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Sound Advertising
Sound Advertising: A Review of the Experimental
Evidence on the Effects of Music in Commercials on
Attention, Memory, Attitudes, and Purchase ntention
!avid Allan, Ph"!"
!epartment of Mar#eting
Saint $oseph%s &niversity
Online Publication Date: October 23, 2007
Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 12, No 3, !all, 2007
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A'stract
"#is article revie$s t#e em%irical studies on t#e interaction o& music and t#e #ierarc#' o&
advertising e&&ects, or s%eci&icall' attention, memor', attitudes and %urc#ase intention "#e most
relevant literature is anal'(ed t#roug# t#e &ormation o& t$o com%re#ensive tables o& t#eories and
e)%eriments *usic variables suc# as a%%eal, &it, melod', mood, tem%o, te)ture, tonalit', and
valence are s#o$n to in&luence consumer attitude to$ard t#e ad and t#e brand, recall, %leasure
and arousal, and %urc#ase intention "#is revie$ %rovides a summar' o& t#e results and t#e
&oundation &or &uture researc# into sound advertising
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ntroduction
+t is almost im%ossible to turn on t#e radio or t#e television, or $al into a retail establis#ment
and not $itness t#e marriage o& art and commerce -ven be&ore t#e da's o& media and malls,
music $as a ma.or &orce in consumer mareting /it#out e)ce%tion, music %la's a vital role in
t#e interactive %rocess o& consumer be#avior "#e commercial uses o& music in mareting
account &or billions o& dollars nation$ide Not sur%risingl', t#is area o& stud' #as received
considerable attention %rimaril' &ocused on t#e im%act o& music on consumer res%onses to
commercial advertising
"#ere are man' stimuli, or environmental cues, t#at retailers use to a&&ect consumer be#avior
including music, color, scents, etc *usic is considered to be t#e most commonl' studied
stimulus variable "urle' *illiman, 2000 *ost retailers $ould agree t#at music is one o&
t#eir most im%ortant considerations and e)%enses alc# S%angenberg, 1443 5illions o&
dollars are s%ent $orld$ide on music in t#e retail environment Nort# 6argreaves, 144 Past
revie$s o& e)%erimental evidence in t#is area #ave included music as %art o& a larger revie$ o&
atmos%#eric e&&ects 8am, 20019 "urle' *illiman, 2000, and more narro$l' &ocused on .ust
its e&&ect on s#o%%ing be#avior Allan, in %ress
"#ere are also man' stimuli, or e)ecutional cues, t#at advertisers use to a&&ect consumer
res%onse to commercials including music, s%oes%ersons, animation, etc *usic is also
considered to be t#e most used e)ecutional cue in commercials alc#, 1441 Dunbar 1440,
% 200 argued t#at music maes 'ou $atc# or listen ;to advertising< in a di&&erent $a'= t#an
commercials $it#out music and adds an emotional dimension to t#e consumer res%onse to t#e
brand
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/#ile it s#ould not be sur%rising t#at t#e e&&ect o& music on advertising #as been e)tensivel'
researc#ed, it s#ould be sur%rising t#at a current, com%re#ensive, and critical revie$ o& t#e
literature #as not been com%leted 5runer 1440 %rovided an earl' collection o& relevant
researc# involving music and advertising as %art o& t#e literature revie$ &or #is *usic, *ood
and *areting= but t#at is no$ more t#an a decade old Nort# and 6argreaves 1447 u%dated
t#e list as %art o& a larger c#a%ter *usic and >onsumer 5e#aviour= on t#e commercial and
industrial uses o& music advertising, s#o%s and t#e music industr' in The Sociology of Music. "
"#is article t#en, #as t#ree %ur%oses !irst, it is a revie$ o& t#e most im%ortant studies
involving music and advertising beginning $it# t#e most relevant de&initions "able 1 Second,
it is a s'nt#esis and com%arison o& variables and results "#ird, based on $#at #as been done and
#o$ it #as been e)ecuted, it is a &oundation and &acilitation &or &uture researc#
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"able 1A Summar' o& @elevant De&initions
De&inition >itation
!it "#e musicBs relevance or a%%ro%riateness to t#e central ad message *ac+nnis Par 1441
+nde)icalit' "#e e)tent to $#ic# t#e music arouses emotionCladen memories *ac+nnis Par 1441
ingle EniFue, novel l'rics $ritten &or a %articular advertisement /allace 1441
*odalit' A %itc#Crelated variable t#at is t#e con&iguration o& intervals bet$een notesin t#e scale suc# as ma.or and minor modes
Gellaris Gent 1441
*ood A &leeting, tem%orar' &eeling state, usuall' not intense and not tied to a
s%eci&iable be#avior
Hardner 14I
*usic A com%le) c#emistr' o& t#ree main controllable elements time, %itc# and
te)ture
5runer 1440
Needledro% *usic t#at is %re&abricated, multi%ur%ose, and #ig#l' conventional Scott 1440
Placement "#e %osition o& t#e music in t#e advertisement 5rooer /#eatle' 144?
Po%ular
*usic
*usic t#at is $ellClied= b' ordinar' %eo%le= S#uer, 144? t#at #as
#ad $ide e)%osure and a%%eal but usuall' &or a &i)ed %eriod o& time
S#uer 144?
"em%o A timeCrelated variable t#at controls %ace Gellaris Gent 1441
"e)ture >om%rised o& timbre and orc#estra Gellaris Gent 144?
"onalit' "#e con&iguration o& intervals bet$een %itc#es on a scale Gellaris Gent 144?
