11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 1 Kant III Charles Manekin

04/18/2304/18/23 Modern Philosophy PHIL320Modern Philosophy PHIL320 11

Kant IIIKant III

Charles ManekinCharles Manekin


Topics of DiscussionTopics of Discussion

Metaphysics as an a priori scienceMetaphysics as an a priori science The analytic/synthetic distinctionThe analytic/synthetic distinction Synthetic a priori judgments Synthetic a priori judgments How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure mathematics possible?


How is a Pure Science of Nature How is a Pure Science of Nature PossiblePossible

What is “nature” for Kant? A pure science of nature is possible

through understanding the sources of the a priori features of such a science.

What are some of the a priori features?• The permanence of substance, that every

effect has a cause, and every cause entails its effect, etc.


The Sources of the Pure Science of The Sources of the Pure Science of NatureNature

These will be found in the Pure Concepts of the Understanding.

The distinction between judgments of The distinction between judgments of perception and judgments of experience.perception and judgments of experience.• J of p require the logical conception of J of p require the logical conception of

perception in a thinking substance.perception in a thinking substance.• ““The room is warm” – judgment of perception. I The room is warm” – judgment of perception. I

simply put together the subject and object, but simply put together the subject and object, but this does not constitute experience.this does not constitute experience.


Turning a Judgment of Perception Turning a Judgment of Perception into a Judgment of Experienceinto a Judgment of Experience

“Synthetic” or “expansive” judgments.• The predicate is not even implicitly thought in

the subject; the predicate-concept is not contained within the subject-concept; it adds to it.

• Example: “All bodies have weight”. “Weight” amplifies my knowledge of body.

• When I make such a judgment, I put/think together the predicate and the subject concepts; hence the judgments are synthetic.


All Analytics Judgments are known All Analytics Judgments are known a prioria priori

All Analytic judgments are based on the Law of Contradiction. • Since the predicate is already contained within

the subject, the predicate cannot be denied without denying the subject, i.e., without contradiction

• In effect, they reduce to identity statements.• All bachelors are unmarried males.

Bachelors=df unmarried males All unmarried males are unmarried males


Are all synthetic propositions a Are all synthetic propositions a posteriori?posteriori?

Well, empirical judgments, i.e., judgments of Well, empirical judgments, i.e., judgments of experience, are.experience, are.

But – and here is the shock – there are some But – and here is the shock – there are some synthetic propositions that are synthetic propositions that are a prioria priori

How are mathematical judgments synthetic? How are mathematical judgments synthetic? ““7+5=12”. The subject concept involves a 7+5=12”. The subject concept involves a

combination of two numbers in a single number. combination of two numbers in a single number. But in order to have the concept of sum, i.e., of But in order to have the concept of sum, i.e., of adding of some units to another, we need some adding of some units to another, we need some features of experience.features of experience.

Mathematical judgments proceed by way of the Mathematical judgments proceed by way of the construction of concepts.construction of concepts.

Hume’s Fork Needs be a TridentHume’s Fork Needs be a Trident


Metaphysical judgments are Metaphysical judgments are syntheticsynthetic

Here, too, one can distinguish between judgments pertaining to metaphysics (“Substance underlies properties”) and metaphysical judgments (“Substance is permanent.”)

• The first is analytics, the second is not.• “The generation of a priori knowledge by

intuition (experience) and well as by concepts, in fine, of synthetical propositions a priori, especially in philosophical knowledge, constitutes the essential subject of metaphysics.”


Is Metaphysics Possible?Is Metaphysics Possible?

Well, the important judgments of metaphysics are synthetic and a priori.

So, are synthetic a priori judgments possible?

Well, mathematical judgments are synthetic a priori. And nobody disputes the mathematics.

So how are the synthetic a priori judgments of mathematics possible?


Transcendental QuestionsTranscendental Questions

How is pure mathematics possible?How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure natural science How is pure natural science

possible?possible? How is metaphysics in general How is metaphysics in general

possible?possible? How is metaphysics as a science How is metaphysics as a science

possible?possible?


