Chapter I

Introduction

The two greatest problems faced by India, at present, are the exponential increase in

population and basic need for providing adequate food. Every year, population goes on

increasing, the demand of foodstuff also increases and it will have to be balanced obviously by

qualitative and quantitative increases in food production. The food production can be improved

only by improving the conditions of soils and current use of fertilizers. Availability of water

resources and many other factors like avoiding damage by pests and proper storage of food

grains. For providing adequate food the availability of water also plays a key role .

Through the analysis of soil, the accessibility of nutrients to the crop can studied in

details . The micronutrients like phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron etc, are studied by the

analysis of soil For the growth of plants, the important factors are the availability of trace

elements and. the pH of soil .

A thin layer of earth‘s covering forms Soil, which is important for the growth of plants.

For plants growth soil also serves as natural medium. The unconsolidated mineral matter is

formed in the soil. The genetic parent material , the climate the organisms in the soil for a longer

time shows impact on the soil. It is influenced by and environmental factors. Soil differs in

biological chemical and physical, properties from the parent material and in the morphology.

Soils also diverge among themselves in most of the properties depending of differences in

environmental factors and the hereditary materials. Thus a few soils are shallow and some are

deep, some are black, some are red.

For crops development soils form a basin of nutrients and water. Soils plays important

role to provide anchorage and mechanical support to the plants. Soils also provide favourable

tilth. Organic matter, mineral material, water and air form the components of soils. The

properties of these components are variable and they collectively form a scheme for plant

growth. Hence in agriculture the learning of soils is important and need of the farmer.

Soil forms a vital natural resource. Our population is growing and to meet the emerging

demands of this population we should use the soil judiciously. The maximum agricultural

production can be ensured with this. It is very important to know the fundamental facts about our

soils and their administration to achieve sustainable production. The quality of soils needs to be

looked into because presently the natural resources are being exploited over the carrying

capacities. Soils of Maharashtra State are categorized as poor in fertility and they vary widely in

genetic, morphological, and physical, chemical and biological characteristics. Micronutrients

came into light keen on prominence in Indian agriculture only after their deficiencies started

appearing in different areas due to introduction of intensive production systems during green

revolution. This was essentially due to not removal rates of micronutrients by crops being higher

under high productivity controlling groups. The situation was further drawn attention by

diversified use of Synthetic chemical fertilizers for the fulfilment of macronutrients and

utilization of organic manures and its discontinuance and high analysis. The deficiencies of

micronutrients are now a day‘s made it evident clearly and reported but it was more of area, soil,

crop and situation specific. The extent of deficiency of various micronutrients has been

systematically determined and explained in detail under state micronutrient scheme. The

micronutrients are as important as good as the macronutrients. The cardinal tunnel of plant

nutrition is explained clearly by Amon. He states that deficiency of any nutrient whether macro

or micro can be eliminated only by application and provision of that very nutrient and not by

substitution in adequate amount holds true even today. It is also relevant to quote Liebig‘s law

which states that the plant growth and development and ultimate economic yield is limited by the

nutrients present in least available amount. Thus the deficient one is able to make definite

decision in their use efficiency. There are several reports indicating that the NPK nutrients are

not giving as much response as before. Some to be due such situations have been explained to

micronutrient deficiency. There are increasing concerns of yield stagnation because of

intensification of agriculture aimed at obtaining highest yields per unit time per unit area. On the

contrary owing to the state of fatigue to the soil which has depleted its nutrients. The

consequences of this are the resultant emergence of multinutrient deficiencies in the crop

efficient zones of many soils.

The manifestation of micronutrient deficiencies in soils and crops can be attributed to

many factors resulting in less availability. The major factor is anthropogenic in nature. The

human intervention has led to present situation due to lack of adequate knowledge of

micronutrient fertilizer application, management and inadequate costly analytical facilities for

testing and delineation of micronutrient deficiencies in soils and crops. The situation is more

aggravated due to depletion of micronutrients from soils through higher yields without their

replenishment.

The grades of micronutrient mixture are - by the State Government for soil and foliar

application. The micronutrient manufacturers have so far met the growing needs of various crops

in different states .The future of micronutrient fertilizers use is very bright because the demand

for food will continue to grow, However, it should be met from the indigenous sources as far as

possible. The research work done by our scientists earlier is commendable and it is expected that

it will continue to refine and develop cost effective micronutrient ameliorative measures in

different soil crop situations. The future holds out for situation specific micronutrient corrective

measures for a given cropping system.