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(iterature Review
"#e revie$ o& literature is divided into t$o %arts "#e &irst %art is a discussion o& t#e most
cited t#eories and models including t#e terms and conce%ts "#e second %art is an anal'sis o& t#e
most relevant em%irical studies o& t#e e&&ects o& music on advertising A summar' table &ollo$s
eac# section
)heories and Models
Advertising and music #ave been investigated t#roug# man' variables $it# a $ide range o&
outcomes An anal'sis o& t#ese studies begins $it# a discussion o& t#e most relevant t#eories and
models "#ese t#eories and models %rovide t#e &oundation o& music in advertising
e)%erimentation and include attitude t#eor', classical conditioning t#eor', involvement t#eor'
es%eciall' t#e elaboration lieli#ood model -8*, and music t#eor'
Attitude Theory. !is#beinBs 14J3 attitude t#eor', t#at a %ersonBs attitude is a &unction o& #is
salient belie&s activated &rom memor' at a %oint in time in a given situation, is t#e %rimar'
consideration $it# all researc# dealing $it# attitude to$ard t#e ad and attitude to$ard t#e brand
As $ill be a%%arent in t#e results section, man' researc#ers #ave studied musicBs e&&ect on
attitude to$ard t#e brand in regard to %roduct %re&erence Allen *adden, 14I9 Horn, 1429
Gellaris >o), 1449 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 Par oung, 14J9 Pitt Abratt, 149 K#u,
200I and %urc#ase intention 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 *orris 5oone, 144 Ot#ers #ave
also considered attitude to$ard t#e ad and %roduct %re&erence *aclin, 149 S#en et al, 200J
and %urc#ase intention *orris 5oone, 1449 Nort# et al, 200? "#e music variables $it#
regard to attitude to$ard t#e brand and t#e ad t#at #ave been most studied are inde)icalit', or
t#e e)tent to $#ic# t#e music arouses emotionCladen memories,= and &it, or t#e musicBs
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relevance or a%%ro%riateness to t#e central ad message,= and its e&&ect on t#e %rocessing o& t#e
commercial *ac+nnis Par, 1441
Classical Conditioning Theory. PavlovBs classical conditioning, as it relates to advertising,
suggests t#at %ositive attitudes to$ards an advertised %roduct or a conditioned stimulus, usuall'
t#e brand, mig#t develo% t#roug# its association in a commercial $it# stimuli t#at are reacted to
%ositivel', suc# as music, celebrities, or color 5ut, researc# #as %roduced con&licting results
Horn 142 concluded t#at %ositive attitudes to$ards an advertised %roduct, in t#is case colored
%ens, mig#t develo% t#roug# its association in a commercial $it# ot#er stimuli lie music #e
used t#e t#eme &rom Hrease= and classical +ndian music "#e results o& t$o e)%eriments
su%%orted t#e notion t#at t#e sim%le association bet$een a %roduct and anot#er stimulus suc# as
music can a&&ect %roduct %re&erences as measured b' %roduct c#oice !urt#ermore, an individual
$#o is in a decisionCmaing mode $#en e)%osed to a commercial is more a&&ected b' t#e
in&ormation t#erein t#an an individual $#o is not in a decisionCmaing mode *an' researc#ers
#ave attem%ted to e)tend HornBs stud' but #ave been unable to re%licate #is &indings Allen
*adden, 14I9 Al%ert Al%ert, 1440, Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 As it stands,
classical conditioning a%%ears to occur unreliabl' Gellaris >o), 144 and t#en onl' in case
o& lo$ involvement consumers
Involvement Theory. +nvolvement "#eor' in general, and t#e -laboration 8ieli#ood *odel
-8* in %articular, #ave been suggested as e's to understanding #o$ music a&&ects res%onses
to advertising Grugman 14JI de&ined involvement as t#e number o& conscious bridging
e)%eriences, connections, or %ersonal re&erences %er minute t#at a vie$er maes bet$een #is or
#er o$n li&e and a stimulus= % 3IJ Salmon 14J added t#at involvement, in an' &orm,
seems to mediate bot# t#e acFuisition and %rocessing o& in&ormation t#roug# activating a
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#eig#tened state o& arousal andLor greater cognitive activit' in an interaction bet$een an
individual and a stimulus= % 2J? Pett' and >acio%%oBs 14J conce%t o& elaboration
lieli#ood re&ers to t#e lieli#ood one engages in issueCrelevant t#ining $it# t#e aim o&
determining t#e merits o& t#e arguments rat#er t#an t#e total amount o& t#ining %er se in $#ic#
a %erson engages= % J7? -8* assumes t#at once an individual receives a message, %rocessing
begins De%ending on t#e %ersonal relevance o& t#is in&ormation, t#e receiver $ill &ollo$ one o&
t$o routes= to %ersuasion: central= and %eri%#eral= /#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a
#ig# degree o& attention, t#ere is #ig# involvement and t#us a central active %rocessing route
/#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a lo$ degree o& attention, t#ere is lo$ involvement and a
%eri%#eral %assive %rocessing route Pett' and >acio%%o suggested t#at #ig# involvement $as
t#e result o& a message $it# #ig# %ersonal relevance @esearc#ers t#at #ave studied involvement
$it# regard to advertising and music #ave &ound t#at it can %ositivel' a&&ect message %rocessing
in lo$ involvement conditions *ac+nnis Par, 14419 Par oung, 14J
Music theory. "#e idea t#at music #as t#e %otential to en#ance attention stimulate a$areness
and memor' recall #as been $idel' s%eculated and researc#ed Adorno 14?1, 147J9 5artlett
Snelus, 1409 5o$er 5olton, 14J49 Hali(io 6endric, 14729 6ecer, 14?9 *aclin, 149
@ot#sc#ild, 1479 @ubin, 14779 Sc#ulind et al, 14449 /allace, 144?
