10 Lifespan Development

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Lifespan Development

Psychology 2012Fall 2004


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Introduction: Your Life Story

Developmental Psychologybranch of psychology thatstudies how people change mentally, physically, andsocially throughout the lifespan

For every age and stage of life, developmentalpsychologists investigate the influence of multiplefactors on development,

including biological, environmental, social, cultural, andbehavioral factors

Along with studying common patterns of growth andchange, developmental psychologists look at ways inwhich people differ in their development

Developmental psychologists often conceptualize the

lifespan in terms of basic stages of development


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Introduction: Your Life Story

Traditionally, the stages of the lifespan are defined byage, which implies relatively sudden, age-relatedchanges as we move from one stage to the next

Some aspects of development, such as prenatal developmentand language development, are closely tied to critical periods

Most of our physical, mental, and social changes,however, occur gradually,

And the theme of gradually unfolding changes throughout the

ages and stages of life will become more evident as we tracethe typical course of human development in this chapter

Another important theme is the interaction betweenheredity and environment,

Traditionally called the nature-nurture issue


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Genetic Contributions to Your

Life Story A chromosome is a long, threadlike structure

composed of twisted parallel strands ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),

which is the chemical basis of all heredity

DNA contains the chemical genetic code thatdirects the growth and development of many of

your unique characteristics Each gene is a unit of DNA instructions pertaining to

some characteristic,

such as eye or hair color, or handedness


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Life Story At conception, the genes carried on the 23

chromosomes contributed by your

biological mothers ovum were paired withThe genes carried on the 23 chromosomes

contributed by your biological fathers sperm

Multiple gene pairs are involved indirecting many complex features of

development


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Life Story Dominant and Recessive Characteristics

Genotypethe underlying genetic makeup of aparticular individual

Phenotypethe actual displayed traits

When a genotype combines conflicting geneticinformation:

the dominant gene will influence the trait actuallydisplayed

Traits like freckles, dark eyes, dark hair, and dimples arereferred to as dominant characteristics

Because they require only one member of a gene pair to be

dominant for the trait to be displayed


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Life Story A recessive gene is a gene whose instructions are

not expressed if combined with a dominant gene

Only expressed if paired with another recessive gene

Recessive characteristicstraits whose expression requirestwo identical recessive genes

Like straight hair, attached earlobes, and flat feet

We inherit from our biological parents a geneticpotential:

the expression of which can be influenced byenvironmental conditions


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Life Story The sex chromosomes and sex-linked

recessive characteristics

The sex chromosomes (the 23rd pair ofchromosomes) determine biological sex

The large X chromosome carries more genes thandoes the smaller Y chromosome, including genesfor traits unrelated to sex

In females, the 23rd pair of chromosomes is made up oftwo large X chromosomes

In males, a large X chromosome and a smaller Ychromosome make up the 23rd pair of chromosomes


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Life Story The sex chromosomes and sex-linked recessive

characteristics

For males, the smaller Y chromosome often does notcontain a corresponding gene segment to match the

one on the X chromosome.

This means that a male can display certain recessive

characteristics as the result of having only one recessive gene

carried on the X chromosome

Like red-green color blindness and hemophilia

Sex-linked recessive characteristicstraits determined by

recessive genes on the X chromosomes


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Prenatal Development

At conception, chromosomes from thebiological mother and father combine to form asingle cellthe fertilized egg (zygote)

Prenatal stagemade up of three distinctphases:

1. Germinal (first two weeks),2. Embryonic (weeks 3-8), and

3. Fetal (week 9-birth) periods


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Germinal (zygotic) periodrepresents the

first two weeks of prenatal development

The zygote undergoes rapid cell divisionbefore becoming implanted on the mothers

uterine wall

By the end of the two-week germinal period,the single-celled zygote has developed into a

cluster of cells called the embryo


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The Zygote

First Division

Second Division


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The embryonic periodfrom weeks 3 to 8 During this time of rapid growth and intensive cell

differentiation, the organs and major systems of the body form.

