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1.1 How and why do the Earth’s tectonic plates move?
a The Earth’s interior hasa layered structure, with different composition
and physical properties; the Earth’s core generates heat and convection
currents drive plate motion.
Interpret a cross-section of the Earth, with details (temperature, density,
composition, physical state) of layered structure (including the
asthenosphere); using rock samples to contrast continental and oceanic
crust.
Layers of the earth
Lithosphere- the top bit of the mantle which is solid and the Earth’s crust.
Asthenosphere- The asthenosphere is a part of the Earth's mantle, lying just
below the crust and the lithosphere. The asthenosphere is made up of rock
which is soft due to the heat of the mantle.
Inner Core- The inner core is the centre of the earth and is the hottest part of
the earth. It is a solid mass of iron and nickel. The temperature of the core is
around 5500°C
Outer Core- The outer core is the layer around the inner core. It is also made
up of iron and nickel though it is in liquid form.
Mantle- This layer is made up of semi molten rock, known as magma.
Crust- This layer is between 0-60km thick. It is made of plates of rock that
float on top of the mantle.
2
Rocks
The continental crust is thicker and lighter than
the heavier, thinner oceanic crust.
Continental crust is made of rocks such as
granite. This is less dense than the oceanic
crust.
Oceanic crust is made of rocks such as basalt. This is
more dense than the continental crust.
Examine the core’s internal heat source (through radioactive decay) and how
this generates convection, which drives plate motion and generates the
Earth’s magnetic field.
Why do plates move?
The earth's tectonic
plates are in constantly
moving like giant
'rafts' on top of the
semi-molten mantle
below. However this
movement is slow and
rates vary from less
than 2.5cm /yr to over
15cm/yr.
The movement of the
earth's crustal plates
is believed to be due to
convection currents
which occur in the
semi-molten mantle. These convection currents are created by heat from within
the earth - much of which is generated by radioactive decay in the core.
3
b There are
conservative,
constructive and
destructive plate
boundaries, each with
characteristic volcanic
and earthquake
hazards.
Explain the distribution
of the three plate
boundary types and
identify major plates.
There are 4 different
Plate Boundaries:
• Constructive
(When 2 plates
move apart.)
• Destructive (When
an oceanic plate
and continental
plate move
towards each
other.)
• Conservative
(When 2 plates
move alongside
each other.)
• Collision (When 2
continental plates
collide.)
• Constructive
(When 2 plates
move apart.)
4
Constructive Plate Boundaries
A volcano happens on a
constructive plate boundary
because two plates are moving
apart, leaving a gap in the crust.
The pressurised magma in the
crust immediately rises through
the gap and erupts as lava as it
leaves the mantle and travels
through the crust. This builds new
land between the plates, and
builds up to form a volcano shape
(shield volcano, short and fat). As
the crust moves apart over time
more lava erupts from the mantle
to fill the gap between the plates. The eruption of lava can also build up to form
volcanic islands.
The slow movement of the plates occasionally can be felt as earthquakes as the
ground moves as the convection currents in the mantle pull the plates apart in
opposite directions.
Destructive plate boundaries
Volcanoes form on a destructive
plate boundary when an oceanic
plate and a continental plate are
being pulled towards each other by
the convection currents, the
oceanic plate is much denser and is
therefore forced to sink
underneath the continental plate
(subduction). The oceanic plate is
melted by the heat in the mantle
and the friction of grinding
against the continental plate.
The melted oceanic plate releases
carbon dioxide into the mantle,
and is therefore pressurised. This
magma finds a weak point in the
crust and forces its way out, erupting as lava and making a volcano.
5
Destructive plate boundaries continued
Earthquakes happen on destructive plate boundaries because the oceanic plate
and continental plate are being dragged towards each other by convection
currents, the denser oceanic plate forces underneath the continental plate and
the plates grind together as the oceanic plate subducts into the mantle. The
movement of the grinding and friction between the plates is felt on land as an
earthquake. The oceanic plate can also become stuck against the continental
plate until some of the crust breaks, making the oceanic plate descend suddenly
into the mantle. This causes higher magnitude earthquakes.
Conservative Plate Boundaries
(When 2 plates move alongside
each other.)
Earthquakes happen on
conservative plate boundaries
because the continental plates
are being dragged past each
other, or in the same direction,
by convection currents. They are
not moving at the same speed
which causes the friction felt as
earth quakes. The plates grind
together as they pass each other
causing minor earthquakes. The
movement of the grinding and
friction between the plates is felt on land as an earthquake. The plates
can also become stuck against each other until some of the crust breaks,
as they are not moving at the same speed, when this happens the plates
suddenly move past each other, this violent movement is felt on the
plates as a higher magnitude earth quake.
Collision Plate Boundaries
Two continental plates “collide” (crash into each other)
as they are travelling towards each other. The plates
are equally dense, and therefore neither plate can sink.
They therefore “fold up” to form Fold Mountains such as
the Himalayas, like cars crumple in a crash. The impact
of the collision can cause minor earthquakes which travel
outwards in waves. THIS BOUNDARY IS NOT
ASSESSED IN YOUR EXAM.