*aclin 14 &ound t#at messages t#at $ere sung in a %roduced, original .ingle t#at
sounded lie a nurser' r#'me %roduced t#e same recall &rom c#ildren as s%oen messages
5artlett and Snelus 140 &ound t#at cued recall o& l'rics o& %o%ular songs &rom 1421 /#en
!rancis Dances /it# *e= to 147? *orning 6as 5roen= $as #ig#er in res%onse to melodies
t#an in res%onse to titles Sc#ulind, 6ennis, and @ubin 1444 observed a correlation bet$een
music, emotion and autobiogra%#ical, longCterm memor' o& older adults and songs &rom t#eir
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'out# $#en testing t#e "o% 20 &rom 143I On "reasure +sland= to 144? "#atBs "#e /a'
8ove Hoes= Some researc#ers #ave also observed t#e en#ancement o& recall b' music @ubin
1477 &ound t#at recall o& in&ormation is im%roved $#en cued $it# t#e melod' o& a $ell no$n
song Star S%angled 5anner= /allace 144? &ound t#at t#e melod' o& a song using t#ree
ballads &rom "#e !ran > 5ro$n >ollection o& Nort# >arolina !ollore could &acilitate recall
o& te)t b' %roviding it $it# musical structure &or learning and remembering Sera&ine, >ro$der,
and @e%% 14?, Sera&ine, Davidson, >ro$der, and @e%% 14J, and >ro$der, Sera&ine and
@e%% 1440 suggested an integration e&&ect $#ere t#e melod' or te)t o& a song using &olsongs
&rom -rdei is better recalled $it# original te)t t#an $it# di&&erent te)t "#ese results suggest t#at
music in ads #as t#e %otential to stimulate emotion, attention and recall but not all studies
su%%ort t#is t#eor' Hali(io and 6endric 1472 did not observe t#at memor' &or verbal
in&ormation $as en#anced b' %resenting t#e in&ormation in t#e &orm o& a song t#e musical
accom%animent o& a guitar A summar' o& t#e most cited t#eories and models including terms
and conce%ts can be seen in "able 2
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"able 2A Summar' o& @elevant "#eories and *odels
"#eor' >itation
Attitude
"#eor'
Suggests t#at belie&s are t#e onl' mediators o& attitude &ormation and c#ange
and t#at a %ersonBs attitude is a &unction o& salient belie&s at a %articularmoment
!is#bein
14J3
>lassical>onditioning
"#e %rocess o& be#avior modi&ication b' $#ic# a sub.ect dog comes tores%ond in a desired manner to a %reviousl' neutral stimulus bell t#at #as
been re%eatedl' %resented along $it# an unconditioned stimulus &ood t#atelicits t#e desired res%onse
Pavlov1427
-laboration
8ieli#ood
*odel-8*
Assumes t#at once an individual receives a message, %rocessing begins
/#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a #ig# degree o& attention because it
is relevant t#ere is #ig# involvement and t#us a central active %rocessingroute /#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a lo$ degree o& attention
because it is not relevant, t#ere is lo$ involvement and a %eri%#eral%assive %rocessing route
Pett'
>acio%%o
14J
6ierarc#' o&
Advertising
-&&ects
"#e %rocesses o& attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its
content, develo%ing attitudes, and generating conative ;tendenc' to
move to$ards< res%onses occur in a seFuential causal c#ain
"#orson et al 1442
+nvolvement "#e number o& conscious bridging e)%eriences, connections, or %ersonalre&erences %er minute t#at a vie$er maes bet$een #is or #er o$n li&e and a
stimulus
Grugman 14JI
*usic
"#eor'
"#e recall o& in&ormation is im%roved $#en cued $it# t#e melod' o& a $ell
no$n song "#e melod' o& a song can &acilitate recall in certainenvironments "#ere is a correlation bet$een music, emotion and memor'
@ubin 1477
/allace 144?Sc#ulind et al 1444
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*aria'les
/#ile t#e amount o& consumer be#avior t#eories and models used in t#e investigation and
e)%lanation o& musicBs e&&ect on advertising ma' be relativel' &e$, t#e variables #ave been man'
and varied "#e &ollo$ing is a summar' o& t#e most $idel' observed inde%endent and de%endent
variables including a continuum, &ollo$ed b' a com%re#ensive revie$ o& t#e results o& t#e
interaction o& t#ese variables
Independent Variables. "#e im%act o& music on advertising #as been observed $it# a variet'
o& be#aviors $#en mediated eit#er individuall' or t#roug# t#e interaction o& certain variables
*usic a%%eal lie or dislie #as been observed in relation to %roduct %re&erences Allen
*adden, 14I9 Horn, 1429 Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 "#e e&&ect o& music
arousal or mood a tem%orar' &eeling or state $as studied $it# %urc#ase intention Al%ert
Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et al, 200I9 Gellaris *antel, 144J *usic &it #as been observed in
relation to message %rocessing *ac+nnis Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J
Di&&erent t'%es o& music %lacementsLtreatments vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, etc and recall
#ave been researc#ed Allan, 200Ja9 @oe#m, 20019 /allace, 1441, 144?9 alc#, 1441 *usic
%resence #as %ositivel' a&&ected %roduct %re&erence and %urc#ase attention $#en interacting $it#