Genes on the sex chromosomes and hormonal influences trigger theinitial development of the sex organs

Protectively housed in the fluid-filled amniotic sac, the embryoslifeline is the umbilical cord

Via the umbilical cord, the embryo receives nutrients, oxygen, and

water and gets rid of carbon monoxide and other wastes The umbilical cord attaches the embryo to the placenta, a disk-

shaped tissue on the mothers uterine wall

The placenta prevents the mothers blood from mingling with that ofthe developing embryo,

acting as a filter to prevent some, but not all, harmful substances

that might be present in the mothers blood from reaching theembryo


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The embryonic periodfrom weeks 3 to 8

Teratogensharmful agents or substances that can

cause malformations or defects in an embryo or afetus;

Known teratogens include:

1. Exposure to radiation

2. Toxic industrial chemicals, such as mercury and PCBs

3. Diseases, such as rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, and AIDS4. Drugs taken by the mother, such as alcohol, cocaine, and

heroin


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The Embryo

1 month old Embryo


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Teratogens

Cocaine and Heroin: Miscarriage,

prematurity, birth defects

Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome, motor

development problems

Smoking: Reduces oxygen flow, increasesCO2, increases odds of prematurity, low

birthweight, and miscarriage


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The third month is the beginning of the fetalperiod, the final and longest stage of prenataldevelopment By the end of the third month, the fetus can move its arms, legs,

mouth, and head

During the fourth month, the mother experiences quickeningshe can feel the fetus moving

By the fifth month, the fetus has distinct sleep-wake cycles and

periods of activity During the sixth month, the fetuss brain activity becomes similar

to that of a newborn baby

During the final two months, the fetus will double in weight,gaining an additional three to four pounds


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Fetal Development

3 month old male

Fetus


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Development During Infancy

and Childhood Initially, the newborns behavior is mostly limited to

reflexes that enhance his chances for survival.

Some major newborn reflexes:

1. The rooting reflexthe infant turns toward the source of the touchand opens the mouth

2. The sucking reflexjust touching the newborns lips evokes thisreflex

3. The grasping reflexthe baby will grip your fingers so tightly thathe or she can be lifted upright

In addition, the newborns senses vision, hearing,smell, and touchare keenly attuned to people,

helping the infant quickly learn to differentiate between themother and other humans


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and Childhood Vision is the least developed sense at birth

Optimal viewing distance for the newborn is

about 6-12 inches The perfect distance for a nursing baby to easily

focus on his mothers face and make eye contact

Newborns respond with increased alertnessto the sound of human voices


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and Childhood Physical development

At birth, the newborns brain is 25% of its adult

weight Body weight is only 5% of its adult weight

Newborns enter the world with an estimated 100billion neurons

After birth, the brain continues to develop rapidly

The number of dendrites increases dramatically during the firsttwo years of life

The axons of many neurons acquire myelin:

the white, fatty covering that increases a neuronscommunication speed


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and Childhood Physical development

The basic sequence of motor skill

development during infancy is universal, butaverage ages can be a little deceptive

Each infant has his or her own:

1. genetically programmed timetable of physical

maturation and2. developmental readiness to master different motor

skills

Like rolling over, sitting up, and standing


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and Childhood Social and personality development

Forming close social and emotional relationships with

caregivers is essential to the infants physical andpsychological well-being

Temperamental qualities: Babies are different

Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in acertain way define temperament

Most researchers agree that temperament has a genetic andbiological basis:

although environment can modify a childs basic temperament

In the 1950s Chess & Thomas rated young infants on avariety of characteristics:

such as activity level, mood, regularity, and attention span


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and Childhood About 2/3 of the babies could be classified into one of three broad

temperamental patterns: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up

a. Easy babiesreadily adapt to new experiences, generally display

positive moods and emotions, and have regular sleeping and eating

patterns

b. Difficult babiestend to be intensely emotional, are irritable and

fussy, cry a lot, and tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns

c. Slow-to-warm-up babieshave a low activity level, withdraw from

new situations and people, and adapt to new experiences very

gradually

About 1/3 of the infants were characterized as average babies

because they did not fit neatly into one of these three categories


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Temperament

Characteristic ways of responding to theenvironment that vary from infant toinfant

