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SystemMaintenance ndEnvironmental eform n Mexico

Salinas'sPreemptive trategyby

Stephen . Mumme

Evidenceof Mexico's ecologicalcrisis s everywhere. ifty ears ofeconomicmiracles nd debacles have eft ts environment n a shambles.Whether ne considers he net eduction f Mexican forests y 66 percentoverall,with n annual ate f oss in excess of a million cres, ttendantproblems f soil erosion nd desertification,he eduction f the Lacandonjungle y 70percent nthepast 0 years, he oss of thousands f pecies ffauna nd flora, he ontamination f ver 0 percent f ts treams ndrivers,the degradation f its two most elebrated atural akes at ChapalaandPatzcuaro, hemassive il spills long he Gulf f Mexico oastline, amag-ing national isheries nd aquatic ife, he nadequate anitation r sewagefacilities n half f Mexico's ities nd towns,MexicoCity's ubious tatusas the world's worst metropolitan ir polluter, r the virtual bsence ofhazardous-waste isposalfacilities gainst backdrop f intensive oxicwaste roduction, t s clear Mexico's nvironmentals at he reaking oint.'

The social costs of ecological declinehave been profound. ural reashave borne he brunt f environmental eglect s public policiesfavoringcommercial ndexport-orientedgriculture epressed rices or raditionalcommodities,ncreased actor osts, nd rewarded onoculture roduction.The effects re seen in the decline of sustainable griculture ractices,increased ependency n pesticides nd artificial ertilizers, estruction fforests nd other esource ommons, isplacement f rural opulations,increasedabormigration, nd welling umbers f mmigrants o Mexico'scities. n Oaxaca's Mixteca lone, rable and has been reduced 0 percent,forcing housands f campesinos nto he tinerant abor tream Wright,1990: 95).Stephen . Mummes a professorfpoliticalcience tColoradotate niversity, ort ollins. isresearchnterests ocus nenvironmentndnatural-resourcesolicynLatin merica, ith pecialemphasis nMexico nd heMexico-Unitedtates order egion. e has uthored r oauthoredwide ange f rticles ndmonographsncluding pportioning roundwater n the U.S. MexicoBorder 1 988).

LATIN AMERICANPERSPECTIVES, ssue 72, Vol. 19 No. 1,Winter 992,123-143i) 1992LatinAmerican erspectives

123

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124 LATINAMERICAN PERSPECIlVES

In Mexico's cities, apid urbanization as generated roblems angingfrom he raditional nes of urban nfrastructure n water, anitation, astedisposal, ousing, nd ransportothemore ontemporary ealth azards fair nd oxic ollution Schteingart, 988:280-284).Mexico'surban orkingclasshasbeenespecially ulnerable o the cological problems ssociatedwith rban rowth. ousing carcity, nadequate orking onditions,patialextensions etween esidence ndworkplace,ob insecurity, oor ranspor-tation, nd nadequate ecourse o health ervices nd other ocial supports

all combine o ncrease he risks f exposure o urban ollution ndreduceindividual apacity o deal with ts ffects.In the 1980s, cological ecline ontributed o the ntensity nd ntracta-

bility f Mexico'sdecade-longconomic risis. Whole ndustries avebeenadversely ffected. articularly ard-hit re hose elying n the xploitationof renewable atural esources.n regions ffected y the expansion fMexico'spetroleumndustry, holesale estruction f ecosystems ndercutboth ubsistence nd commercial gricultural ystems ust as the conomydeclined Toledo,1984; Vasquez Bottello nd Paez, 1987). Oil spills ndindustrial ollution amaged oastal nd nland isheries uring he ameperiod. n the groexport readbaskets f the north, xcessive eliance npesticides nd salinatedwater poiledproductive and,reducing ields fexportable rops Nuccio, Ornelas, ndRestrepo, 990:34). Contractionsnsuch labor-intensive ndustries t a time of economicrecession urtherdiminished he bsorptive apacity f the conomy.

The structural oundationsf Mexico's environmental risis an be lo-cated n the iberal evelopment trategy ursued y Mexico'sgoverningregime ince he 940s Barkin, 990; Cockcroft, 983).Under his trategy,described y some as an alliancefor profits, olitical litesplacedtheresources f heMexican tate ehind ts rivate ector, ubsidizingndustrialdevelopment nd urbanization t the expense f rural reas and resistingdemands or edistributionf the esources enerated y economic rowth.Through 970 Mexico'sdevelopment roject ollowed hewell-configuredpathway f mport-substitutingndustrialization, ith ts mphasis n shel-tering henational ourgeoisie rom oreign ompetition. heexhaustion fthis trategy nfavor f xport-orientedndustrializationnthe eventies ndeighties einforced evelopmentnequities. ossof self-sufficiencyn foodproduction, xcessivedependency n oil exports, ntensive ndebtedness,inflation, nemployment,nd a drastic onstriction n social spending reprominent mong he onsequences.

Responding othese ressures fter 982,Mexico's eadershipettisonedthe estiges f national opulismnfavor fwholesale conomic iberaliza-tion.The new politics f structural djustment hackled he government's




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Mumme MAINTENANCEAND REFORMN MEXICO 125

capacity orespond ogrowing emands or he melioration f nvironmen-talproblems. hedecision o reduce overnment pending, liminate estric-tions n foreign nvestment,ndreduce ther arriers o private apital hasdiminished he tate's everage ver he private ectorwhileopening ewspacesfor ndustrialnvestmentndgrowth, herebyncreasingnvironmen-tal risks.Nowhere s thismore vident han long he U.S.-Mexico order,where henumber f maquiladora lants ncreased rom 00 to 1,700,withdramatic ncreasesntoxicwastes nd ndustrial ollution.

Paradoxically, owever, exican eaders ave beenmore ctive han verin the field of environmental eform. wo major revisions f the basicenvironmentalaw havebeenpromulgated,longwith umerous odifica-tions f other aws and a host f technical nd regulatory rdinances. heparadox f environmental eform oupledwith widening ap betweenpolicy ndperformancesattributablenthemain o the rowing oliticiza-tion f the Mexican lectorate n the 1980s s economic risis nderminedthe regime's egitimacy. n fact, Mexico's political risis antedates heeconomic risis by perhaps decade Cockcroft, 983: 237; Harris ndBarkin, 982: 11-12). Beginning n 1979,reforms imed t shoring p thegovernment's egitimacy icensednew politicalparties o participate nelectoral olitics. he 1980s economic risis nd evidence f the govern-ment's neptitudenhandling he 985 arthquake nd ther isasters reatlyaccelerated he politicalmobilization hat followed.New social move-ments of ecologists, omen, eighborhood lliances, nd others joinedpolitical arties s instruments f mobilization. he fact hat he majority fthesemovementsdentified ither vertly r ndirectly ith eftist oliticalparties ntensified overnment oncernwith he management f politicalopposition.