Soil organic carbon is essential for the maintenance of good physical condition of soil. In

the absorption of nutrients and water and supply to crops and to retain in the soil the soil organic

matter plays an important role. The Vertisols Alfisols, Entisols, bioclimatic zones like arid and

semi-arid, sub-humid, with associated soils forms the characteristics of soil organic carbon. The

areas of the semi-arid tropics are dominated by it(SAT) (Virmani et al. 1991).The soils with low

retentive capacity, low in organic carbon and nitrogen are highly degraded have multiple nutrient

deficiencies. These soils are generally coarse – textured (Singh et al. 2004). Due to inappropriate

nutrient and water management practices soils are currently prone to further degradation.

Soil organic carbon can be increased and its atmospheric concentration can be reduced

by Carbon sequestration in these areas. The choice of crop and management of it has a profound

impact on the soil and the quality of soil can be improved by it. It has a important role in

enhancing the soil quality. It is noted that for maintenance of SOC content the Legume-based

systems helped (Wani et al. 1994 & 2003). For characterizing soil nutrients/soil nutrient stocks

and in relating soil nutrients with environmental conditions, land-use and type of vegetation must

be taken into account (Hontoria et al. 1999).The carbon to nitrogen ratios are a primary

indication which influence decomposition. The decay rate is also controlled by chemical

composition of residue in the soil is also indicated by it. The quality and quantity of carbon

inputs influence cropping practices and the vegetation of the area, both in terms of the duration

of storage of organic matter in soil and its accumulation and ultimately on nutrient stocks and

have an impact on both.

For health and survival of life, the importance of soil fertility and plant nutrition cannot

be overstated. As human population continue to increase, there will be greater demands on soils

and supply of essential nutrients. The need of soil will place human disturbance on the earth‘s

ecosystem to produce food and fibre. Thus, soil fertility and evolution is an important attribute,

which enhances sustained agricultural production through balanced and judicious use of

fertilizers. Well managed agricultural ecosystems require knowledge of native stock of nutrients,

their chemical forms, uptake pattern by crops and overall soil health. This can be facilitated

through precision analysis of soil, water, plant and irrigation water samples. High quality of

precision analytical information is a pre-requisite of judicious fertilization for obtaining

profitable yield. Fertilizer prescription and advisory service for maintaining soil health can be

made more effective by making use of such valuable analytical results.

The duration of rainfall, terrain of land and thickness of soil primarily puts impact on

nature of agriculture potential of a district. In Maharashtra on the Western part of the Pune

district the soil profile shows mountainous terrain. The plateau areas are extensive without a

thick soil cover and lateritic soils have limited the area under agriculture. It is also at the pedestal

of the Sahyadrian ranges and in the slopes. A huge part of the Eastern portion of the district

receives the rainfall less than 500 mm due to which there is deficiency of moisture In Pune

district about 27% of the land is under agriculture and even the area that is cultivated suffers

from unproductive soil in the district. One of the most industrialised and urbanised states of India

are Maharashtra. It is observed that the cropping pattern of Maharashtra‘s agriculture is shifting

towards commercial crops, which is the notable feature. Due to Integrated Pest Management

(IPM) programme the consumption of pesticides in the state has declined. Maharashtra should

optimise its entrepreneurial, financial and administrative resources to achieve a sustainable and

targeted growth rate. Priority should be given to the watershed development programmes and

promotion of irrigation facilities in the agricultural sector, also encouragement for growth of less

water intensive commercial crops, fruits and vegetables should be given. In the agricultural

sector, watershed development programmes and promotion of irrigation facilities should be

given to the priority. (SoE)

The soil testing and plant testing for proper micronutrient fertilization has to be an

essential part of the farm advisory service and need to be further strengthened. The hope 0f

compendium prepared in this regard will invoke awareness and be of much use to students,

researchers, extension workers, manufacturers and end users.

The micronutrients are as important as macronutrients and can‘t be substituted although required

in small quantities. The deficiency of micronutrients which was sparse and sporadic in the past

decades has become widespread now especially in respect of Zn and Fe in the soils of Western

Maharashtra due to intensive cultivation by irrigation coupled with use of high grade fertilizers

and introduction of high yielding varieties with less utilization of organic manures as compared

with their rate of replenishment. The rate of removal of micronutrients is quite large resulting in

deficiency disorders in soils and crops. The yield of crops could be improved with little

quantities of micronutrients applied either singly or in mixtures through soil or foliar feeding.

The significance of micronutrients, deficiency disorders and delineation of areas of

micronutrient deficiency/sufficiency status. Their critical limits in soils and crops and crop

responses to micronutrients in different soils of Western Maharashtra. The results in the form of

recommendations made and future thrust areas of research nave been indicated. The information

is very much useful to extension workers, manufacturers, end users and policy makers.