How a judgment of perception How a judgment of perception becomes a judgment of experiencebecomes a judgment of experience

Sect. 29. When making an experiment with Sect. 29. When making an experiment with Hume's problematical concept… the concept of Hume's problematical concept… the concept of cause, we have, in the first place, given cause, we have, in the first place, given a prioria priori, , by means of logic, the form of a conditional by means of logic, the form of a conditional judgment in general, i.e., we have one given judgment in general, i.e., we have one given cognition as antecedent and another as cognition as antecedent and another as consequence. But it is possible, that in consequence. But it is possible, that in perception we may meet with a rule of relation, perception we may meet with a rule of relation, which runs thus: that a certain phenomenon is which runs thus: that a certain phenomenon is constantly followed by another (though not constantly followed by another (though not conversely), and this is a case for me to use the conversely), and this is a case for me to use the hypothetical judgment, and, for instance, to hypothetical judgment, and, for instance, to say, if the sun shines long enough upon a body, say, if the sun shines long enough upon a body, it grows warm. Here there is indeed as yet no it grows warm. Here there is indeed as yet no necessity of connection, or concept of cause. necessity of connection, or concept of cause.


How a judgment of perception How a judgment of perception becomes a judgment of experiencebecomes a judgment of experience

But I proceed and say, that if this proposition, which is merely a But I proceed and say, that if this proposition, which is merely a subjective connection of perceptions, is to be a judgment of subjective connection of perceptions, is to be a judgment of experience, it must be considered as experience, it must be considered as necessary and necessary and universally validuniversally valid. Such a proposition would be, ”the sun is by . Such a proposition would be, ”the sun is by its light the cause of heat." The empirical rule is now considered its light the cause of heat." The empirical rule is now considered as a law, and as valid not merely of appearances but valid of as a law, and as valid not merely of appearances but valid of them for them for the purposes of a possible experience which the purposes of a possible experience which requires universal and therefore necessarily valid rules.requires universal and therefore necessarily valid rules. I I therefore easily comprehend the concept of cause, as a concept therefore easily comprehend the concept of cause, as a concept necessarily belonging to the mere form of experience, and its necessarily belonging to the mere form of experience, and its possibility as a synthetical union of perceptions in possibility as a synthetical union of perceptions in consciousness generally; but I do not at all comprehend the consciousness generally; but I do not at all comprehend the possibility of a thing generally as a cause, because the concept possibility of a thing generally as a cause, because the concept of cause denotes a condition not at all belonging to things, but of cause denotes a condition not at all belonging to things, but to experience. It is nothing in fact but an objectively valid to experience. It is nothing in fact but an objectively valid cognition of appearances and of their succession, so far as the cognition of appearances and of their succession, so far as the antecedent can be conjoined with the consequent, according to antecedent can be conjoined with the consequent, according to the rule of hypothetical judgments.the rule of hypothetical judgments.

ALL SYNTHETIC A PRIORI PRINCIPLES ARE PRINCIPLES OF ALL SYNTHETIC A PRIORI PRINCIPLES ARE PRINCIPLES OF POSSIBLE EXPERIENCEPOSSIBLE EXPERIENCE


Schematization of Pure Schematization of Pure Concepts of UnderstandingConcepts of Understanding

Every cause has an effect (Maxim Every cause has an effect (Maxim based on pure concept of cause)based on pure concept of cause)

Every cause proceeds its effect Every cause proceeds its effect (note the element of time that is (note the element of time that is added – and time is the inner form added – and time is the inner form of sensible intuition.)of sensible intuition.)

Hence, the pure category must be Hence, the pure category must be represented as temporal – represented as temporal – schematized. schematized.