Against his ackground, exican nvironmental olicy n the 1980s sbest understood s preemptive eform. imed t diverting r cooptingpotential hreats o the political ystem rising rom olitical mobilization,particularly rom ewlymobilized roups, reemptive eform asbeenbasicto the regime's trategy ormanaging olitical issent; t has become venmore ritical t a time f structural djustment nd ntensified pposition othe egime's olicies rom he eft. s noted y Coleman nd Davis 1983: 3),such reforms ypically ave two dimensions, ne substantive, heotherorganizational. he substantive trategy eeks o reduce olitical ressuresbydistributing esourcesopotential ritics f the ystem, ndthe rganiza-

tional trategy eeks to reduce hethreat f dissent y providing ormalavenues fparticipationopotential issenters. uchpreemptive eformsreparticularlyn evidence nder he urrent overnment f CarlosSalinasdeGortari.




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126 LATINAMERICAN PERSPECTIVES

Salinas'senvironmentalnitiative ay best be seen as a situated ndreactive esponse o the hreat f unconstrainednvironmental obilizationand as part f a basic strategy f containing oliticalmobilization t a timeof declining ystem egitimacy nd economic risis. Preemptive eformchallenges he ndependencend development f the nvironmental ove-ment nMexico nd has been partly ffective n dividing he nvironmentalmovement ndneutralizingts ffectiveness n the Mexican olitical rena.Even o,environmental roups ave dramatized he ap between olicy nd

performance n environmentalssues nd remain positive orce or nvi-ronmentalmprovementndpolitical hange.

ENVIRONMENTALMOBILIZATIONIN THE EIGHTIES

Mexicanenvironmental olicy s a distinctive odyof law originates,properly peaking, ith he romulgationf he edcral aw to Prevent ndControl nvironmental ollution n 1971. The new law set out generalprinciples or reserving he uality f air,water, nd soils andestablishedfor he irst ime n organic asisfor egulatingnvironmentalonditionsnMexico. t didnot tipulate henorms nd tandards ecessary or mplemen-tation. nspired y the vents urrounding hefirst nitedNations onfer-ence on Environment nd DevelopmentnStockholmn 1972, he awwasfundamentally top-down eform hich receded ignificant opularmobi-lization nenvironmentalssues n Mexico ymore han decade.As variousanalysts avenoted, he 1971 legislation as initiated lmost xclusivelywithin he government nd counted nly few professional ssociationsamong ts ponsorsJuergensmeyerndBlizzard, 973).Mounting videnceof serious nvironmental roblems otwithstanding, sidefrom few cat-tered onservation roups, nvironmentaloncern emainedn exotic ssueinMexican olitics, he rovince f lite, mostly ntragovernmentalpinion.

Throughout he seventies, nvironmental oncern t the official ndsocietal evels anguished. he basic law was so general n content ndwanting n force hat t remained ittle more han symbolic ocument(CabreraAcevedo, 978).Formal egulatoryesponsibility as centered talow evel n heMinistry fHealth, ith ffective uthority ispersed crosshalf dozenministriesMumme, ath, ndAssetto, 988).Societal nterestin environmentalssues, ontinued o mount driven by deteriorating on-ditions nMexicoCity, epredations rising rom he ilboom n Mexico'sGulf oast, ndother actors and t wasarticulatedargely y ntellectuals,academics, nd few rofessional roups ensitive o domestic nd nterna-tional rends, ot yorganized nvironmental roups. Ecology was ncor-




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Mumme MAINTENANCEAND REFORM N MEXICO 127

porated s an evaluative ategory n the government's fficial lanningdocumentsn1978, ut ot ntil he nd f he opezPortillo dministration,in ate 1981, wasmore ubstantial eform orthcoming.2

Thepromulgation f a new environmentalawin January 982 markedthe urning oint oward nvironmental obilizationnMexico.Respondingto growing riticism f the overnment's erformancen the nvironmentalarena, gain entered n Mexico City, his aw coincidedwith indeed waslargely nspired y the presidentialampaign f Miguel e la Madrid. e la

Madrid's ampaign asthe irst nMexicoto stress nvironmental hemes.On taking ffice n December1982, de la Madridupgraded cologia'spriority ithin he administration, ombining he portfolios orhousing,urban development, nd ecology in a new cabinet-levelministry, heSecretaria e Desarrollo rbano Ecologia Ministry fUrban evelopmentandEcology SEDUE),and nvestingt with roader dministrativeuthor-ity n environmental attersSEDUE, 1983;DiarioOficial, 984).

de la Madrid's nvironmental eform ollowed hepattern f preemptivepolicymaking. irst, t was undertaken n the context f rising, lthoughpoorly rganized, oncernwith nvironmental ollution n Mexico City.de la Madrid's dvisors awthe pportunity ocapitalize npopular oncernby levating he riority f nvironmentalssues nthe overnment'sgendaand ctively romoting nvironmentalwareness nMexican ociety.

Second, e a Madrid tressed he mportance fpopularmobilizationndsought he ead in promoting hedevelopment f environmentalnterestgroups. eginning nmid-1983, national ampaign f publicmeetings ndforums t the ocal, state, nd national evels was undertaken opromoteenvironmentalwareness nd publicize henewenvironmentalegislation.The campaign ulminated n a four-day ational nvironmental ongress,June -8, 1984, twhich elaMadrid resided Medina, 984). During hisyear-long ampaign nvironmental rganizationsnd nterests ere ctivelypromoted nd invited o participate n the many public discussions fMexico's nvironmental redicament. hecampaign adthe ntended ffectofpromoting he rganizationnddevelopmentf xisting ndnew nviron-mental nterest roups nd egitimizing heir articipationn Mexicanpoli-tics. New national organizations uch as the Movimiento cologistaMexicano MexicanEcologyMovementMEM), the AlianzaEcologista(EcologicalAlliance AE), and the Pacto de Ecologistas EcologistsCompact- Pacto)were ormed ith hapters ationwide.3lthough ost f

these ocal chapters ere mall nd appedmainly neducated,middle-classbase,the mergence f nationwide rganizations as a fundamentally ewphenomenon. n a lesser cale,the 1983-1984 nvironmental obilization




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also reached rban working-class nd rural onstituencies, hose ctivistswere uick o ink ocioeconomic emands oenvironmentaloncerns.