Essential nutrients are separated into macro and micronutrients based on the quantity

required, and nutrients those exclusive of which plants can not complete their life cycle. They are

matchless by other elements and straightway involved in plant metabolism. Compared to

micronutrients, macronutrients are necessary in large quantities by plants. The concentrations of

Micronutrients in plant tissues are minor or in trace amounts comparative to the micronutrients

hence the Micronutrients have also been called minor or trace elements, (Mortvedt, 2000). The

elements like Fe. Mn, Zn, Cu, B. Mo and Cl are essential micronutrients for field crops.

In current years the occurrence of micronutrient deficiencies in crops has increased noticeably

due to

I) Continuous and intensive multiple cropping and use of high yielding farmers. They put

requirements which may have higher micronutrient demand.

II) Enhanced production of crops on marginal soils that contain low levels of essential nutrients.

III) Increased use of high analysis fertilizers with low amounts of micronutrient

contamination

IV) Decreased use of animal manures, composts and crop residues

V) Use of soils that are inherently low in micronutrient reserves and

VI) Involvement of natural and anthropogenic factors that limit adequate plant nutrient

availability and create element imbalances.

There is remarkable increase in the food production, by the increasing use of NPK

fertilizers, but it brought with a host of problems related to micronutrient deficiencies by

depleting their resource in soils. As a result, the micronutrient deficiency is now being

recognized as a critical yield limiting factor in cereals, pulses, oilseeds and horticultural crops

and emerging as serious constraint to high productivity.

The soils of Maharashtra have the capacity to supply adequate quantities of micronutrients to

produce healthy crops Although crop response to micronutrients in soils of Maharashtra was

very meager dung seventies, progressively under modem agriculture aimed at obtaining

maximum production per unit area, many crops of the area exhibited micronutrient disorders and

shown the spectacular response to application of micronutrients.

Availability of micronutrients in soil depends upon factors like soil, environment, crop

situations and management. Also, soil reaction. Texture, calcium carbonate, parent material,

organic matter and mineralogical make up have profound influence on their availability to crops.

Soils of Western Maharashtra are quite variable in their fertility status as well as physical and

chemical characteristics owing to differences in physiographic conditions, climate and

vegetation. Western Maharashtra comprises 10 districts spread over in five agro climatic

conditions representing Agro-ecological Region 6 and 19 on the country map. Micronutrient

deficiencies are more encountered on calcareous soils with low organic matter and high pH

(Nayyar, 1999). The fine textured as well as coarse calcareous black soils are more prone to

deficiency of zinc. The deficiency of boron is likely to be observed on both highly calcareous as

well as acidic soils. The availability of micronutrients is generally low and they are likely to be

exhausted soon under exploitative agriculture. It is, therefore, imperative that those nutrients

should be timely replenished in order to obtain sustainable agricultural production.

This demands a systematic study of micronutrients including assessment of micronutrient

status of different soils with delineation of areas of micronutrient deficiency and/or sufficiency,

crop response to various micronutrients and establishing critical levels of different

micronutrients for various crops and soils. Therefore a scheme entitled ―Investigations into

Micronutrient Status of Soils of Maharashtra‖ is initiated by The Indian Council of Agricultural

Research and Government of Maharashtra. The research scheme has made significant

contribution to the micronutrient research in soils and plants of Western Maharashtra.

Eastern Pune Agricultural Soil Information:

In Pune district of the total available land the land under agriculture is 62,577ha, the

Forest territory Area is 1,71,708 ha, uncultivable land and Barren Land is 1,04,226 ha,

wasteland which is cultivable 32,918 ha, other grazing land miscellaneous tree crop is 3,483 ha

and the land under Permanent pasture is- about 66 ha. The crop wise area under cultivation in the

district is the area under cultivation is maximum for wheat during the rabi season than for Gram,

Safflower and Jowar. The greatest land under farming is in Taluka Shirur, Daund and Baramati

and Purandar i.e. 38,924 hectare, 31,530 ha, 38,760 hectare, 38,540 ha, and 28,540 ha

respectively during the rabi season. During kharif time of year, highest cultivation area is in

Taluka Purandar (40,289hectar) and Daund (35,640 ha). In the district, during kharif period, the

chief crops grown are Rice, Sugarcane and Groundnut while area under Cotton is little .The total

soil brought beneath the horticulture in the district is 333.87 sq. km. Most of this area for

horticulture is to be found in Taluka Daund then in Taluka Shirur , Taluka Baramati and Taluka

Purandar .The horticultural plantations carried out throughout this period predominantly

comprise Mango tree plantation, Pomogranate plantation Chikku plantation and Custard Apple

plantation. The other plantations included are Bor, Orange, Lemon, Cashewnut, Tamarind, etc.