attitude *aclin, 149 *orris 5oone, 1449 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 Par oung, 14J9
/#eatle' 5rooer, 144? and recall *aclin, 149 Olsen, 144I9 /#eatle' 5rooer,
144? !inall', music tem%o s%eed or %ace, te)ture timbre and orc#estration, modalit'
intervals bet$een notes, and tonalit' intervals bet$een %itc#es in a scale #ave been s#o$n to
#ave t#e %otential to en#ance %leasure and arousal resulting in a greater %urc#ase intention
5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris Gent, 1441, 144?9 Gellaris @ice, 1443
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ependent Variables. /#en mediated $it# t#e above variables, t#e e&&ect o& music in
advertising on a variet' o& consumer res%onses #as also been observed Attitude to$ard t#e ad
can be %ositivel' in&luenced b' t#e %resence o& music *aclin, 149 *orris 5oone, 1449
Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J Perce%tion o& ad time can be decreased b' arousing music
Gellaris *antel, 144J Attitude to$ard t#e brand can be im%roved b' a%%ealing music Allen
*adden, 14I9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Horn, 1429 Gellaris >o), 1449 Gellaris
@ice, 14439 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 *orris 5oone, 1449 Par oung, 14J9 Pitt Abratt,
149 K#u, 200I 5rand recall can be increased b' %ersonall' relevant and signi&icant music
Allan, 200Ja9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris et al, 14439 *aclin, 149 *ac+nnis
Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200?9 Olsen, 144I9 @oe#m, 20019 S#en et al, 200J9 /allace, 1441,
144?9 alc#, 14419 /#eatle' 5rooer, 144? *usic attitude can be %ositivel' a&&ected b'
tem%o Gellaris @ice, 14439 Gellaris Gent, 144? PleasureLarousal can be a&&ected b' not
onl' t#e tem%o but t#e tonalit' and te)ture o& t#e music Gellaris Gent, 144? !inall',
%urc#ase intention can be a&&ected b' interaction o& music and mood Al%ert Al%ert, 14409
Al%ert et al, 200I9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris Gent, 14419 *orris 5oone, 1449
Nort# et al, 200? A continuum o& de%endent variables and t#e corres%onding inde%endent
variables t#at #ave been observed can be seen in !igure 1
1?
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!igure 1DVL+V >ontinuum
Attitude "o$ard MM M AdMMM Attitude "o$ardMM 5randMMM PleasureLM M M Purc#aset#e Ad "ime t#e 5rand @ecall Arousal +ntention
*usic &it *usic arousal *usic a%%eal *usic &it *usic tem%o *usic &it
*usic %resence *usic melod' *usic te)ture *usic melod'*usic %resence *usic tonalit' *usic modalit'
*usic tem%o *usic mood *usic %lacement
*usic %resence
*usic tem%o
1I
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Results
*uc# #as been learned about music and advertising since it $as &irst used in commercials in
t#e earl' da's o& radio "#roug# a surve' and anal'sis o& e)%erimental literature and a content
anal'ses o& e)%erimental results and t#eir t#eoretical under%innings, a better understanding o& t#e
interaction o& inde%endent and de%endent variables or more conversationall', ho! music a&&ects
t#e %rocessing o& t#e ad, and ho! much it is being used in advertising, #as been ac#ieved /#at
&ollo$s is a discussion o& t#e results
Attitude )oward the Ad
S#im% 141 argued t#at attitude to$ard t#e ad A""A is an im%ortant mediator $#en a
consumer maes a c#oice Since t#en, musicBs %otential to a&&ect t#e consumerBs ad attitude #as
received some attention $it# con&licting results "#e %resence o& music $as s#o$n to a&&ect #o$
a vie$er &eels $#en looing at %rint ads *orris 5oone, 144 *usical &it resulted in a better
attitude to$ard t#e ad Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en >#en, 200J 5rooer and /#eatle' 144?,
#o$ever, re%orted no e&&ect o& music %lacement on attitude to$ard t#e ad 8ie$ise, *aclin
14 re%orted no e&&ect o& music %resence on attitude to$ard t#e ad $it# c#ildren
Ad )ime
+t #as been argued t#at, under some circumstances, t#ere is a dis%arit' bet$een ob.ective time
and %erceived time o& t#e ad and t#at t#e latter is a&&ected b' e)ternal stimuli lie music Gellaris
*antel, 144?9 144J /#ile not a lot o& attention #as been given to %erceived ad time, it is still
$ort# mentioning Arousal $as &ound to moderate t#e in&luence o& stimulus congruit' on
%erceived time suc# t#at congruit' contributed %ositivel' to retros%ective duration estimates
among sub.ects e)%osed to soot#ing versus arousing music Gellaris *antel, 144J "#e
im%lications o& ob.ective time versus %erceived time involve t#e %otential bene&its to t#e
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advertiser o& increasing memor' &or t#e ad $#ile reducing its lengt# J0Csecond versus 30C
second commercial
Attitude )oward the +rand
*itc#ell and Olson 141 argued t#at a consumerBs attitude or internal evaluation= o& a
brand #as al$a's been an im%ortant consideration in mareting researc# +t is not sur%rising t#en,
