all time is Old Ironsides.

49. My favorite poem is The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost.

50. Without Me was a popular hit by infamous rapper Eminem.

51. Did you see the movie Lord of the Rings?

52. Everyone should read the book Tuesdays with Morrie because it offers a new perspective on life.


53. He loved the short stories of Eudora Welty, especially A Worn Path, Why I Live at the P.O., and The Wide Net.

54. The six movies of the Star Wars epic have all been very successful.

55. The space shuttle Challenger burnt up while re-entering earth’s atmosphere.

56. We will be reading The Cask of Amontillado, a short story by Edgar Allan Poe.

57. Let’s rent the movie The Lorax!

58. Our teacher always says, Wear your seatbelt!

DASHES and HYPHENS PRACTICE WORKSHEET

A. Add hyphens where required in the following sentences.

59. I need to get an up to date computer!

60. The news said that a six year old boy is missing.

61. Our firm does not allow its employees to make long distance phone calls.

62. At forty three, John F. Kennedy was this nation’s youngest president.

63. Stephen King has written many best selling novels.

B. Add dashes where required in the following sentences.

64. Mayonnaise contains three ingredients egg yolks, vegetable oil, and vinegar.

65. You have a choice obey the rules or get kicked out.

66. Many countries especially France and the United States have beautiful national anthems.

67. Equality a word whose meaning some people don’t understand is a very important factor in our society.


68. The rumor is that several if not all of the members of the city council are under investigation.

69. Registration was a nightmare most of the classes I wanted to take were already full.

70. My dog Lucy she’s a schnauzer is very amusing.

C. Add hyphens and/or dashes where required in the following sentences.

71. Anyone could be a know it all, but she really takes the term to a new level.

72. Please lose the “holier than thou” attitude.

73. I think and this is just my opinion that the minimum wage needs to be raised by two dollars an hour.

74. Ken seems to be a very accident prone individual.

75. My brother in law is a really handy guy as long as he has a roll of duct tape.

76. The judge wants to know who let the thirteen year old girl drive.

77. I have six no, seven brand new South Dakota quarters!

PARENTHESES PRACTICE WORKSHEET

78. Place proper punctuation (commas and periods) and/or capital letters in the following sentences. Three sentences are correct as is. Mark them with a “C.”

79. 99. Mom thinks (could she be right) that we're lost out here in the middle of nowhere.

80. My friend's dog Lucky (he's always in trouble) jumped into the neighbor's swimming pool.

81. I like riding my bike in the morning. (it gives me energy for the day) It's tough to get up early, though.


82. After I left the party (about eleven o'clock) Nick began singing karaoke to “Born Free!”

83. We had finally accepted defeat (after many bitter hours) however, our spirit is not broken.

84. The burglar admitted to breaking into the residence, but wouldn't plead guilty to the assault (until it was too late)

85. Her grandfather and she (they have a close relationship) built that fence together.

86. First, we went to the mall. (it was so crowded) Then, we went out to the movies.

87. Whenever we eat pizza (which is a lot) the dog gets the crusts.

88. I believe in telling the truth (except for one time when I dented the car)

89. Katie and I have been friends for a long time (since 4th grade)

90. My sister (she does this all the time) listens in on my phone conversations on the extension in her room.

91. My lab partner (do you think he's cute) understands everything we're doing in science!

92. It was a dark and stormy night. (it always is) Suddenly, a shot rang out!

93. I hate dogma. (dogma is “doctrine that is strictly adhered to”)

94. When Sarah drives the camper (only on vacations) she tends to veer to the left.


95. To make a great milkshake (and who doesn’t want that) consider adding a raw egg to the mix.

APOSTROPHES PRACTICE WORKSHEET

Insert an apostrophe and/or –‘s where needed in the following items.

96. The Abominable Snowman is a mythological creature who goes by many names: Canadas “Sasquatch,” Britains “Grendel,” and the United States own “Bigfoot.”

97. William F. Cody occupies an interesting place in Americas mythology; today, hes known as “Buffalo Bill.”

98. Todays scapegoat is often tomorrows hero.

99. The Greeks philosophy of government has influenced modern political thinkers.

100. An agreement to disarm every ICBMs warhead was signed by the two nations.

101. Ama Ata Aidoo is one of Ghanas most important novelists and poets.

102. Among South Africas eleven official languages are Zulu, Africaans and English.

103. Lincolns lack of education didnt stop him from becoming a lawyer.

104. Some people claim that pride in ones work has been replaced by apathy.

105. C. S. Lewis works include the Chronicles of Narnia.

106. Its too bad that people arent more accepting of others differences.

107. In the 1300s, plague, flood, famine and war destroyed much of Europes population.

108. Angelas and Michaels study habits are somewhat lacking.

109. Charles book is missing.

110. I wouldnt have minded living in the 60s.

111. Both diplomats briefcases were stolen.

112. Each conference area has its own computer lab, and everyone there wears I.D.s.

113. The Olympic champion skated perfect figure 8s.

114. Some of the Roman aqueducts carry water to peoples houses even to this day.

115. Punctuation skills require paying close attention to ones writing.

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