In the Pune district about 2771 ha area is under floriculture in which the highest

floriculture development is in Purandar Taluka (about 740 hectare).

1) Wastelands

Some agricultural lands are water-logged, highly eroded, deposited with salts and have very low

or negligible soil covers. Such soils are wastelands and non productive. As per the information

available from forest department large portion of land is in Pune district. Whereas based on

MRSAC Land use map, actual waste land area shown is area of 38.32% in the district.

2) Land use

The study of the map of land use pattern can give the suggestion about the accessibility of

land for the agriculture and for industries. It gives information about the environmentally

sensitive areas as. Wetlands, wetlands, plantations, reserved forests, etc. About 82 percent of the

districts in Maharashtra state have per capita income not only below the state average but also

below the national average and it is in the districts Pune it is average.

Figure1.1: Pune district land use pattern

Agriculture is the main activity. Agriculture thus, plays the role as a key sector in

Maharashtra. While the same is true for the country, there do exists differences in the

performance of Maharashtra‘s agricultural sector in comparison to that of India. Rapid growth in

the agricultural sector, undoubtedly assumes importance, as the growth in this sector will in turn,

stimulate growth in other sectors. Therefore, in this research an attempt has been made to

study the agricultural soil qualities of some regions from eastern part of Pune Maharashtra.

The soil organic matter is formed by a wide series of organic (carbonaceous) substances,

as well as living organisms (the soil biomass) in the soil. The organic compound are produced by

the metabolism of organism continuously going on in the soil in the soil. The carbonaceous

remains of organisms present in the sol.The soil microorganisms breakdown the remains of

plants and animals in the soil that adds within the carbon content of soil. and the synthesis of

organic contenty of soil.. Overtime, organic matter is lost from the soil as carbon di oxide

produced microbial respiration. Because of such loss, repetitive additions of new plants and /or

animal residues are essential to preserve soil organic matter.

Under conditions that favour plant production more than microbial decay, large quantities

of atmospheric carbon di oxide used by plant in photosynthesis are sequestered in the abundant

plant tissues that eventually become part of the soil organic matter. The carbon d oxide is a

major cause of green house effect, which is believed to be warming Earth‘s climate, the balance

between accumulation of sol organic matter and its loss through microbial respiration has global

implications. In fact, more carbon is stored n the world‘s soil than the world‘s plant biomass and

atmosphere combined.

Of the total mass of the typical soil the Organic matter comprises only a small fraction.

In typical well-drained mineral surface soils contain from 1to 6% organic matter by weight. The

organic matter content of subsoil is even smaller. However, the organic material of the soil

shows influence on the plant growth and consequently on the soil properties.

The condition of productive soils can be easily managed by organic matter as the organic

material binds mineral particles into a granular soil constitution that is largely responsible for the

loss. These granules can be stabilized effectively by certain paste like substances formed by a

variety of soil organisms, and organisms in plant roots. This also forms the part of the soil

organic matter.

The water holding capacity of soil and the availability of water for growth of plants is

increased by the presence of Organic matter. The organic matter in addition is a major source of

the plant nutrients. for most plants phosphorus and sulphur and primary source of nitrogen is

formed by the organic matter. As a soil organic matter decays, these nutrient elements, which are

present in organic combinations, are released as soluble ions, that plant roots can be taken up by

absorption. Finally, organic matter which includes plant and animal residues, is the main food for

the plants that supplies carbon and energy to soil organisms. Without it, biochemical activity so

essential for ecosystem functioning would come to a near standstill. Therefore, the micro flora

and micro fauna of the soil in selected area is also to be studied in the present research work.

Soil substantial Properties- Soil is comprised of mineral deposits, soil organic material (SOM),

water, and air (figure.1.2). The composition and percentage of these components greatly

manipulate soil physical propertiestogether with texture, composition and porosity, the fraction

of pore space in a soil. The physical properties of soil, have an effect on air and water movement

in the soil and this also affects the functional capacity of the soil.

The conditions are good for plant growth when Volume composition of a loam surface soil is as

above. The soil can become wetter or drier when proportions of these two components fluctuate

the broken line between water and air indicates that the soil condition. The ideal condition for

plant growth is none the less, when there is nearly equal proportion of water and air in the soil.

Figure1.2:-The Composition of soil surface.