Third, he de la Madrid nitiative xtended o administrative nd regula-tory eforms. ere, he principal nnovations ere he reation f SEDUEandthe onsolidation f administrative uthority n thenew nvironmentalministry. ther lements ncluded dministrative ecentralization part fmuch arger nitiative odisperse dministrativeuthority ownwardo tatesandmunicipios,ncorporatingcological onsiderationsnto lanning oc-

uments t state nd ocalas well as national evels nd tiffening anctionsfor iolating nvironmentalaws Nacional inanciera, 983;DiarioOficial,1984).

In all these espects, he e aMadrid eforms pproximatedhemodel fpreemptive eform. he mobilization ampaign,whichwas popular ndeffective nstimulating roup ormationndexpansion, ought oplacethegovernmentn a tutelary oleon environmental obilization.t openedupnew organizational pportunities or nvironmentally inded itizens ndbroadened he potential copefor participationn environmental ecisionmaking.Under he new legislation, owever, nvironmental roupsre-mained ependent n thegovernment or nput. irtually o action-forcingmechanisms,egislative,udicial, r dministrative, ere vailable CabreraAcevedo, 986). On the ubstantive ide, he reforms reated ew occupa-tional pportunities ithin he arious evels f government or artymem-berswith nvironmentalnterests nd ncreased he evel fofficial ttentionto environmental ssues s a distinct olicy omain.

Aspreemptive olicy, owever, e la Madrid's eforms ell hort f theirintended bjective. irst, hemobilizationnitiative ad he ffect fbroadlylegitimizingnvironmental alues nd ctivism. he newly mobilized nvi-ronmental roups roved o be more ssertive nd critical f governmentpolicies and performance han anticipated, ith costly political results.Stimulated y nternationalvents ikeChernobyl ndBhopal nddomesticcalamities ike the 1984 San Juan xhuatepec as explosion nd the 1985MexicoCity arthquake, nvironmentalists ere ble to draw onsiderableattention ogovernment olicy ailures.n the ase of Mexico'sfirst uclearpower acility t LagunaVerde, nvironmentalists irectly elayed mple-mentation or ver year t a daily ost stimated t U.S. $150,000 Excel-sior, July 1, 1988:EE1).Dissatisfaction ith EDUE's performancenaddressing ressing roblems uch s Mexico City's irpollution ontributedto ts reputation s the most roubledministry n Mexicangovernment itsawfour ifferent ecretaries etween 982 and 1988. Such pressure em-onstrated hat he nvironmental ovementn Mexicowas far rom eingthoroughly o-opted.




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Mumme MAINTENANCEAND REFORMN MEXICO 129

Second, he nvironmental obilizationoincidedwith he nset f the1980s conomic risis. orced y reditors oreduce pending ndreallocaterevenues odebt eduction, he overnment educed udgetary llocations oSEDUE,andthey emainedparse hroughout e la Madrid's erm. mple-mentation f the nvironmental aw remained ymbolic, onfined ovolun-tary nteradministrativegreements convenios) hatwere honored n thebreach nd to appeals o civicpride. he basic aw was not upplementedwith he necessary echnical orms nd regulatory rdinancesreglamentos)

thatwouldgive t effect. nforcement hus emained poradic nd argelynonpunitiven nature.Third, he nvironmental obilizationoincidedwith major risis f

political egitimacy ssociatedwith he failure f the conomic model ndde la Madrid's ubsequent etrenchmentn political eform. heemergenceof a more vigorous pposition movement reated ew opportunities orenvironmentalistso lly hemselves ith olitical arties ritical f he artidoRevolucionarionstitutionalInstitutionalevolutionaryarty PRO).

By the 1988 presidential lections, number f environmental roupswere either ffiliating irectly ith pposition arties r linking heir e-mands ndependently o a critique f the political ystem s such. Thegovernment's ailure o addressMexicoCity's rban ollution roblem ndto make oncessions o environmentalnterest roups n the LagunaVerdeissue, EDUE's widespread eputation or orruption nd patronage atherthan dministrative ommitmentoenvironmentalalues, ndgovernment'sabandonment f sustainable gricultural rograms-the widely toutedSistemaAlimentaria exicana MexicanFoodSystem SAM) of the ateseventies as a victim all contributed o the rosion f confidence n thegovernment's redibility n environmental ssues.This, n turn, ueled e-mands or undamentalolitical hange s the reconditionor nvironmentalimprovement. t he nd f he e a Madrid dministration, he nvironmen-talmobilization ore omeresemblanceoPandora's ox the nvironmen-talconcerns nleashed eredifficult o harness.

THE 1988 PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN

The environmentaltrategy f de la Madrid's uccessor, arlosSalinasde Gortari, as been shapedby the rapid mobilization f environmental

concern nd the new saliency f environmental ssues in the Mexicanelectorate, articularlynMexicoCity. eightened isibility f nvironmen-tal oncernsn hemedia, he ampaigns f nvironmental rganizations,ndthebroadening f environmental iscourse y someof these rganizations




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to a critique f the ystem tself ave combined o persuade alinas's teamof the olitical olatility f the ssue.

The inkage oelectoral olitics as manifest s early s the presidentialprecampaignn the ummer nd fall of 1987 as political arties n the eftand the right ncorporated nvironmental hemes nto arty latforms. l-thoughMexico'sprincipal nvironmental nterest roupswere politicallycautious nd did not ffiliate ith olitical arties, number f prominentenvironmentalistsent heir upport o the eft pposition.4henewPartido

Verde Green Party) favored he eft populist breakaway ampaign fCuauhtemoc ardenas, hose rente acional emocraticaNational em-ocratic ront FDN) presented n unprecedented hallenge o the govern-ment RI(El Dia, July , 1987: 3).