6
Examine the causes of contrasting volcanic (volcano type, magma type and
explosivity) and earthquake hazards, including tsunami (shallow versus deep,
magnitude) at contrasting example locations, e.g. Iceland and Indonesia.
Measuring volcanoes and earthquakes
Volcanic Explosivity Index
The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
shows the size or magnitude of
explosive eruptions. It is 0-8 in terms
of explosivity. Each number is equal to
ten times the one below it. It accounts
for ash fall, pyroclastic flows and other
substances ejected the height of the
eruption and duration.
Richter Scale
There are two ways to measure earthquake intensity; the Mercali scale and the
Richter Scale. The Richter Scale is outlined below.
7
Mercali Scale
The Mercalli Scale has an intensity score (1-12) with a descriptive word, e.g.
instrumental. The magnitude on the Richter scale and a description of each
category is below.
Mercalli Scale
Intensity Description Magnitu
de Witness Observations
1 Instrumental 1 to 2 Detected only by seismographs.
2 Feeble 2 to 3 Noticed only by sensitive people.
3 Slight 3 to 4 Resembling vibrations caused by heavy traffic.
4 Moderate 4 Felt by people walking; rocking of free standing objects.
5 Rather Strong 4 to 5 Sleepers awakened and bells ring.
6 Strong 5 to 6 Trees sway, some damage from overturning and falling
object.
7 Very Strong 6 General alarm, cracking of walls.
8 Destructive 6 to 7 Chimneys fall and there is some damage to buildings.
9 Ruinous 7 Ground begins to crack, houses begin to collapse and pipes
break.
10 Disastrous 7 to 8 Ground badly cracked and many buildings are destroyed.
There are some landslides.
11 Very
Disastrous 8
Few buildings remain standing; bridges and railways
destroyed; water, gas, electricity and telephones out of
action.
12 Catastrophic 8 or
greater
Total destruction; objects are thrown into the air, much
heaving, shaking and distortion of the ground.
8
More explosive volcanoes usually cause more damage.
The focus is the point underground where earthquakes originate, the epicenter it the
point above this on earth’s surface.
Shallow focus earthquakes (where the focus is much nearer the epicenter and therefore
closer to earth’s surface) cause more destruction than deep earthquakes, as they
produce more shaking on the surface as the waves do not have to travel as far.
DEEP FOCUS earthquakes or "intra plate" earthquakes, occur within the sub-ducting
oceanic plates as they move beneath the continental plates. Appearing along fault lines,
these are earthquakes with focus much deeper within the earth.
SHALLOW FOCUS earthquakes are commonly occurring "crustal" earthquakes, caused
by faults and movements of the continental plates. These are earthquakes with their
focus nearer the surface of the earth.
Montserrat Volcanic Eruption
Causes- Atlantic plate subducting under the Caribbean plate- destructive plate
boundary.
Volcano Type-Composite volcano (layers of ash and lava, steep sides)
Magma Type- Rhyolitic (basalt melted with silica from the earth, this is very
explosive).
Explosivity- 4 on VEI- large or very explosive.
Laki (Iceland) Volcanic Eruption
Causes- Constructive plate boundary- two plates move apart. The largest lava
flow in recorded history was generated by a fissure eruption in south central
Iceland in 1783. Known as the Laki flow, it erupted from a 25-kilometer-long
fissure to produce 12 cubic kilometers of lava, filling two deep river valleys and
covering an area greater than 500 square kilometers.
Volcano Type- Shield (chocolate button shaped- gentle sloped sides and wide
base).
Magma Type- basaltic lava (fast flowing, spreads quickly)
Explosivity- 6 on the VEI= colossal/very large.
Kashmir Earthquake
Causes- Collision plate boundary between Indian and Eurasian plates.
Shallow focus-16.2 miles under the earth. This is very unusual. This is very deep
for a crustal earthquake.
Magnitude 7.6 on Richter scale.
9
Loma Preita Earthquake, California
Causes- Conservative plate boundary; North America Plate (moving South) and
Pacific Plate (moving North).
Shallow focus- 11 miles under the earth. This is very deep for a crustal
earthquake.
Magnitude 7.1 on Richter scale.
Asian Tsunami 26th December 2004
Causes- (Earthquake on destructive plate boundary) The Asian tsunami of 2004
was caused by tectonic activity beneath the Indian Ocean. A fault twenty miles
below the ocean surface ruptured, forcing one of the plates to be thrust
upwards by as much as 40 feet. The ocean above was forced upwards and the
displaced water moved out as a series of giant ripples. From the land, the first
sign of a tsunami is the water being dragged out to sea. The vertical wall of the
tsunami destroyed everything in its path
Shallow/Deep- Shallow focus- 20 miles deep.
Magnitude- 9.3 on Richter Scale.
10
1.2 What are the effects and management issues resulting from tectonic
hazards?
a Volcanic and earthquake hazards affect people in different ways and at
contrasting locations.
Investigate the primary and secondary impacts of earthquakes in two named
locations, e.g. the 2005 Kashmir versus 1989 Loma Prieta earthquakes. To
include reasons for contrasting impacts on property and people.