The study of soil profile beings with a limit of soil horizon borders. for the study of soil

formation and to study the soil development , the study of soil profile is important criteria. A soil

horizon is a level of soil, that is just about parallel to the soil surface. The properties of soil

horizon are produced by soil-forming processes.

There are generally five mineral horizons as O, A, E, B and C which are studied in the soil

profile. These properties, however differ from those of the adjacent horizons in respect of

characteristics, such as colour, texture, structure, consistency, etc. The fallen leaves and other

plant and animal residue tend to accumulate on the surface. These form organic materials

especially forests, an undisturbed ecosystems. There they undergo altering degrees of physical

and biochemical processes of breaking and transformation, so, that layers of older, partially

decomposed materials may be underlie the freshly added

debris. Together, these, organic layers at the soil surface

may be designated the O horizons.

Figure1.3:- A general soil profile (Horizons O-R).

Soil animals and percolating water move some of these organic materials downward to

intermingle with the mineral grains of the rigolith. These unite the decomposing remains of plant

roots to form organic materials that make the upper mineral layers darker. Also, use weathering

tends to be the most intense nearest soil surface, in many soils the upper layers lose some of their

clay or other weathering products by leaching to the horizons below. The upper layers nearer the

surface are A horizons. These are the layers which are dominated by mineral particles. They

appear darker due to the gathering of organic matter.

There is comparatively less organic matter in the layers underlying the A and O horizons

than the horizons nearer the surface. The amounts of silicate clays, iron and aluminium oxides,

gypsum, or calcium carbonate vary in accumulation in the basic horizons. The accumulated

materials may have been formed by the water coming down from the horizons above. The

weathering process may also be the important part in their formation. These underlying layers

are referred to as B horizons.

The formation of C horizons involves the plant roots and microorganisms activities that

often extend below the B horizon, especially in the humid regions which is the source of

chemical changes in the soil water, also some biochemical weathering of the regolith is

responsible. The C horizons are least weathered parts of the soil profile.

The R horizon represents the bedrock. It is present below the C horizon. The R horizon

contains materials which are deposited by gravity, water, wind or by the glaciers. It is a deep

horizon. Essentially all soils do not have all the horizons mentioned above. The eroded soil do

not show the A horizon , or if present it is very thin. B horizon may be absent in the poorly

developed soil.

Soil Texture-The International System is commonly used for the description of soil

textures. The US scheme is used for classifying soils according to Soil catalogue This system is

adopted all over the nation in the soil – assessment organizations..

Soil consistency is defined as the absolute proportion of various separates in a soil. The

range of soil texture has been divided into a range of textural groups for the intention of

describing the soil horizons is a graphic model showing the various textural groupings now

recognized The more detailed groups sandy loam, silt loam, and the like, are used to describe

horizons.

There is great difference in the chemical composition and the physical properties of the

small and large particles. The individual particles like coarse fraction, stony and sand which are

mainly composed of rock wreckage or primary raw materials act as the factor in the formation of

soil. They are relatively non-reactive and have low specific surface. They do not cling to large

amount of water or else nutrients. They transmit air and water easily owing to the large voids

between them.

The silt are transitional particles between sands and clays. The particles of silt are

comparable to those of sand and they are mostly formed of secondary minerals. Because of their

higher specific surface, they are more relative than sand.

Most of the important properties of soils are controlled by the clay fraction. They are

primarily composed of crystal line alumino silicates, the secondary minerals. They are more

reactive and have high specific surface. They contain high competence to retain water and

nutrients.

Figure1.4:- Textural classes of soil.

The limits of various textural classes and subclasses are as follows:

Sand: earth that contains 85% or more of sand; the % silt plus one-and-a-half (1.5) times the percentage of mud shall not exceed 15. Coarse sand: 25% or more of very crude and coarse sand, and less than50% of any other class of sand. Sand: 25% or more of extremely coarse, coarse and intermediate sand, and less than 50% of fine or very well sand. Fine sand: 50% or more of fine sand, or less than25% of very coarse, coarse, and medium sand, and less than50% of very fine sand. Very fine sand: 50% or more of very fine sand. Loamy Sand: Soil that contains eightyfive to 90 percentof sand and the percentage of silt plus one and half times the percentage of clay is less than 15; or it contains 70 to 80 percent of sand, and the percentage of silt plus double the percentage of clay does not exceed 30. Loamy coarse sand: 25 percent or more of very coarse and coarse sand, and less than50 percent of any other category of sand. Loamy sand: Twenty five percent or more of very coarse, coarse, and medium sand, and less than fifty percent of fine or very fine sand. Loamy fine sand: Fifty percent or more of fine sand, or less than twenty five percent of very coarse, coarse and medium sand, and less than fifty percent of very fine sand. Loamy very fine sand: fifty percent or more of very fine sand.