The urban lectorate, articularlyn Mexico City, ith 0 percent f thenational opulation nd he nation's olitical enter, as a crucial est or hePRI. The alience f he nvironment orMexicoCity's oters as high, ithvoters anking cologia ust behind personal ecurity s their rincipalnoneconomic riority nd pointing o air pollution s their number neconcern Excelsior, ecember 5, 1987:Al; January 4, 1988:Al; deAlba,1989).From the outset, he Salinas campaign ave special attention o theenvironmental ssue. Salinas directly ddressed Mexico's environmentalpredicament n two important ampaign peeches nd incorporated hesubject s subtext nto arious thers. wo of hisclosest ssociates,ManuelCamachoSolis, the head of SEDUEuntil tepping own to direct hiscampaign, nd Patricio hirinos, ormerly ecretary f programming ndbudget, were assigned to manage environmental atters Excelsior,March 8, 1988: Al). Without pecifically riticizing is predecessor,Salinas's environmental peeches tressed he mportance f actual erfor-mance n environmentalssues nd the necessity f zeroing n on specificproblem reas s major riorities or overnment ction.Of these, MexicoCity was unambiguously ingled ut as the topmost riority. eightenedattention oenvironmental egulation nd government ociety ooperation(concertacion)nprotecting he nvironment ere lso stressed Excelsior,January 9, 1988:Al; February 8, 1988:A4; February 6, 1988; May 9,1988:Al).

Although t s difficult oascertain he pecific ffect f these nitiativesin appealing o urban voters, he Salinas campaign ound tself n thedefensive nthe nvironmentalssue n nterparty ontestation. nvironmen-talists ndopposition arties mademuch f the PRI's failure o address irpollution nd sanitation roblems n MexicoCity s well as its continuingdifficulties t the LagunaVerdenuclear ower lant. n the nd, hePRI's




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poor lectoral erformance n the FederalDistrict Mexico City),where treceived ust 27.6 percent f the vote, ompared ith 5.9 percent or heFDN and 24.3 percent or he right-of-center artido e AccionNacional(National ction arty PAN) suggestedtsvulnerabilityopublic issatis-faction ith ts environmental onditions mong ther actors Excelsior,July 8,1988: F1-9).

PREEMPTIVE REFORM UNDER SALINASThe policy thrust f the Salinas administration ince assuming ffice

December , 1988, has been trikingly eactive o the hallenge f environ-mentalmobilization. alinas has identified is top priority s economicrecovery ased on rapid iberalization f the conomy.5 rivatization f awide range f parastate ndustries, he ourting f foreign nvestors, co-nomic ntegration ith he United tates, he treamlining f governmentfiscal olicy, nd othermeasures re ncluded n the estructuring ackage.Other ubstantive riorities tressed n hiscampaign, cology ncluded, reunequivocallyubsidiary.

Containing ublic demands nd managing issent s instrumental oeconomic onversion. n this ontext, hedemands f the newlymobilizedenvironmental roups epresent potential hreat hat equires areful an-dling.As critics f the government's nvironmental erformance,nviron-mentalist rganizations raw attention o the failures nd tradeoffs nMexicandevelopment trategy t a time f growing lobal environmentalconcern. he popularity f nvironmental alues, specially mong he rbanworking ndmiddle lasses most lienated rom heMexican egime, arborsthe otential o trengthen ppositemovementst he xpense fgovernmentsupport. uilding n de la Madrid's precedent, alinas's environmentalpolicyhasbeenpreemptive.

THE SUBSTANTIVE DIMENSION

Onthe ubstantive ide, he hrust f Salinas'spolicy eforms adminis-trative ontinuity oupledwith ntensified nvironmental egulation.nten-sified egulation as two basicaspects: he pecification f environmentalnorms nd standards hatwillgivegreater orce o thebasic environmentallaw and selectively reater nforcement f environmental egulations.nboth ases,Salinashasrecognized heneed ooffer angible vidence f thesincerity fgovernmentnvironmentalromises, articularlyo he lienatedurban onstituencieshat bandoned he governmentn the 1988 elections.




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132 LATINAMERICAN PERSPECT1VES

In administrative atters, alinashas chosen o preserve ela Madrid'ssystem f nvironmental dministrationargely ntact. pting or ontinuity,of ourse, ontrasts ith he wholesale urnovernrules nd personnel ypicalof previous dministrations. s policy eform hismeasure s largely ym-bolic,but t does contribute o the government'smage f professionalismand better nables alinas o maintain ontrol ver sensitive ssue arena.SEDUEremains he ead agency or nvironmental olicy dministration,and its basic structure s unchanged. amacho was given he politically

sensitive ost f regent f the Federal istrict nd has since cted s pointman or he dministration's nvironmental olicy n Mexico City. hirinoswas assigned he management f SEDUE, where number f importantofficials, ncluding ergioReyesLujan,headof the nvironmental ection,were etained.

Regulatory eform as centered n elaborating n extensive etof regu-lations nd technical tandards o give force o the basic aw.The aw itselfwasaltered ate nthede la Madrid dministration March 988) with learinput rom he alinas eam nd s the oundation f the egulatory hanges.The new aw,the Ley General el Equilibrio cologico y el Protecci6n lAmbienteGeneral aw of Ecological quilibrium ndEnvironmental ro-tection), nvests EDUE with reater oordinating ower nenvironmentaladministrationnd larifies he dministrative ompetenciesfvarious gen-cies in the environmental rena.For the first ime, nvironmental mpactassessments re required or ll federal ublic works, otentially ollutingindustries, ining, ourist evelopment,nd anitation rojects. he aw alsoestablishes tricter echnical tandards n the basic environmental pheres(e.g., ir ndwater uality, olid nd toxicwaste) nd pecifies more everepenalties or iolators Diario Oficial, 988). Since mid-1988, ew regula-tions ave ddressed ehicular ollution n he ederal istrict, irpollution,hazardous-waste anagement, nvironmentalmpact egulation, nd othermattersSEDUE, 1989).Anofficial n harge f developing ules nd normsatSEDUEanticipates s many s 80 new regulations ythe nd of Salinas'sterm Rau'lGuidoGaray, ersonal ommunication, uly 2, 1989).