(Data from Thomas, et al., 1970)


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and Childhood Attachment: forming emotional bonds

Attachmentthe emotional bond that forms between

infant and caregivers, especially the mother According to attachment theory, an infants ability to thrive

physically and psychologically depends in part on the qualityof attachment

In all cultures, the emotional bond between between infantsand caregivers is an important relationship:

although there are cultural differences in how the attachmentrelationship is conceptualized and encouraged

Infants can form multiple attachments


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and Childhood Depending on the parents, infants can form secure or

insecure attachments

Secure attachmentoccurs when parents are consistently warm,

responsive, and sensitive to their infants needs

Insecure attachmentmay develop when an infants parents are

neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to the infants moods or

behaviors

VIDEOAttachment

The Human Experience, segment 21


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and Childhood The most commonly used procedure to measure

attachment, called the Strange Situation, wasdeveloped by Ainsworth

And is typically used with infants between 1-2 years old1. The mother stays with the child for a few moments,

2. She then departs, leaving the child with the stranger

3. After a few minutes, mother returns, spends a few minutes in theroom,

4. She then leaves, and returns again

Psychologists assess attachment by observing the infants behaviortoward the mother during the Strange Situation procedure


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and Childhood The securely attached infant will use the mother as a secure base

from which to explore the new environment, periodically returning toher side;

Will show distress when mother leaves and will greet her warmly when

she returns. The mothers easily soothe securely attached babies

An insecurely attached infant is less likely to explore theenvironment, even when the mother is present and may appear eithervery anxious or completely indifferent

Such infants tend to ignore or avoid their mothers when they are present

Some become extremely distressed when the mother leaves theroom and, when reunited,

they are hard to soothe and:

may resist their mothers attempt to comfort them


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and Childhood Language development

By the time children reach three years of age, theyhave learned:

a. approximately 3,000 words and:

b. the complex rules of their language

According to linguist Noam Chomsky, every child is

born with a biological predisposition to learnlanguageany language That is, they possess what he calls a universal grammar:

a basic understanding of the common principles of languageorganization


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and Childhood At birth, infants can distinguish among the

speech sounds of all the worlds languages

By 10 months, they distinguish only the

speech sounds that are present in the

language to which they have been exposed


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and Childhood The cooing and babbling stage of language development

In virtually every culture, infants follow the same sequence oflanguage development, and at roughly similar ages

1. Around 3 monthsinfant begins to coo1. Around 5 monthsinfant begins to babble

Infants all over the world use the same sounds when they babble,

including sounds that do not occur in the language of theirparents and other caregivers

1. Around 9 monthsinfant begins to babble more in the sounds

specific to their language Babbling seems to be a biologically programmed stage of language

development


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and Childhood The one-word stage of language development

Long before babies become accomplished talkers, theyunderstand much of what is said to them.

Thus, they have a comprehension vocabulary (words theyunderstand) that is much larger than:

their production vocabulary (the words they can say)

Around their first birthday, infants produce their first real words

Usually referring to concrete objects or people that are important to

the child Such as mama, dada, or ba-ba (bottle)

During the one-word stage, babies use a single word and vocalintonation to stand for an entire sentence

ba-ba = I want my bottle


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and Childhood The two word stage of language development

Around their second birthday, infants begin puttingwords together to construct a simple sentence

Such as Mama go, & Where kitty,

These utterances include only the most essentialwords,

but basically follow a grammatically correct sequence

Children move beyond the two-word stage at around2 years of age

Language production and comprehension increasedramatically thereafter


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and Childhood Gender-role development

Genderrefers to the cultural and social

meanings that are associated with malenessor femaleness

a. Gender rolesbehaviors, attitudes, and

personality traits that a given culture designates

as either masculine or feminineb. Gender identitya persons psychological sense

of being male or female


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and Childhood Between the ages of 2 and 3, children can

identify themselves and other children as boys orgirls,

although the details are still a bit fuzzy for them

From about 18 months to the age of 2 years, sexdifferences in behavior begin to emerge