t#at a considerable amount o& investigation into musicBs e&&ect on attitude to$ard t#e brand
A""5 #as been undertaen $it# a variet' o& variables and results Horn 142 observed t#at
#earing lied or dislied music can a&&ect %roduct %re&erences but #is results $ere never
re%licated Allen *adden, 14I9 Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 "#e %resence o&
music 5londieBs "ide +s 6ig#= #ad a &acilitative e&&ect on brand attitude s#am%oo and t#eir
&unctional %er&ormance in t#e lo$ involvement condition and a distracting e&&ect &or t#ose in t#e
cognitive involvement condition Par oung, 14J *usic %resence $as also s#o$n to #ave
eit#er no e&&ects *orris 5oone, 144 or negative e&&ects S#en et al, 200J on attitude
de%ending on its &it As to #o$ t#e %rocess o& attitude c#ange to$ard t#e brand occurs, it #as
been suggested t#at it mig#t be a belie&Cbased rat#er t#an an a&&ectCbased c#ange *iddlestadt et
al, 144? 5rooer and /#eatle' 144? re%orted no e&&ect o& %lacement on attitude to$ard t#e
brand *aclin 14 re%orted no e&&ect o& t#e %resence o& music on attitude to$ard t#e brand
$it# c#ildren
+rand Recall
@ecall o& t#e brand is obviousl' a %rimar' consideration in t#e evaluation o& t#e e&&ectiveness
o& music in advertising /#en t#e music &it, t#e message %rocessing o& t#e ad $as en#anced
*ac+nnis Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200? Di&&erent music treatments original and altered
vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, silence did a&&ect recall di&&erentl' under varied conditions Allan,
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200Ja9 Olsen, 144I: @oe#m, 20019 /allace, 1441, 144?9 alc#, 1441 "#e %resence or absence
o& music $as s#o$n to be bot# attentionCgetting Par oung, 14 and distracting
/#eatle' 5rooer, 144? "#e %lacement 5rooer /#eatle', 144? or t#e %resence o&
music *aclin, 14 $as not observed to a&&ect recall *usical &it, #o$ever, $as s#o$n to
stimulate better recall o& brands Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J
Pleasure and Arousal
+t #as been argued t#at music is an es%eciall' %o$er&ul stimulus &or a&&ecting moods 5runer,
1440 "#us, it is ma'be a bit sur%rising t#at musicBs %otential to a&&ect moods %rimaril' t#roug#
%leasure and arousal garnered a signi&icant amount o& attention in t#e 1440Bs but not muc# since
During t#at time, it $as observed t#at arousing music $as &ound to %roduce greater degrees o&
mood en#ancement t#us %ositivel' a&&ecting %urc#ase intention Al%ert Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et
al, 200I9 Gellaris *antel, 144J9 *orris 5oone, 144 *usic tem%o &ast $as s#o$n to
#ave %ositive e&&ects on be#avioral intent Gellaris Gent, 1441
Purchase ntention
Since %urc#ase intention or conation $as &irst de&ined as be#avior directed to$ard action=
S#anteau Ptace, 143, % 1?4, it #as been one o& t#e most di&&icult advertising e&&ects to
researc# but arguabl' t#e most im%ortant /it# regard to %urc#ase intention and music, t#e
results varied $it# some observing signi&icant e&&ects Al%ert Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et al, 200I9
Gellaris Gent, 1441 and some observing no signi&icant e&&ects 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9
*orris 5oone, 144 "#e %lacement o& music $as s#o$n to invite attention to t#e message
and motivating consumers to %rocess t#e message and &acilitate t#e %otential to %urc#ase
5rooer /#eatle', 144? "#e combination o& music $it# silence also #as been s#o$n to be
attentionCgetting resulting in t#e en#ancement o& %urc#ase intention Olsen, 144I "#e e&&ect o&
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music tem%o $as s#o$n to #ave #ad contradictor' results $it# some re%orting a %assive e&&ect
on %urc#ase intention Gellaris Gent, 1441, and some re%orting no e&&ect 5rooer
/#eatle', 144?9 *orris 5oone, 144
Content Analyses
Onl' a &e$ studies #ave dealt $it# t#e amount o& commercials on television and radio $it#
music Ste$art and !urse 14J, % 1J0 &ound music &eatured in slig#tl' more t#an ?0 o& 1000
television commercials t#e' studied, but t#at onl' 12 o& t#ose used l'rics to directl' conve' t#e
advertising message Similar &reFuencies $ere obtained in a &ollo$Cu% stud' Ste$art Goslo$,
144, % 24 A%%elbaum and 6alliburton 1443 anal'(ed international commercials and &ound
music in 4 o& t#eir sam%le % 237 Allan 200Jb anal'(ed commercials in %rimeCtime
television and re%orted t#at J o& t#e uniFue ads contained some t'%e o& music A summar' o&
t#e most relevant Fualitative and Fuantitative studies on t#e e&&ects o& music on advertising can
be seen in "able 3
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"able 3 Summar' o& @elevant -&&ectual @esearc# +nvolving Advertising and *usic
>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
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"able 3
continued
>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
Horn 142 2??