Although henewbattery f regulations s ostensibly pplicable ation-wide,MexicoCity as absorbed he ion's hare f ttention nthe phere fimplementationndnewprograms. ess than wo weeks fter aking fficeSalinas announced new eight-point genda for mproving he FederalDistrict's nvironment. mong ts key lements ere regime or egulatingtraffic, n nnovative rogram or egulating ehicular missions, rovisionof lead-free asoline n the Federal District, nd a water conservationprogram. ther rograms imed t the District nvolved he revamping f




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Mumme MAINTENANCEANDREFORMN MEXICO 133

garbage nd sanitation ystems, hedevelopment f urban reen pace, ndtheplanting f trees Excelsior, ecember 5, 1988:A4).

Despitethese nitiatives, any f which re genuinely nnovative ndevenunprecedented,he alinas nvironmentaleform asremainedargelyformalist nd ymbolic. ontradictingfficial romises, udgetary esourcesto SEDUEand the FederalDistrict avebeen reduced o cope with heeconomic risis. Official pokesmen or he nvironmental gencieshavebeen pen npegging iscalmprovementsorenewed conomic rowth nd

foreign ssistanceRamonOjedaMestre, ersonal ommunication, uly 1,1989).In the atter ategory, heSalinasadministrationigned technicalassistance greement ith he U.S. Environmental rotection gency nOctober 989 directed t MexicoCity Comercio xterior, 989),and itreceived n $850million cology oan from apan, lso aimed t supportingits ir pollution rogram or he FederalDistrict Nauman, 989).Evenso,the environmental rogram as to date functioned nder he most everefinancial estrictions.6

Thus, n critical espects,Mexico's economic risis has underminedenforcement f the environmentalaw.Despiteformal egulations,ctualimplementation emains d hoc. In 1989, SEDUEannounced specialprogram f ntensified nspections f the 500 most polluting ndustries nMexicoCity, nd ome ndustries ave uffered ines r losures or iolatingair quality orms. losures, owever, emain are nd are almost lwaystemporary, s leading dministrators ublicly ssert he rimacy f obs andproductivity ver environmental uality. EDUE's industrialnforcementstaff, harged ith nvestigating 5,000 ndustries nthe metropolitanrea,consists f paltry ine nvestigatorsExcelsior, ebruary 2,1990:A4,UnoMds Uno,June , 1990).7It bears mentioning n this egard hat romisesmadeby the de la Madrid dministration o relocate azardous ndustriesawayfromMexicoCity emain nfulfilled.

The Salinasadministration assought o deflect riticism, owever, yconcentrating ts efforts n a few demonstration rojects hat ppear toproject bona fide concern or environmentalmprovement.8ince thespring f 1989,officials aveput nto laceanambitiousmultidimensionalregime f motor ehicle missions nspectionsnd ransit egulationsimedat reducing irpollution nMexicoCity, 0percent f which s attributed omotor ehicles.Under his rogram,abeledundia sin auto,motorists usthave heir ehicles' missionsnspectednnually nd eave heir ars t home

ateast

ncea

week.Environmental roups ndcitizens ave been nlistedon a voluntary asisto assist olice nadministeringheprogram.Theprogram soff o a shaky tart ndremains adly nderfunded, ut t

hasbeenreceived avorably y most nvironmental roups.9 ecause thits




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134 LATINAMERICANPERSPECrIVES

at themost rosperous, thasbeenrepresented yMexicoCity fficials s apopulistmeasure y which he acrifices f a few, he2.5 million rivatevehicle wners, enefit hemany, he ity's 7.5 million ehicleless esidents(Anders, 989: 6). Even o, critics rgue hat he overnment's ommitmenttoreducing ehicular ollution sbelied y he act hat thas imultaneouslybeen ncouraging he roduction nd onsumption f motor ehicles, ffset-ting hebenefits f reduced ehicle irculation.'0 ritics lsoargue hat hegovernment as been susceptible o influence y large ndustries hose

managers nd mployees re nconvenienced ydiminished ersonalmobil-ity ne day week Excelsior, ebruary 4, 1990:A5). Automobile ealers,infact, eport nupsurge n ales hat hey ttribute opurchases f dditionalautomobiles ocircumvent heundia sin auto restrictionsWhite, 990:8).In general, uch high-profile emonstration rojects, lthough oliticallyvaluable or he overnment, lso draw ttention o ts urrent riage trategyof environmental emediationndthe ailure oregulate ther reasdesper-ately nneedof attention.

In view f the overnment's eluctanceoenforce he nvironmentalaw,one of SEDUE's most isible ctivities as been rranging nteragency ndgovernment-to-industrygreements ywhich ignatories romise o attendto environmental mprovements.uch agreements, owever, re voluntaryand ackforce. venmore roubling s their ncertain tatus s governmentparastate ndustries reprivatized. 2

In the amevein, he alinas dministration, venmore han ts redeces-sor,hasstressed he mportance f cooperative rrangements etween tateandsociety, lacing he nus of environmentalmprovement n the publicat arge. his ppeal o ivicduty as ome esonance nd erves n mportanteducational unction,ut t sbasically hetoricalndfalls onsiderablyhortof effective mplementationf state nvironmental egulations.t typicallyentails overnment-sponsoredelebrations r xhibits necological hemes,mobilization f urban eighborhoods o plant rees r collect arbage, ndother ow-costmeasures o promote nvironmentalwareness.

In sum, hepaperreforms re substantial, mplifying hepotential orimplementing heenvironmental egulations y specifying hebasic stan-dards gainstwhich nvironmental erformancen the public nd privatesectorsmaybe assessed. n the first woyears f Salinas'sterm, owever,there as been ittle hange n the government's egulatory osture. hereare exceptions, uch s the vehicle-emissionsrogram n Mexico City, uteven here government olicy s contradictory nd the program emainswoefully nderfunded. tsprivatizationnitiativeseopardize,moreover, heformal greements lreadymadeby the government's arastate ector yplacing mportant ectors f industry at least temporarily outside he




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orbit f voluntary ommitmentoenvironmentalmprovement. nder hesecircumstances,t eems air o characterizehe alinas dministration's asiccommitment s more ymbolic han ubstantive. t the very east, alinashas been unwilling o compromise r limit his economic developmentstrategy npursuit f environmental alues.

THE ORGANIZATIONAL DIMENSION

The preemptive haracter f environmental olicy nder alinas s alsoapparent n the rganizational imension. he approach sed herehas twobasicfeatures: nexpanded rena or otential articipationn nvironmentaldecisionmaking n a depoliticized ontext nd ncreased ntervention ndmanagement f nvironmental nterest roups. venby omparison ith hede aMadrid dministration,he alinas pproach as dopted he lassicpanopalo tactics f government o-optation.