Toddler girls play more with soft toys and dolls, and ask for help from adults more than toddler boys do

Toddler boys play more with blocks and transportationtoys (trucks and wagons),

and play more roughly


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and Childhood Explaining gender roles: Two contemporary theories

1. Social learning theorygender roles are learned throughreinforcement, punishment, and modeling

2. Gender schema theorychildren actively develop mentalcategories/schemas (mental representations) for masculinity and

femininity

Gender schemas:

Influence how people pay attention to, perceive, interpret, andremember gender-relevant behavior

Seem to lead children to perceive members of their own sexmore favorably than members of the opposite sex

Help children to readily assimilate new information


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Piagets Stages

According to Piaget, children progress through four

distinct cognitive stage

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

2. Preoperations (2-7 years)

3. Concrete Operations (7-12 years)

4. Formal Operations (12 and up)

As a child progresses to a new stage, his/her thinking is

qualitatively different


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Piagets Stages

Sensorimotor

Understand the world

through senses andmotor actions

Develop objectpermanencethe idea

that an object still existseven if it cant be seen

CD ROM: Obj. Perm.(#15)


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Piagets Stages

Preoperative (beforelogic)

Symbolic thoughtability to use words,images, and symbols torepresent the world

Thinking is egocentric(the inability to takeanother persons

perspective)


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Piagets Stages

Concrete Operations

Can do logical

operations Understand reversibility

Can do conservation

two equal quantitiesremain equal even if theappearance of one haschanged


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Piagets Stages

FormalOperations:

Can do abstract &hypothetical

reasoning


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and Childhood CD ROM: Piagets Conservation Task (#18)

Studying Piagets theory Generally, scientific research has supported Piagets

most fundamental idea:

That infants, young children, and older children use distinct

cognitive abilities to construct their understanding of theworld

Other aspects of Piagets theory have been criticized


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and Childhood Three criticisms of Piagets theory

I. Inaccurate assessment of object permanence

II. Piagets stages are not as universal as he believed

III. Underestimation of the impact of the social and

cultural environment on cognitive development


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and Childhood Criticisms of Piagets theory

I. Today, many researchers believe that in assessingobject permanence during infancy, Piaget confused:

motor skill limitations with:

cognitive limitations

Bailargeonused visual tasks, rather than manual tasks tochallenge Piagets belief regarding the age at which infants

acquire object permanence 3 month-old infants looked longer at a carrot that cannot

be seen through a window

Showing object permanence much earlier than Piagetthought


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II. Piagets stages are not as universal as he believed

Researchers have found that many adults display abstract-hypothetical thinking only in limited areas of knowledge,

And some adults never display formal operational thoughtprocesses

Some developmental psychologists emphasize theinformation-processing model of cognitive development

Focuses on the development of fundamental mentalprocesses like attention, memory, and problem solving

Cognitive development is viewed as continuously changingover the lifespan


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III. Piaget underestimated the impact of the social andcultural environment on cognitive development

Russian psychologist Vygotsky believed that cognitivedevelopment is strongly influenced by social and culturalfactors

Such as the support and guidance that children receive fromparents, other adults, and older children

Cross-cultural studies show that cognitive development isstrongly influenced by:

the skills that are valued and encouraged in a particularenvironment


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Vygotskys View

Cognitive ability falls in the "Zone of

Proximal Development"

Kids

performance

without help

Kids performance

with help

Zone of Proximal

Development


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Adolescence

A transitional stage between late childhood and thebeginning of adulthood, during which:

1. sexual maturity is reached

2. identity is explored Physical and sexual development

Pubertytends to follow a predictable sequence for each sex

1. Internally, puberty involves the development of the primary sexcharacteristics

The sexual organs that are directly involved in reproduction,such as the females uterus and the males testes

2. Externally, puberty involves the development of the secondary sexcharacteristics

Characteristics not directly involved in reproduction, but stillsignal sexual maturity

Such as changes in height, weight, and body shape, appearance

of body hair, voice changes, and in girls, breast development


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Adolescence

Some statistics:

1. Females are typically about two years ahead of males in terms of physical andsexual maturation

2. The adolescent growth spurtthe period of marked acceleration in weight and

height gains Occurs about two years earlier in females than in males

3. Menarchea females first menstrual period, typically occurring around age 12or 13

May take place as early as 9-10 or as late as 16-17

4. During early and middle adolescence, the physical changes of puberty:

Drive much of the adolescents interest in sexuality,

although social and cultural factors also have an influence

5. Age is a good predictor of when teenagers typically begin various sexualbehaviors


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Adolescence

Social development

As a general rule, when parent-child relationships

have been good before adolescence, they continue to be relatively smooth during adolescence

However:

Relationships with friends and peers become increasingly more

important

Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that

parents fostered during childhood


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The Adolescents Peers

Give feedback on social behavior

Provide an objective standard for

self-comparison

Teach social skills


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Adolescence

Identity formation: Erik Eriksons theory ofpsychosocial development

Identitya persons definition or description of

himself or herself Including values, beliefs, and ideals that guide the

individuals behavior

Eriksons theory of psychosocial development consistsof eight stages throughout the lifespan

Believed that the key psychosocial conflict facing theadolescent is identity versus identity diffusion

1. The adolescents path to successful identitydevelopment begins with identity diffusion

2. This is followed by a moratorium period

3. Gradually, the adolescent arrives at an integratedidentity

Ericksons Stages of


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Erickson s Stages of

Psychosocial Development

Stage Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust 0-1

2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 1-3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6

4. Industry vs. Inferiority 6-Puberty

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Young Adult7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle-Age

8. Integrity vs. Despair Old Age


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Adolescence

The development of Moral Reasoning

The aspect of cognitive development that has to do with theway an individual reasons about moral decisions

The most influential theory of moral reasoning was proposed byKohlberg,

whose theory proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning:

1. Preconventional - avoiding punishment/maximizing gain

2. Conventional - social roles, rules, and obligations

3. Postconventional - internalized legal and moral principles

Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms toconventional standards of society

Each level has two stages that represent different degrees ofsophistication in moral reasoning


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Adolescence

1. The responses to children under 10 reflectpreconventional moral reasoning

Based on self-interestavoiding punishment and maximizingpersonal gain

2. Beginning in late childhood and continuing throughadolescence and adulthood, responses typically reflectconventional moral reasoning

Emphasizes social roles, rules, and obligations

3. Postconventional moral reasoning is guided byinternalized legal and moral principles:

that protect the rights of all member of society


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Kohlbergs Theory

Preconventional Level:

Stage 1 -- Punishment avoidance is"right"

Stage 2 -- Whatever benefits the

individual is "right"

Conventional Level:

Stage 3 -- Behavior that pleasesothers is "right

Stage 4 -- Authorities & rules

determines what's "right"

Post-Conventional Level:

Stage 5 -- Protecting both societyand individual is "right

Stage 6 -- Universal principles

determine "right"


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% Moral Statements

(Data from Kohlberg, 1963)


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Adolescence

Criticisms of Kohlbergs theory

1. Research was done on all males, but theory wasapplied to males and females

Gilliganmodel is based on an ethic of individual rightsand justice, which is a more common perspective for males

She developed a model of womens moral development that isbased on an ethic of care and responsibility

2. Some cross-cultural psychologists argue thatKohlbergs stories and scoring system reflect: a Western emphasis on individual rights, harm, and justice

that is not shared in many cultures


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Adult Development

Physical changes Our unique genetic blueprint greatly influences the unfolding of

certain physical changes during adulthood

Such changes vary significantly from one person to another

For example, menopause (the cessation of menstruation thatsignals the end of reproductive capacity in women) may occuranywhere from the late thirties to the early fifties

Staying mentally and physically active and eating a proper dietcan both slow and minimize the degree of physical declineassociated with aging

Physical strength typically peaks in early adulthood (the 20s and30s)

Strength and endurance gradually decline in middleadulthood (40s to mid 60s)

Physical strength and stamina decline further and faster

during late adulthood (mid 60s on)