undergraduates
*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied
music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct can directl' a&&ect
%roduct %re&erences
Allen
*adden14I
J0 undergraduates *usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied
music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct did not directl'
a&&ect %roduct %re&erences
Par oung
14J
120 $omen *usic
%resenceLabsence,+nvolvement
#ig#Llo$"V ads
5rand attitudeLin&ormation *usic #ad a &acilitative e&&ect
on brand attitude &or sub.ectsin t#e lo$ involvement
condition and a distractinge&&ect &or t#ose in t#e
cognitive involvementcondition
Se$all Sarel 14J
200 malls#o%%ersL
32 radio ads
*usic bacground 5rand recall 5acground music #ad nosigni&icant e&&ect
Pitt Abratt
14
172 undergraduate
students
*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied
music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct did not directl'
a&&ect %roduct %re&erences
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"able 3
continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
*aclin
14
7I %resc#oolers *usic bacground
Presence
Ad attitude
5rand attitude5rand recall
*usic did not en#ance outcomes
Stout 8ecenb'
14
1?4 malls#o%%ersL
I0 "V ads
*usictem%o9 mode9
volume9 %resence
>ognitiveLA&&ective res%onses
*usic #ad onl' minor e&&ects
Gellaris >o)
144
302
undergraduates
*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude No evidence t#at %roduct %re&erences can
be conditioned t#roug# a single e)%osure
to a%%ealing or una%%ealing music>lassical >onditioning
Al%ert
Al%ert 1440
? undergraduate
students
*usic *ood
Purc#ase intention
*usic #ad a signi&icant e&&ect on moods
and %urc#ase intention
Gellaris
Gent 1441
10
undergraduates
*usic tem%oL
modalit'
*usic evaluation
Purc#ase intention
"em%o and *odalit' in&luenced arousal
and intent
*ac+nnis Par 1441
17 undergraduate$omen
*usic &itLinde)icalit'
"V ads
*essage %rocessing +nde)icalit' and &it a&&ect t#e %rocessing o& bot# #ig#C and lo$Cinvolvement consumers,
in&luencing messageC and nonCmessageC
based %rocessing
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"able 3
continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
/allace
1441
120 sub.ects *usic %lacementC
SungLs%oen $ords
.inglesL
ballads
5rand recall *usic %rovides a retrieval cue
*usic acts as a &rame $#ic# t#e te)t istig#tl' &it
alc# 1441 103undergraduates
*usic %lacementCslogans $it# and
$it#out music.ingles
5rand recall *usic en#ances memor' &or advertisingslogans $#en t#e slogans $ere
incor%orated into an advertisement in t#e&orm o& a .ingle or song
Gellaris @ice 1443
I2 undergraduates *usic tem%o,8oudness,
Hender
*usic res%onses Hender moderates t#e in&luence o&loudness resulting in &emales res%onding
more %ositivel' to music at lo$ervolumes
Gellaris et al
1443
231
undergraduates
*usicCmessage &it,
AttentionCgaining
value
5rand recallL
@ecognition o& brand
name and messages
+ncreasing audience attention to music
en#ances message rece%tion $#en t#e
music evoes messageCcongruentt#oug#ts
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5rooer
/#eatle'144?
100 %artici%ants *usic tem%oL
%lacementradio ads
Ad attitudes
5rand attitudesPurc#ase intention
5rand recall
"em%o #ad e&&ects on %erce%tion
o& music but no e&&ect on DVBsPlacement #ad a stronger e&&ect
on DVBs
Gellaris
Gent 144?
2
undergraduates
*usic tem%oL
"onalit'L"e)ture
PleasureLArousal "em%o a&&ected %leasure and
arousal"onalit' a&&ected %leasure and
sur%rise"e)ture moderated tem%o and
tonalit' on %leasure
*iddlestadt et
al 144?
47 undergraduates *usic %resence 5rand attitude 5elie&Cbased c#ange
/allace144?
J? undergraduates *usic melod' 5rand recall "e)t is better recalled $#en it is#eard as a song rat#er t#an as
s%eec#, %rovided t#e music
re%eats so t#at it is easil'learned
/#eatle'
5rooer
144?
1?? undergraduate
students and t#eir
%arents
*usic
%resenceLabsence
S%oes%ersonsradio ads
5rand recall
>ognitive res%onse
*usic #indered message recall
and did not en#ance attention
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"able 3
continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
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Olsen 144I 1?? undergraduate
students
*usic
%resenceLabsencemusicLsilence
5rand recallL
attribute im%ortance
Silence e&&ectivel' increases
listener retention o& adin&ormation es%eciall' $#en t#e
#ig#lig#ted in&ormation $as t#e
last item o& a series
Gellaris *antel 144J
I undergraduatestudents
*usic arousalLcongruit'
radio ads
Ad time Arousal $as &ound to moderatet#e in&luence o& stimulus
congruit' on %erceived time suc#t#at congruit' contributed
%ositivel' to retros%ective
duration estimates among sub.ectse)%osed to soot#ing versus
arousing music
*orris 5oone 144
40 undergraduates *usic %resenceLabsence
%rint ads
-motional res%onse5rand attitude
Purc#ase +ntention
*usic a&&ected emotionalres%onse o& %rint ads No e&&ect on
brand attitude or %urc#ase
intention
@oe#m 2001 ? *5AstudentsL??
communit' %eo%le
*usic %lacementversus vocals
radio ads
5rand recall +nstrumentals %roduced greaterrecall o& t#e message i& t#e
individuals ne$ t#e song Vocals
%roduced greater recall o& t#el'rics i& t#e individuals did not
no$ t#e song
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"able 3 continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults
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Nort# et al
200?