Expanding renas for citizen participation n environmental ecisionmaking as been basic theme f the alinas program. he 1988 environ-mental aw aims t this nd with ew provisions or itizen articipation nenvironmentalnforcement. itle , entitled Social Participation, rovidesfor consultation ith representatives f workers, usiness, ampesinos,educationalnstitutions, rivate onprofit rganizations,ndother epresen-tatives f ociety t arge nenvironmental olicy evelopment. t requiresthegovernment o seekformal greements f cooperationnenvironmentalmatters ith wide range f private ndpublic rganizations s well as withnewmediafor he purpose f promoting nvironmental wareness, nd trequires he formal epresentation f principal ectors f society n theComisi6nNacionaldeEcologia National cology Commission),he nter-agency oordinating ody n environmental ffairs. itle , chapter , goesfarther han nyprevious awin ncluding itizens n the process f policyenforcement. nder ts provisions, he itizensmaydenounce iolations fthe nvironmentalawto SEDUE, andthe gencymust ormally cknowl-edgethe denunciation ithin 5 days and provide n official nvestigativereport nd action brief within 0 days of the original omplaint DiarioOficial, 988). Parallel o hese ormal hanges n he nvironmentalaw, heSalinas dministration asplacedheavy tress n state-society ooperation.

A good example f what his means n practice s found n the federaldistrict. ndernewadministrativehanges, ach of the district's 6wards

(delegaciones) as nenvironmentalommittee,nd he acilities f hewardaremade vailable o neighborhood roups or he urpose f upporting hegovernment's nvironmental rograms Ojeda Mestre, ersonal ommuni-cation, uly 1, 1989). These ocalcommittees reoneof the mportant ew




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arenas or ulfilling he onsultative equirementsf the nvironmentalaw.Ostensibly, nvironmental articipations a politically eutral ct and thefacilities re available to all manner f environmental roups. n fact,participation n the government-sanctioned nvironmental ommittees ssystem-affirmingndviewed y many s a partisan ommitment. yofficialaccounts, owever, he initial responsehas been less than atisfactory.According o Ramon Ojeda Mestre,Mexico City's eading nvironmentaladministrator,ow evels f public articipation ay e attributed othe act

that manymiddle- nd working-class eoplehave ess discretionary imeavailable or oluntary ivic ctivities ecause f he conomic risis. morecritical nterpretation ight ell fasten n the general lienation f MexicoCity's itizens rom uch government-sponsoredarticipation echanisms(Ward, 989). What s clear s that he ormal venues f participationreatedby thenew aw continue obe implementednan old-fashioned o-optativemanner imed t channeling issent n system-sustaining irections.

Interviews ith nvironmental rganizations n the summer f 1989suggest, owever, hat he alinas dministration asbeenpartially ffective,certainlymore han ts predecessor, n co-opting nvironmental ctivistsdirectly nto government ervice. everal eaders f the Pacto oined theCamacho eam hortly fter alinastook office Alfonso ipres Villareal,personal ommunication, uly 1, 1989).Other eaders dmitted aving eensolicited or dministrative ositions y the new administration, lthoughthey eclined heoffers Aridjis, ersonal ommunication, uly 2, 1989;Cipres Villareal, ersonal ommunication, uly 1, 1989; Ojeda Mestre,personal ommunication, uly 1, 1989).

TheSalinas dministration asalso been electiven llocating articipa-tive ncentives. arious nvironmental roupshave complained f beingexcluded rom overnment-convenedorums ndconsultations n environ-mentalmatters. nterestingly, hese omplaints ome most trongly romgroups hat avebeendirectly ctive n inking riticism f he overnment'senvironmental erformance o criticism f thepolitical ystem tself. uchgroups nclude heAlianza, hePartido erde, nd the Pacto, ll of whichadvocate more adical,rass-rootsnvironmentalism.ther ritics ave llegedmore oercive actics,ncluding ress ensorship ndpersonal arassment.

Prominent ere s the elite environmental roup, he Grupo de Cien(Group f OneHundred-the ien).TheCien,formed n 1985, s a looseagglomeration f Mexico's leading rtists nd intellectuals nterested n

speaking ut on environmental ssues.Theprominence f their members,many of whom serve or have served n ranking ositions n Mexicangovernment,ends he roup onsiderableccessto themedia nd certaininsulation rom he tate, nhancing ts redibility nd clout. ince Salinas




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assumed ffice, he Cien's nominal ead, he poet and former mbassadorHomeroAridjis, as charged he government ith ressuring hemedia oignore he Cien's appeals, ailing o nclude t n government orums, ndharassing ts eadership Aridjis, ersonal ommunication, uly 2, 1989;Excelsior, ctober , 1988: A4).13 n Aridjis's iew, he alinas dministra-tion has systematicallyought o restrict he xpression f environmentalorganizations nd has been far more oercive han ts predecessor n thisregard.

Although uchharassment s selectively mployed, hegeneral icturethat merges rom onversations ithMexican nvironmentalistss one ofheightened tate management f environmental nterest roups. Formalavenues f participation ave been xpanded, ut n practice he reatmentof organized roups n these tate orums as been discriminatory. orepoliticized roups avedifficulty aining ccess oofficial hannels. espitenew openings or itizen articipation n enforcement, oupledwith m-proved tandards gainst hich o ssess ompliance ith he nvironmentallaws, itizen nd group nvolvement n these ctivities emainsow. 4 nd,as we have seen, here s little vidence o far hat, emonstration rojectsexcepted, EDUE's regulatory ctivities ave ncreased ince Salinasas-sumed ffice.

The use of environmental olicy or he ontainment f mobilization salsoseenwith espect o the tate's isposition oward he rban oor. n anexcellent tudy f the Zona del Ajusco, a large emiforested rea on theperiphery f the federal istrict esignated s an ecological one, Pezzoli(1990)has shown how government uthorities sed the ecological-zonedesignation omanipulate ndcontrol he emands f urban quatters. ithpressing asic needs for housing, ervices, nd employment, ewly stab-lished quatter ommunities re available ormobilization y the regime'scritics, articularly hoseon the eft, nd therefore onstitute potentialthreat. n this ase, ecological oning one aspect f the de la Madrid ndSalinas eformsnMexicoCity hasbecome n mportantnstrumentntheFederalDistrict's ocial control rsenal or estricting he laims of urbansquatters nd nfluencing hich roups ndwhich eadersnsquatter ommu-nitiesmaymake ffective laims n governmentesourcesPezzoli, 990: -7).