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Adult Development

Social development

In his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson described

two fundamental themes that dominate adulthood: love and work

According to Erikson, the primary psychosocial task of early

adulthood is to:

form a committed, mutually enhancing, intimate relationship

with another person

During middle adulthood, the primary psychosocial task becomes

one of generativity: The need to contribute to future generations through your

children, your career, and other meaningful activities


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Adult Development

The focus of adult friendships is somewhatdifferent for men and women

Female friends tend to:

confide in one another about their feelings, problems, andinterpersonal relationships

Male friends typically:

minimize discussions about relationships or personal feelings

or problems; Instead, male friends tend to do things together that they find

mutually interesting,

such as activities related to sports or hobbies


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Adult Development

Establishing a committed relationship takes on anew urgency in adulthood:

getting married and starting a family are the traditional

tasks of early adulthood Today, young adults are postponing marriage so they can

finish their education and establish a career

As a general rule, we tend to be attracted to and marrypeople who are similar to us on a variety ofdimensions,

Including physical attractiveness, social and educationalstatus, ethnic background, attitudes, values, and beliefs


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Age of First Marriage

(Data from Census Bureau, 1994)


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Adult Development

The transition to parenthood

Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the

birth of the first child It tends to rise again after the children leave home


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Adult Development

The nature of intimate relationships and family

structures varies widely in the US

In the 1990s well over 3 million unmarried couples

were living together

More than half of all first marriages end in divorce

Thus, remarrying and starting a second family is not unusual

It may be that any relationship that promotes the

overall sense of happiness and well-being for the

people involved is a successful relationship


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U.S. Households


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Reasons for Divorce


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Adult Development

Careers in adulthood

1. Researchers have found that close to 1/3 of people in their late

twenties and early thirties:

do not just change jobs within a particular field,

but completely switch occupational fields

2. Dual-career families have become increasingly common

Multiple roles seem to provide both men and women with a

greater potential for:

increased feelings of self-esteem, happiness, and competence;

The critical factor is not the number of roles that people take on,

but the quality of experiences on the job, in the marriage, and as

a parent


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Late Adulthood and Aging

The average life expectancy:

for men is about 72 years old;

for women, it is about 79 years

The majority of older adults live healthy, active,

and self-sufficient lives

The number of older adults in the US has beengradually increasing over the past several

decades


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Cognitive changes

Psychologist Schaie and his colleagues haveconducted longitudinal studies:

following some 5,000 people as they have aged to learn whathappens to intellectual abilities

Schaies findings: general intellectual abilities graduallyincrease until the 40s,

Then become relatively stable until about 60,

When a small but steadily increasing percentage of olderadults experience slight declines on tests of generalintellectual abilities

Schaie found that those who were better educated and engagedin physical and mental activities throughout older adulthood:

showed the smallest declines in mental abilities


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Social Development The activity theory of aging

Psychosocial theory that life satisfaction in late adulthood is highestwhen:

people maintain the level of activity they displayed earlier in life

Along with satisfying social relationships, the prescription forpsychological well-being in old age:

includes achieving what Erikson called Ego Integrity The feeling that ones life has been meaningful, vs.

Despairfeelings of regrets or bitterness about past mistakes,missed opportunities, or bad decisions; a sense of disappointmentin life

Often the themes of ego integrity or despair emerge as olderadults engage in life review

Thinking about or retelling their life story to others

Li i A t


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Living Arrangements


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Living Arrangements

Th Fi l Ch D i d


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The Final Chapter: Dying and

Death Attitudes toward dying and death are as

diverse in late adulthood as they are

throughout the lifespanIn general, anxiety about death tends to peak

in middle adulthood,

then decrease in late adulthood

Th Fi l Ch t D i d


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The Final Chapter: Dying and

Death Elisabeth Kubler-Ross interviewed over 200 terminally

ill patients and proposed that the dying go through fivestages

1. Denial of death

2. Anger at the notion of dying

3. Bargainingmaking a deal with doctors, relatives, or God

4. Depression

5. Acceptance

Further research indicates that individuals who aredying do not progress through a predictable sequence ofstages

Dying is as individual a process as is living

Documents

10 Lifespan Development