Loam: Soil that contains seven to twenty seven percent of clay, twenty eight to fifty percent of silt, and less than fifty two percent of sand. Sandy Loam: Soil that contains either twenty percent or less of clay and the percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay exceeds thirty, and fifty two percent or more of sand; or less than seven percent of clay, less than fifty percent of silt Coarse sandy loam: Twenty five percent or more of very coarse and coarse sand and less

than fifty percent of other grades of sand. Sandy loam: Thirty percent or more of very coarse, coarse and medium sand, but less than twenty five percent of very coarse sand, and less than thirty percent of very fine or fine sand. Fine sandy loam: thirty percent or more of fine sand and less than thirty percent of very fine sand, or between fifteen and three percent of very coarse, coarse, and medium sand. Very fine sandy loam: thirty percent or more of very fine or forty percent of fine and very fine sand, at least half or which are very fine sand and less than fifteen percent very coarse, coarse, and medium sand.

Silt: Soil that has eighty percent or more of silt and less than twelve percent of clay. Silt Loam: Soil that has fifty percent or more of silt and twelve to twenty seven percent of clay; or fifty to eighty percent of silt and less than twelve percent of clay. Silty Clay Loam: Soil which shows twenty seven to 40% of clay and less than twenty percent of sand. Sandy Clay: Soil having forty percent or more of clay and forty percent or more of silt.

Clay: Soil that has forty percent or more of clay, lessthan forty five percent of sand, and less than forty percent of silt. Sandy Clay Loam: Soil that contains twenty to thiertyfive percent of clay, less than twenty eight percent of silt and forty five percent or more of sand. Clay Loam: Soil which has twenty seven to forty percent of clay and twenty to fortyfive percent of sand. Sandy Clay: Soil that has thirty five percent or more of clay and forty five percent or more of sand.

The textural soil classes diverge in the particle size examination. these classes differ in

their bearing on some of the important factors affecting plant growth, which are -1) the

movement and availability of water, 2) aeration, 3) workability, and 4) the content of plant

nutrients.

Sandy soils are very porous and well sapped. They retain a lesser amount of water and

hence require more repeated irrigation for flourishing crop growth than fine-textured soils. The

clayey soils can grip more moisture, but they have high flaccid percentage. Their water intake

rate is low. Water is logged in them and it results in poor exposure to air and workability. The

loam soils, clay loams or silt loams are by far are the outstanding soils, for crop growth, as they

have the advantage of equally sands and clays.

The soil particles show variation in profile from spherical to angular. They also vary in

size from gravel and sand to fine clay. Soil forms the transition zone between hard rock and air,

holding both liquid water and oxygen gas for use by plant roots.

Chemically the soil shows mineral matter and its composition. The inorganic components

of the soil are formed of the compounds of silicon, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, potassium,

sodium, iron etc. Besides these the soil contains small amount of number of mineral elements

like phosphorus, boron, manganese, copper, sulphur, zinc and cobalt. Thus the soil supplies all

the essential mineral elements required by the plant. These elements are categorised as A) Macro

elements- P, K, Ca, Mg and sulphur. B) Microelements – Fe, Mn, Zn Cu, Mo, boron and

chlorine.

Soil texture and Plant Water Relations- Soil Transfers mineral elements from the Earth‘s

crust rock to its vegetation. It possesses or stores the organic remains of terrestrial plants and

animals. At a scale of a few millimetres soil provides diverse microhabitats for the

microorganisms which show the aerobic respiration, and channels water and nutrients to plant

roots. It also provides surfaces and solution vessels for many biochemical reactions. At the scale

of a few micrometers, soil provides ordered and complex surfaces, both mineral and organic, that

act as templets for chemical reaction and interact with water and solutes. The tiniest mineral

particles form micro-zones of electromagnetic charge that attracts everything from bacterial cell

walls to proteins to conglomerates of water molecules.

Biological Properties of soil-

Soil constitutes several distinct groups of microorganisms. The algae, fungi bacteria,

actinomycets and protozoa like microorganisms are predominantly present in the soil. They play

an important role in particular in biochemical transformation and in soil economy in general.

Fungi play equally important role to bacteria in solubilization of phosphorous and in the

decomposition of organic matter. Algae play an important role in neutralization of soil reaction

and thus they help in the reclamation of the problem soils. Algae also increase the content of

organic matter in the soil. The microbial population of soil is varied .There are a number of

various types of organisms in the soil. They live in association for example the algae play

important role in the interchange of gases between the atmosphere of swampy soils and the soil

air in association with protozoa and bacteria.