In sum, alinas'sorganizational eforms, hile xtensive, onot ppearto ignificantly penMexico's nvironmental olicy ystem ogreater nflu-enceby environmental roups. vidence rom nvironmental eaders nd

government fficials nd data ongovernment erformance ointoward n

effort o ontain ndmanage nvironmentalriticism nddissent, hannelingit through fficial onsultative orums f a corporative ature y whichenvironmentalriticism anbe filtered nd oftened. he tructure f he ew




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arenas f nvironmental articipationsconsistent ith overnment-dominatedmodes f participation oundn other olicy ectors; hat s, t s corporatistand tutelary n nature, esigned o confine articipation nd criticism osystem-sustaining odalities ather han ncouraging hedevelopment findependent ovements or ocial transformation.uchmodes f participa-tion re wholly onsistent ith what we would expect rom pattern fpreemptive eform.

CONCLUSION:PREEMPTIVEREFORMANDTHE FUTURE OF ENVIRONMENTALPOLICY

Thepreemptive attern f reform hat s apparent n the ubstantive ndorganizational imensionsf Salinas's nvironmentaleformsscommon nMexican olitics nd s an mportant art f he onventionalxplanation orthe survival f the one-party ystem. he critical uestions n this caserevolve round he mplications f he alinas trategy or chieving rogresstoward heamelioration f Mexico'senvironmental risis nd the ikelyimpact f these measures n the development f Mexico'senvironmentalmovement.

Theanswers o these uestions an be adduced npart rom he videncesurveyed bove.With espect o the mmediate otential ormoving ffec-tively oward nvironmentalmprovementn Mexico, heSalinasprogramhas argely ffered ormal ather han ubstantive easures. hese tatutorychanges, t must e said,represent ositive nd necessary teps oward neffective egulatory egime nd mark n improvement n basic law bycomparison ith he ast.Unfortunately,he alinas dministration asbeenreluctant o give effect o the new egislation, hevehicular-emissionsndtraffic rograms n MexicoCity nd other emonstration rograms eingimportant xceptions.

Thegovernment asmade t lear, owever, hat nvironmental egulationis hostage o economic ecovery. erein ies one of the most mportantcontradictions,or alinas's trategy f economic ecovery spredicated nmarket iberalization,ncreased oreignnvestment,nd rapid xpansion fMexican xports. uch a strategy ontradicts bjectives stablished n theenvironmentalaw n that iberalization,ertainly nthe hort erm, sbeingcarried orward ith ittle oncern or ts environmental mpacts. uchcontradictionsre

eenn

the overnment'secision o

promotehe

roduc-tion ndconsumptionf motor ehicles, tsfailure odeliver n promises orelocate azardous rban ndustries, ts turning blind ye to the nviron-mental onsequences f an explosion f maquiladoras n the U.S.-Mexico




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Mumme MAINTENANCEANDREFORMN MEXICO 139

border, ndmany ther olicies.Whether rnot he overnmentssuccessfulinattracting redits nd echnicalssistance o ddress elected nvironmen-tal problems, hese tructural ontradictions ill function s severe on-straints n environmentalmprovement.

With respect o the future f the environmental ovement, alinas'spreemptive eforms, s seen above, have already aken toll. Rankingofficials tSEDUEfrankly dmit hat nvironmentalist ressure as ubsidedsince he ate e a Madrid dministrationAltamirano, 989).Thecorporatist

structure fparticipationstablishednthenew nvironmentalawthreatensthe olidarity f the nvironmental ovement y allowing hegovernmentto reward hose roupswhoseagendas re esscritical f the ystem tselfand xclude nes of a more ritical ent. Under hese onditions, raditionalproblems f groupmobilizationn Mexico,personalism,ackof resources,ideological ivalries,ndother ources f division re readily xploited.

Evenso, the nvironmental ovements the atest nd newest orm fpoliticalmobilizationnd ontinues obe a potential iability othe overn-ment. he1988 lections emonstrated he olitical olatility f he nviron-mental ssue and established hefact hat he nvironmentalssuewas notmonopolized yPRI. Thecontinuing apbetween olicy nd performance,amplified y the government's atest ound f policy commitments ndstandards or heir valuation, ffords mple pportunity or nvironmentalgroups ndopposition arties obuild n public oncern or nvironmentalimprovementnboth rban nd rural ettings.

It s significant, oreover, hat mportant oices mong he nvironmen-talists ave not moderated heir olitico-environmentalritique. lthoughthe alinas dministrationasgiven riority omanagingnterest rticulationanddissent s it moves n ts conomic genda, ressures or olitical hangepersist. heenvironmental ovementscontributing othese ressures ndhas a critical take n furthering eform f the political ystem. emocraticreform s the asicprerequisite or ffective articipationnenvironmentaldecisionmaking nd state ommitment oenvironmental alues.

In sum, here s little oubt hat he nvironmental ovement asgalva-nized orces hat re nowcontributing oMexico'stransformation. reemp-tive reform, udged n these erms,may have slowedthe mobilization fenvironmentalnterests nd emperedts ritique. owever, he asic forcesunleashedby environmental obilization ave broadened he public'sawareness f the ailings f the ystem nd xpanded he ange f organizedgroups ritical f ts

managers.n this ontext, he ystem-affirmingowerof preemptive eform s not ikely osucceed n putting he nvironmentalgenie ack n tsbottle.




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140 LATINAMERICANPERSPECTIVES

NOTES

1. Among asic ources n Mexico's nvironmentalredicamentre he ata eport f theUnited ations nvironmental rogramme1989), heWorld esourcesnstitute's uide otheglobal nvironment 1990), and SEDUE's national nvironmental eport1986). Other sefulsources nclude Wright 1990) andNuccio,Ornelas, ndRestrepo1990).