1J2 %artici%ants *usicLvoice &it Attitude to$ard t#e ad
5rand recallPurc#ase +ntention
*usical &it resulted in better
recall o& %roducts, brands, andclaims, attitude to$ard t#e ad,
and %urc#ase intention
Voice &it resulted in better recallo& claims, attitude to$ard t#e
ad, and %urc#ase intention
Al%ert et al200I
7I undergraduatestudents
*usic mood Purc#ase intention /#en music is used to evoeemotions congruent $it# t#e
s'mbolic meaning o& %roduct
%urc#ase, t#e lieli#ood o& %urc#asing is en#anced
K#u, @ui
*e'ersC8ev',oan 200I
77L104
undergraduates
*usic meanings
embodiedLre&erential
5rand attitude +ntensive %rocessors are
sensitive to music meanings
S#en >#en200J
130 students *usic &it Ad attitude /#en t#e music does not &itmusic incongruit' it can #ave
an adverse e&&ect on attitudesto$ard t#e ad
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uture Research
+tBs been over t$ent' 'ears since 6ecer 14?, % 7 called music t#e catal'st o&
advertising= 6e suggested t#at researc#ers can better understand and use t#is magic i& t#e'
understand t#at music is too im%ortant to be $asted on amor%#ous, irrelevant, or ina%%ro%riate
goals= /#ile muc# #as been done, t#ere is still great %otential &or real researc# into musicBs
e&&ectiveness= Dunbar, 1440 5runer 1440, % 102 rein&orced in #is revie$ o& literature t#at
t#e relevant bod' o& researc# $as indeed still meager= and Nort# and 6argreaves 1447, % 22
concluded t#at t#e &ield is ;still< underCinvestigated= A number o& t#e studies revie$ed #ave
suggested additional researc# t#at eit#er #as not been undertaen or needs additional
investigation "#ese include more collaboration bet$een t#e %rivate and academic sectors, a
longitudinal stud' on t#e amount o& music in advertising, more attention to t#e e&&ect o& music on
brand image, t#e use o& di&&erent e)%erimental environments, and &inall' a ric#er investigation o&
t#e e&&ect o& music &it and inde)icalit' on advertising
Advertisers and Academics
Al%ert and Al%ert 1441, % 23J called &or more coo%erative e&&orts bet$een academic
researc#ers and industr' %ractitioners a%%l'ing musical t#eories to advertising e)ecutioners=
"oo o&ten t#e e&&orts remain se%arate $it# t#e industr' &indings unavailable oint e&&orts $ould
bene&it bot# %arties to better understand $#en and $#' music $ors in advertising= % 23J
*an' advertisers use %o%ular music in t#eir advertising es%eciall' The "ap and #ld $avy "#e
Ha% %rimaril' uses original l'rics $it# Old Nav' utili(ing altered l'rics Since t#e' are bot#
o$ned b' t#e same %arent com%an', it $ould be bene&icial to not onl' conduct an academicall'C
based e&&ectual stud' as $ell as to correlate t#e &indings $it# sales results during t#e cam%aign
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At t#e ver' least, %rivate researc# s#ould be made available to t#e academic communit' to veri&'
t#e results and %rovide a %ractical basis &or t#e use o& music in advertising
Advertising and Popular Music
+t is clear t#at t#ere is a need to more consistentl' Fuanti&' and trend t#e use o& music,
es%eciall' %o%ular music, in advertising Ste$art and !urse 14J, % 1J0 lamented t#e absence
o& its s'stematic measurement and set out to %rovide suc# documentation +n a later re%ort,
Ste$art, !armer, and Stannard 1440 recommended t#at additional researc# $as needed in t#is
area Nonet#eless, onl' A%%elbaum and 6alliburton 1443 and Allan 200Jb #eeded t#is
recommendation b' anal'(ing international commercials A longitudinal investigation o& t#e
amount o& music in advertising, es%eciall' %o%ular music, s#ould be conducted to trac its
%roli&eration and %rogression
Since t#e use o& %o%ular music in advertising continues to %ros%er, more needs to also be
no$n about t#e e&&ects +n &act, Gellaris and Gent 1441, % 2? suggested &urt#er stud' into t#e
e&&ects o& musical com%onents on t#e %rocessing o& verbal material eg, song l'rics, advertising
messages *ore needs to be done $it# %o%ular music and altered l'rics eg e5a', Old Nav'
"#is could include more diverse demogra%#ics and t#e role o& listener c#aracteristics in s#a%ing
res%onses to music Gellaris Gent, 144?, % 347 Additionall', $#ile com%arisons #ave been
made bet$een some %lacementsLtreatments vocalsLinstrumentals, etc, a larger stud' needs to
be done com%aring all %ossible treatments vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, altered vocals, and a
control treatment o& silence Also a%%arent is t#e need &or &urt#er researc# into t#e role o&
bacground music Al%ert Al%ert, 1440, % 130 +t is also clear t#at $e need &urt#er
investigations o& advertisements $it# songs t#at re%resent varied st'les o& %o%ular music=
@oe#m, 2001, % I7
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!inall', *c>#esne' 2001 called %o%ular music and advertising t#e banru%tc' o& culture=
and 5urns 144J called it disturbing and even s#ocing= Advertisers $#o use it consider it a
marriage o& art and commerce= and Allan 200I suggested t#at t#e combination o& %o%ular
music and advertising creates a ne$ cultural %roduct= >learl', more attention needs to be given
to t#e social and et#ical im%lications o& t#e use o& %o%ular music and advertising "#is can be
done as %art o& a longitudinal stud'
+rand mage
Stout and 8ec#enb' 14, % 223 called &or more researc# into t#e contribution made b'
music to brand image= +t is clear t#at man' advertisers are using music to create an image eg,