Almost each soil particle shows presence of various soil organisms on its surface. There is

intermixed existence of the soil microorganisms. The fungi are found concentrated near the

decomposing plat residues or on the decomposing soil particles. The bacteria and protozoa are

found with colloidal particles in adhered state. All these microorganisms are responsible for the

specific changes or the transformations in the soils.

Different kinds of microorganisms present In the soil are as follows:

Soil Micro flora consists the organisms as– i) Bacteria , ii) Actinomycetes, iii) Fungi,

and iv) Algae

Soil Macro fauna consists of the organisms like– i) Protozoa, and ii) Nematodes.

Besides micro fauna, the soil harbours a large number of worms and insects of different

kinds and sizes.

Actinomycets-

the soil actinomycets play important role in the decomposition of all types of nitrogenous

and non-nitrogenenous organic substances. Because of their slow activities actinomycets start

their activity after other microorganisms and hence they can attack the more resistant substances

left undecomposed by other organisms. actinomycets also play important role in humus

formation like that of fungi.

Fungi –Soil fungi play important role in the decomposition of complex organic

substances and add minerals to the soil. Fungi decompose all the constituents present in the

organic matter. By the decomposition of carbohydrates the make free carbon di oxide and water

in the soil. They bring about the decomposition of protein which makes free the ammonia. this

ammonifying power of soil fungi is more important as it is greater than the bacteria. This

ammonia is used by the bacteria for nitrogen fixation.

Algae- algae are important in the maintenance of soil fertility. They fix the nitrogen and

carbon and augment the soil in organic matter as well as shared nitrogen. In the rice soils they

are important as they facilitate the aeration of the roots of rice plants by desirable quality of the

exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. Algae assimilate the nitrogen but when they

die and decompose, and this leads to the mineralisation of this immobilised nitrogen within

algae. By this way algae help in the check of loss of nitrates through leaching and drainage

especially when the soil is uncropped.

Figure1.5:- Biological factors in the soil.

OBJECTIVES

The soil analysis with different parameters is essential for the farmers to adopt best crops

according the soil structures & to avoid failure possibility of crop yields in monetary & man

power wastage.

The objectives of the project are as under:

1. To assess micronutrients status of soils.

2. To delineate areas of micronutrients deficiency in soils of Eastern Pune.

3. To set up the critical level of micronutrients in soils.

4. To ascertain critical level of micronutrients in crops.

5. To study the interaction of micronutrients in soil and crops.

6. To make micronutrients fertilizer recommendation to different crops.

7. To assess the macronutrients status of soil.

8. To study the micro flora and micro fauna of the soil of some regions of eastern Pune. HYPOTHESIS

The soil analysis with different parameters is essential for the farmers to adopt best crops

according the soil structures & to avoid failure possibility of crop yields in monetary & man

power wastage. The study of micro and macronutrient status of soil as well as the study of

micro-organisms in the soil helps in establishment of the critical level of micronutrients in soils

and helps in fertilizer recommendation to different crops.

Study Area: Different villages from the eastern side of Pune will be selected. Agriculture soil

from four different tehsils (taluka) of eastern Pune like

1) Shirur, 2)Daund,3) Purander, and 4) Baramati

are selected. From these some regional locations will be selected.

Materials & Methods Laboratory analysis of Soil Samples:

For the analysis Soil samples are first air-dried and then passed through a mechanical crusher

consisting of two rollers which turn toward each other. The soil then passes through a 10-mesh

screen. The rollers are kept clean by large brushes held tightly against them. The soil samples are

kept for at least 5 days before being tested, especially for potassium.

The collected soil samples will be kept in the tray and air dried for the period of

approximate 1-6 days depending on the moisture content in the sample. Then the sample will be

crushed into fine powder using mortar and pestle. Thus the soil sample will be prepared to

analyze the parameter like pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Water Soluble Salts (Calcium (Ca),

Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), and Chloride (Cl)), Available Nutrients

(Sulphate (SO4), Phosphate (PO4), Nitrate (NO3) and Heavy Metals (Chromium (Cr), Cadmium

(Cd). Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) in the laboratory using standard methods for soil analysis.

To obtain a momentary or more or less continuous understanding of a soil profile in

respect to the micronutrients and useful or harmful micro flora and micro fauna saturations

pollutants, and pH of the soil is to be analyzed. The respective data will allow for the

characterization of soil‘s conditions and tropic assessment. Following contents will be tested by

different measures as-

1. To determine the pH of soil. (Soil: water::1:2.5)- by pH meter.

2. To determine the lime contents, phosphorous contents.( Olsen method for neutral and

alkali soil, Bray and Curtz method for acidic soil)-by Spectrophotometer.