2. A major evision f the nvironmental aw was undertaken n December 981. Thislaw was itself ubstantially evised n 1984 n connection ith he e a Madrid nvironmentalreforms.) part from his nitiative, he L6pez Portillo overnment nitiated ir pollution

monitoringnMexicoCity n a small cale see Mumme, ath, nd Assetto, 988).3. Founded n 1982 shortly efore he de la Madrid residential ampaign,MEM is theoldest nd argest f he national eneral-purpose nvironmentalederationssee Redcliff, 987:44-46). ts apid rowth sattributablen argemeasure, owever, o he overnment's romotionof the nvironmental ssue.The Pacto nd AE were formed uring r after 983 n direct rindirect esponse o the government's obilizationampaign.More traditional onservationgroups uch s Pronatura, hich o predate he nvironmental obilizationf he ighties, eretypicallyffiliated ith nternationalnvironmentalrganizationsndhad narrowernd politicalorientation.hey evertheless eceived major oost with he nvironmental obilization.

4. Conversations ith nvironmental eaders nd newspaper ccounts f the ampaignreveal trong riticism f the overnment uring he 988 lections: he National oordinatingAssembly f Antinuclear ndEcologicalMovements,omprised f prominent nvironmentalleaders, rged vote gainst he PRI candidate o protest he overnment's ecision o proceedwith he agunaVerde uclear lant. he callwasreissued nelection ay formaximummpact(Excelsior, uly , 1988:A4).

5. Speaking efore he ixth Ministerial eeting n EnvironmentnLatinAmerica ndtheCaribbean, hirinos tated latly hat without urther conomic rowth he ations f LatinAmericawillbe unable o attend o the nvironment, oncluding ith Today's priority s togrow La Jornada, March 1, 1989: 7). The theme s regularly eiterated ySalinas.

6. SEDUE'sbudget or iscal 989 was reportedly ut backby 36 percent informationprovided yJanet ich, he ohnsonchool,University fTexas).TheFederal istrict's cologybudget n 1989 was operating t 13 percent f authorized xpenditures t midyear Excelsior,July 9, 1989:A4).The Federal District's ombined udget orpolice, ocialwelfare, ndecology n 1990wasreported obe $1.8 million, ost f whichwas assigned o public ecurity(Excelsior, ovember 5, 1989:A25).

7. Nationwide, he gency as ust 140 nspectorsRich, 991: 30).8. Theseprojects ncludehigh-profile eforestationampaigns, hedesignation f bio-

sphere nd other atural-resourceeserves, nd a ban on the killing f marine urtles. uchmeasures re mportantndhavebeenundertakennpart ecause f nternational ressuree.g.,debt-for-naturewaps,boycotts f Mexican roducts, nd the ike),but hey o not ntail hecommitmentf ignificant esourcesy heMexican tate. nthis ense hey re ow-cost ptionswith high public visibility hatdo not really hallenge mportant olitical nd economicconstituencies r coredevelopment aluesof the Mexican overnment. eforestation rojectshavebeen specially ttractive or heir ow cost nd pecialvaluefor nlisting ublic artici-pation nenvironmental rograms.n conjunction ithWorld nvironment ay, June , 1990,

for xample, massive rogram o enlist very amily n MexicoCity n planting treewasspearheaded y Salinas. The program as widely riticized y environmental roups ssuperficial nd detracting rom ther oncerns. t was also perceived s highly oliticized,




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because he ederal istrict egent anuelCamacho olis explicitly ssued challenge otheleft ppositioneader uauhtemoc ardenas oenlist n the ree-planting ampaign s an actofnational olidarity. ardenas esponded y alling or Mexicans o plant he ree f democracyinsteadExcelsior,May29, 1990:A4; May30, 1990:A5;June , 1990: Al; UnoMas Uno,June6, 1990: 3).

9. Polls nFebruary 990 howed hat esidentsf MexicoCity upported hemeasure ymargins nexcess f 80 percent. hen he ederal istrict onsidereduspending he rogramat the nd of the winter nversion eason, nvironmental roupsweighed n strongly or tscontinuationExcelsior, anuary 0, 1990:A25; January 5, 1990:A5;January 6, 1990:A4;February 9, 1990:Al).

10.Under ne program, he overnment as provided ubsidies o Volkswagen f Mexicoto produce ow-cost eetles or Mexican onsumersWhite, 990: 8). A governmenttudy asshown hat MexicoCity ealized net gainof 67,554 vehicles n 1989, ttributing art f theincrease o thehoyno circula rogram tself Excelsior, ebruary 7, 1990:A31).

11.Thegovernment's ailure o respond ffectively othe hreat f forest ires n QuintanaRooin 1989 s a case in point.Notuntil nvironmental roupsmanaged o embarrass hem ydrawing nternational ttention o the problem idfederal gencies ake ction o control hefires nSeptember 989.Bythat ime arge ections fQuintana oo's forests adbeen everelydamaged for ackgroundeeLazaroff, 989).

12. Since 1983, 750 of the 1,150 parastate, r government-owned,ndustries ave beenprivatizedInteramerican evelopment ank, 990: 150). Although he overnment ontinuesto have a monopoly n certain trategic ndustries rotected n Article 7 of the Mexicanconstitution petroleum, lectricity, ailroads, ranium, nd nuclear ower, mong others),Salinashas indicated hat early verything lse is negotiable. ajor producers f toxic ndhazardous hemicals re mong hose n the uction lock, o nclude 5 percent f he ationalfertilizer nd pesticidemonopolyFERTIMEX). The agreementsigned etween EDUE andthegovernmentorporations echnicallyonot ontinue oapply othe ivested ectors; ewagreements ust e signedwith hese ndustries. t the ery east his mounts o temporarynullification f many f the nvironmental greements he overnment asreached. lthoughsome bservers rgue hat rivatization insofar s itbrings esscorruption, reater iscipline,and ncreased oreignnvestment o the Mexican conomy may prove net oontoenviron-mental ractices,t ntroduces ewuncertaintiesndnewrisks nto he nvironmentalquation.

13. tbearsmentioninghat ne of theCien's eaders, he rofessor nd olumnist ernandoCesarman, asrecruited ySalinas ohead he nvironmental ection f he RI's official hinktank, he nstitutional e Estudios oliticos, con6micos, Sociales (Institute f Political,Economic, nd ocial Studies-IEPES); UnoMas Uno,October , 1988). His tenure as brief,because he overnmenterminatedEPESin 1990.

14.Governmentampaignsike Cada Familia n Arbol, which mobilize housands orshort eriod f time, end o mask his elativelyow evel fpopular articipation. irtually llof the overnmentndenvironmentalepresentativesinterviewedn 1989perceived laggingpublic upport or heir rganizationsndprograms.

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