How is nature possible?How is nature possible? Nature in the material sense is possible by Nature in the material sense is possible by

means of the constitution of our sensibilitymeans of the constitution of our sensibility Nature in the formal sense is possible by means Nature in the formal sense is possible by means

of the constitution of our understanding.of the constitution of our understanding. ““we must not seek the universal laws of nature we must not seek the universal laws of nature

in nature by means of experience, but in nature by means of experience, but conversely must seek nature, as to its universal conversely must seek nature, as to its universal conformity to law, in the conditions of the conformity to law, in the conditions of the possibility of experience, which lie in our possibility of experience, which lie in our sensibility and in our understandingsensibility and in our understanding


How is Metaphysics in General How is Metaphysics in General PossiblePossible

The problem posed by pure reason:The problem posed by pure reason:

The empirical use to which reason limits the pure The empirical use to which reason limits the pure understanding, does not fully satisfy the proper understanding, does not fully satisfy the proper destination of the latter. Every single experience is only a destination of the latter. Every single experience is only a part of the whole sphere of its domain, but the absolute part of the whole sphere of its domain, but the absolute totality of all possible experience is itself not experience. totality of all possible experience is itself not experience. Yet it is a necessary [concrete] problem for reason, the Yet it is a necessary [concrete] problem for reason, the mere representation of which requires concepts quite mere representation of which requires concepts quite different from the categories, whose use is only different from the categories, whose use is only immanent, or refers to experience, so far as it can be immanent, or refers to experience, so far as it can be given. Whereas the concepts of reason aim at the given. Whereas the concepts of reason aim at the completeness, i.e., the collective unity of all possible completeness, i.e., the collective unity of all possible experience, and thereby transcend every given experience, and thereby transcend every given experience. Thus they become transcendentexperience. Thus they become transcendent


Concepts of Understanding vs.Concepts of Understanding vs.Ideas of ReasonIdeas of Reason

Concepts apply to experience; Ideas go beyond experience.

The source of errors in metaphysics lies in reason’s going beyond the bounds of experience – the reflection on the pure ideas of reason.


Deductions of the Ideas of Reason Deductions of the Ideas of Reason from the Forms of Syllogismfrom the Forms of Syllogism

In syllogistic reasoning, we are presented with a conclusion, and we ask, “What are the conditions for the conclusion?”

The Ideas of Pure Reason are based on the assumption that there can be a complete set of conditions, i.e., the conditions for the conditions for the conditions, etc.


Ideas of Pure ReasonIdeas of Pure Reason

Categorical Syllogism (“Every A is B/Every B is C//Every A is C”) yields the the Idea of the Self (the complete subject)

Hypothetical Syllogism (“If A then B/If B then C// If A then C”) yields the Idea of the World (the complete series of conditions)

Disjunctive Syllogism (“Either A or B/Either B or C//Either A or C”) yields the Idea of God (the complex of possibles)

The ideas of the Self, the World as Complete, and God, are of no help in determining the laws of nature or experience – they are beyond experience.


Categorical Syllogism (“Every A is B/Every B is C//Every A is C”) yields the the Idea of the Self (the complete subject)

Hypothetical Syllogism (“If A then B/If B then C// If A then C”) yields the Idea of the World (the complete series of conditions)

Disjunctive Syllogism (“Either A or B/Either B or C//Either A or C”) yields the Idea of God (the complex of possibles)

The ideas of the Self, the World as Complete, and God, are of no help in determining the laws of nature or experience – they are beyond experience.


Psychological IdeasPsychological Ideas

The Concept of the self is not given in experience; in fact the Subject cannot be an object of experience precisely because it is a subject. The soul as eternal is something for which no experience is possible. At best we can say that soul is permanent as long as we are alive (because of our temporal experience of the unity of consciousness.

The defeat of the Cartesian distinction between skepticism of the External World via certainty of the Internal World.


Cosmological IdeasCosmological Ideas

1. Thesis: The World has, as to, Time and Space, a Beginning (limit). Antithesis: The World is, as to Time and Space, infinite.

2. Thesis: Everything in the World consists of [elements that are] simple. Antithesis: There is nothing simple, but everything is composite.

3. Thesis: There are in the World Causes through Freedom. Antithesis: There is no Liberty, but all is Nature.

4. Thesis: In the Series of the World-Causes there is some necessary Being. Antithesis: There is Nothing necessary in the World, but in this Series All is incidental.

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11/26/2015 Modern Philosophy PHIL320 1 Kant III Charles Manekin