iPod /#at is not so clear is musicBs e&&ectiveness or t#e im%lications &or t#e music andLor
artists eg, E2 A related area o& consideration is t#e use o& music in t#e imaging o& a brand as
a distribution c#annel eg, Starbucs -ac# o& t#ese areas o& researc# is certainl'
underdevelo%ed and $arrants &urt#er investigation Additionall', some %o%ular music and artists
are actuall' being e)%osed and branded= t#roug# advertising eg, *odest *ouse and
%lacement in television s#o$s eg, Hre'Bs Anatom' "#e e&&ects o& advertising and media on
%o%ular music could also be investigated
Environments
Scott 1440, % 23? argued t#at $e must not let our met#ods drive our t#eories but must
instead design our met#ods in a $a' t#at can encom%ass $#atever t#eor' seems articulate
enoug# to &ull' describe t#e %#enomenon= Studies need to be conducted under more realistic
vie$ing and listening conditions 5runer 1440 agreed and called &or t#e raising o& level o&
e)%erimental so%#istication= % 100 !ar too man' studies continue to be done in isolated lab
environments One %ossible idea $ould be to observe and surve' customers in "#e Ha% or Old
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Nav' $#en t#eir res%ective advertisements are %la'ed in t#e store Additionall', due to t#eir
gro$ing distribution o& music, Starbucs %rovides a %otentiall' e&&ective &ield e)%eriment
location
it and ndexicality
*ore studies need to &urt#er investigate &it a %ersonBs %erce%tion o& t#e musicBs relevance
and inde)icalit' a %ersonBs emotionCladen memories "#is researc# can be e)%anded to loo at
various genres and eras o& music $it# s%ecial attention given to t#e %ersonal relevance o& t#e
musicLe&&ect o& %rocessing -8* Additionall', more &ocus needs to be given to t#e stud' o&
e)ecutional cues and t#eir %rocessing im%lications &or #ig#C and lo$Cinvolvement consumersB ad
%rocessing= *ac+nnis Par, 1441, % 172 +t ma' be t#at music can in&luence a %ersonBs
involvement $it# advertising due to some conce%tuali(ation o& involvement Kaic#o$s',
14J suc# as %ersonal, ob.ect, or situational c#aracteristics A great deal o& contem%orar'
advertising utili(es classic roc music evidentl' targeted to$ards 2ICI? males, 'et some
teenagers are also listening to t#is genre o& music &rom t#e 1470s +t ma' certainl' be involving
to bot# demogra%#ics $it# muc# di&&erent inde)icalit', not to mention &it !urt#er investigation
must be conducted to determine t#e conseFuences
Conclusion
So is 'our advertising sound i& 'ou use sound in advertising "#e researc# suggests t#at music
is more liel' to %ositivel' t#an negativel' a&&ect t#e consumerBs res%onse to 'our advertising
"#atBs t#e eas' %art but not ver' #el%&ul to an agenc' tr'ing to advise an advertiser on $#et#er or
not to use music and $#at music to use "#e use o& music in general, and t#e t'%e o& music in
%articular, must be care&ull' c#osen $it# t#e target audience and t#e desired outcome driving t#e
selection +t is clear &rom t#is revie$ t#at music #as been s#o$n to bot# %ositivel' and negativel'
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stimulate a variet' o& res%onses including attention, mood, attitude, and %urc#ase intention "#e
stimulation o& t#ese res%onses is di&&erent based on various c#aracteristics o& t#e music itsel&
including its a%%eal, %resence, tem%o, bacground or &oreground, etc +n t#e case o& its a%%eal,
di&&erent genres o& music &rom di&&erent eras a&&ect di&&erent demogra%#ics o& consumers
di&&erentl' So itBs com%licated /#at $e do no$ &rom t#is overvie$ o& researc# on music and
advertising is t#at, $#en used e&&ectivel', it can be e&&ective "#at sounds= rat#er trite but itBs
true An advertiser s#ould not .ust use an' music in a commercial .ust &or t#e sae o& using
music +t s#ould be care&ull' c#osen and tested to %redict its %otential to stimulate a %ositive
res%onse &or t#e brand andLor t#e ad $it# t#e ultimate goal o& branding and %urc#ase "#ere is a
substantial amount o& researc# out t#ere to guide t#e advertiser and t#is revie$ %rovides t#e
&oundation &or t#at %rocess "#ere is also muc# researc# t#at needs to be done and t#is revie$
also %rovides direction and motivation
REERE-CES
Adorno, " / 14?1 On %o%ular music Studies in Philosophy and Social Sciences% &, 17C?
Adorno, " / 147J Introduction to the sociology of music Ne$ or: "#e Seabur' Press
Allan, D 200I An essa' on %o%ular music in advertising and %o%ular music: 5anru%tc' o&
culture or marriage o& art and commerce Advertising ' Society% ( 1
Allan, D 200Ja -&&ects o& %o%ular music on attention and memor' in advertising Journal of
Advertising )esearch% *( ?, 1C11
Allan, D 200Jb Popular music placement in prime+time television commercials. Pa%er
%resented at t#e Association &or t#e -ducation o& ournalism and *ass >ommunication
A-*>, San !rancisco, >A
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Allan, D in %ress Sound retailing: A revie$ o& e)%erimental evidence on t#e e&&ects o&
music on s#o%%ing be#avior +n " * 8o$re' -d, ,ric- ' Mortar Shopping in the /st
Century *a#$a#, N: 8a$rence -rlbaum Associates, +nc
Allen, > ", *adden, " 14I A closer loo at classical conditioning Journal of
Consumer )esearch% /3, 301C31I
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>orres%ondence s#ould be sent to:
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