Kashmir, Pakistan, 2005 (Developing Country)
On 8 October 2005, an earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale hit the
Kashmir region of Pakistan. The earthquake was the result of collision between
the Indian and Eurasian plates.
Effects:
Primary effects Secondary effects
Buildings collapsed.
79,000 people were killed.
Landslides, and large cracks
appeared in the ground.
Broken sewerage pipes contaminated water
supplies and spread disease.
People died of cold during the harsh winter.
Long term homelessness.
Responses:
Short term
Help took 24 hours to arrive from abroad- locals
surface searched themselves up to this time.
Long term
People were prosecuted for poor building
construction.
The army and emergency services arrived to join
the rescue effort.
Tents were given out by charities.
Aid workers arrived from abroad to find
survivors and treat the injured.
Teams from Britain used specialist search and
rescue equipment to rescue people from
collapsed tower blocks.
Schools and hospitals were rebuilt.
Building regulations were improved to
reduce damage and the death rate in future
earthquakes.
*You need to say HOW successful (evaluate) the methods used to respond to the Kashmir Earthquake and recongnise Pakistan needed
aid, and that help took too long to arrive.
11
Loma Prieta Earthquake Tuesday, October 17, 1989, San Franciso, USA
(Developed Country)
Primary Impacts Secondary Impacts
63 people died.
3757 injured
Cyprus Freeway (road on stilts)
collapsed.
Bridges collapsed.
10, 000 homes destroyed
30 fires broke out.
Homes needed rebuilding.
Cyprus freeway took 10 years to
rebuild and was made more earthquake
resistant.
Many older homes which were
destroyed were rebuilt to a higher
standard.
Transport issues- traffic.
People who were now disabled needed
benefits and homes adapting.
Reasons the effects of the Kashmir and Loma Prieta earthquakes were
different:
Loma Prieta- collapsed freeway has immediate response to rescue trapped
people, Kashmir Earthquake help took 24 hours from abroad. San
Francisco had a larger search team than Kashmir.
Building standards generally higher in San Francisco therefore less
deaths and injuries.
Kashmir 5x more powerful.
12
Examine the primary and secondary economic and social impacts of one
volcanic event.
Montserrat Volcanic Eruption Primary Economic Impacts Secondary Economic Impacts
The biggest eruption in 1997 killed
many farm animals and crops, these
therefore couldn’t be sold.
People lost their farms and businesses
(and therefore had no income,
creating high unemployment).
The port was destroyed, and the
airport was unsafe to use, which
halted exports (and therefore
external income).
The loss of farm land is still impacting
Montserrat’s development as it cannot
grow as many crops and therefore has
less income and has to pay for more
imports.
Key infrastructure including the main
port, airport, businesses and schools have
had to be rebuilt in the north, this was
expensive.
Montserrat had little tax income due to
residents leaving and high unemployment;
this meant the island relied on aid money
to recover.
Primary Social Impacts Secondary Social Impacts
The biggest eruption in 1997 killed 19
people.
People were traumatised and afraid.
Schools, homes and transportation
hubs were destroyed.
5000 out of the 10 000 residents left.
Lack of educational facilities limited
opportunities.
Long term homelessness and
unemployment caused a low standard of
living.
13
b Management of volcanic and earthquake hazards, at contrasting locations,
ranging from short term relief to long-term planning, preparation and
prediction.
Examine the role of prediction, warning and evacuation in relation to
volcanic and earthquake hazards. Contrasting hazard resistant design in the
developed and developing world.
Developed Developing
Prediction- Seismometers monitor plate
movements to sense earthquakes that could
cause tsunamis. EARTHQUAKES CANNNOT
BE PREDICTED but patterns of smaller
earthquakes indicate plate movement and can
come before bigger quakes.
Tilt metres and seismometers sense magma
movement and plate movements which can
cause volcanic eruptions.
Prediction- Often little investment,
Developed countries provide developing
countries with warnings.
Warning- Police and army can be used to do
door- to- door evacuation.
News- TV and radio.
Leafleting.
Automated phone calls.
Warning- Police and army can be used to do
door- to- door evacuation, but there are too
few staff.
News- radios and TV used to warn.
Leafleting- charities often use helicopters to
drop in leaflets.
Evacuation- Police and army used to
evacuate, all local governments have hazard
management plans.
Evacuation- People told to evacuate but
resources are often not there to support.
Army are used on occasion.
Hazard Resistant Design:
Retrofitting- flexible steel supports
which “sway” with the earthquakes and
reduce collapsing risk.
Dampers-shock absorbing springs or
dampers can be put under buildings to
allow them to “wobble” or sway within
their foundations.
Bracing- corner supports to stop
collapse.
“Pointing”- replacing cement in house
regularly to ensure bricks are well held
together.
Hazard Resistant Design:
Ring beams- Circular beams around
houses hold the walls together and
prevent the roof collapsing inwards
onto people.
Sloped roofs- these prevent ash build
up and roof collapse.
In Nepal straw blocks are being used to
build homes as it is cheap and will cause
less injuries when the buildings
collapse. Much safer than bricks or
concrete.