3. To determine the Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sodium contents(ppm) -

NH4OAC method –by flame photometer

4. To determine the Organic contents by Walkley-Black Method

5. To find out Total nitrogen-by Gerhardt Vapodest instrument.

6. To determine Sulphur (ppm) by Turbidimetric method-by Spectrophotometer-169.

7. To determine Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper (ppm) by DTPA Lindsay and Norwell

method – the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

8. To determine Boron (ppm) by Azomethine-H method- Spectrophotometer-169.

9. To determine calcium carbonate (%) by Acid Neutralization Method.

10. To determine the soil micro flora and soil micro fauna.

11. To determine texture by feel method.

12. To determine water holding capacity (%) by gravitational method.

13. To determine EC (dSm-1) (Soil: water:: 1:2.5)- by Conductivity meter.

14. To determine chloride (ppm) by Titration method.

15. To determine Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) (c. mol/Kg) by Ammonium saturation

method –Gerhardt Distillator.

16. To determine Field Capacity (%) by Gravitational method.

Figure No.1.6: GIS map of sampling Locations sites of Tahsils Purandar, Baramati, Daund and Shirur of eastern Pune(Maharashtra).

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The soil analysis with different parameters Different villages from the eastern side of Pune will be selected. Agriculture soil from four different tehsils (Taluka) of eastern Pune like

Shirur, Daund, Purander and Baramati, will be studied. The soil samples from four different sites from each tehsil are studied.

UTILITY OF THE STUDY

From the study of the soils and their analysis for various micronutrients the farmers can have the knowledge about the suitable crops to grow and the increased production.The soil forms one of the most valuable natural resource. The soil forms a medium for growth of plants which are important to meet our food and fibre need. Soil performs

Figure1.7:- (A) Map of India and (B) Maharashtra state

Figure1.8:- Map of Pune district (Four different Tehsil -Shirur, Daund, and Baramati &

Purander)

different kinds of functions like filtration of water, decomposition of waste, storage of

heat and exchanges gases and consequently has great bearing on environmental balance. For the

development of 1 cm top soil layer 100-400 years are required. Due to the tremendous increase

in the industrialization and urbanization in the past years there is considerable decrease in the

agricultural land. Now a days there is increase in the use of synthetic fertilizers for the

production of cash crops, by the farmers This has resulted in the decrease in the soil fertility.

Due to this, a stage of fatigue of soil has reached ensuing in the decline in the output. In order to

summon the constantly increasing food requirement for expanding population, it is necessary

that resources like soil and water should be used thoughtfully. At present, the majority of our

land wealth is ruined. It is observed that in India, problems of salinity and Sodicity have affected

million hectares of land. In Maharashtra, also it is reported that there are million hectares of soils

which are affected by salt and are water logged. It is important for the maintenance of soil health

and for sustainable output. In our country for the supplement of adequate food and for other

demands for fast growing population , the agricultural production is the base and the soil forms

its resource.

A lack of awareness in the society in the direction of soil quality has been to the point

that soil is used as a disposal site of unsafe waste as well as trails of many contaminants. It is

also used for clearance of other applied hazardous chemicals which create serious risk to human

health. Soil quality indicators are useful to directly check the soil. They are grouped into

physical, chemical and biological indicators. Some soil chemical properties like pH, electrical

conductivity, plant nutrient availability, ESP, sodium absorption ratioand cation exchang

capacity, etc are the indicators of soil qualities. The accessibility of nutrients play an imperative

role in determining the maintenance and quality of the soil. The stage of organic matter, change

in pH, extent of microbial activity, types and quantity of clay and situation of soil moisture,

CaCO3 content, are very much important in the supply of nutriments of soil.

Widespread research work has been done on the classification of soils and their chemical

characteristics. The study area comes under dry zone receiving very little rainfall. Therefore,

lithology, topography and climate have embarrassed the development of soils in Eastern Pune

area. The soils under the observation area are derived from Deccan Trap basalt. There are wide

variations in soil types, although the main material of the soils is the same previous researchers

have put some radiance on the character of soils from area under observation. The organization

of industrial estate by the Government of Maharashtra at Eastern Pune area and intensification

of sugarcane and allied industries has started deteriorating the soil quality in some parts of the

area under study. Hence, attempts have been made to learn the chemical characteristics and

their classification of these soils properly.