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The Neuropsychology of Writing & Best Practice Instructional Recommendations
From Brain to Pen toPaper . . .
Day 2
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1. Become proficient in spelling, punctuation, and grammar;
2. They must learn to write in various styles and formats (depending on the particular situation/audience);
3. They must build strong vocabularies and deep reservoirs of background knowledge;
4. They must learn to cope with writer’s block and develop the stamina needed to get through long and difficult assignments (writers’ resiliency);
5. They must learn strategies (such as preparing outlines, soliciting feedback, and writing/revising multiple drafts that help them to organize their writing projects and complete them successfully.
To become competent writers, students must:
The Five Stages of the Writing Process
1. Prewriting (brainstorming, planning, sequencing/organizing, etc.)
2. Drafting (writing the initial draft)3. Revising (content-oriented
revision/correction)4. Editing (proofreading and mechanical
revision/correction)5. Publishing (preparation of the final
draft in its final form)4
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Writing Ability & the Neurodevelopmental Functions:
WRITING
AttentionMaintaining concentration &
self-monitor work quality
Language ProductionUsing words and constructing
sentences correctly
Executive FunctioningGenerating ideas & taking a
stepwise approach to planning, organizing, and revising work
MemoryFluid recall of letters,
rules, and ideas; simultaneous holding of
all of this in working memory
Spatial-MotorComprehending the spatial relationships
involved in letter/word production; coordinating small muscles of
the fingers needed to form letters
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AttentionControls
Executive Skills Memory(LTM)
NeuromotorFunctions
Language
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Breakdowns in one or more of these processes can lead to . .
Dysgraphia: A disorder of written expression – there are ‘language-based’ and ‘non-language-based’ types of dysgraphia (4 – 17% of the population, Hooper et al., 1994)
A ‘shadow syndrome’ of a writing disorder: ‘Sub-clinical‘ elements of a writing disorder that make the writing process arduous/tedious (??% of the population – certainly LOTS of kids . .)
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DA’ BRAIN: Its two hemispheres and four lobes
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Neuropsychology of Writing II
Language,
Visual-Motor Functions,
and Writing
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Language
The Voice of the Writing Process
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Language-based writing problems can stem from . . .
1. Deficits at the word formation level (difficulties with processing phonemes, graphemes, morphemes)
2. Deficits at the sentence formation level (difficulties with word/phrase retrieval, syntax, or sequential elaboration)
3. Deficits at the paragraph/essay formation level (difficulties comprehending/recalling the manner in which sentences combine into paragraphs and beyond)
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Left Hemisphere Language Centers
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Language-Based Dysgraphias
“It is a damn poor mind that can only think of
one way to spell a word .”
-- Andrew Jackson
Essential (and often unacknowledged) literacy acquisition facts
Learning to speak and understand others’ oral language is a natural process (basically, we’re born to do it . .)
Learning to read and write is NOT a natural process!Why???
Here’s why . .
Literacy requires the literal REWIRING of brain circuits.
That is, in order to read (and write), we must
modify brain regions developed over the course
of millions of years of evolution to serve oral language and object
recognition so that they can function in the service of
literacy.
Let’s look again at the brain(source: Jacob L. Driesen, Ph.D.)
ExpressiveLanguage
ReceptiveLanguage
Object Namin
g
Letter-SoundAssociation
Letter/Word
ID
Bottom line
Some brains have a far harder time than most accomplishing the
rewiring.We call children with such brains,
‘dyslexic.’
Developmental Dyslexia
The Biggest Distinction . .
Acquired Dyslexia
Vs.
AKA: Alexia or word blindness
Biggest Distinction within Developmental Dyslexia
Auditory/Phonological
Vs.
Visual/Orthographic
Four Types of Developmental Reading Disorders (Feifer, 2011)
1. Dysphonetic Dyslexia (difficulties processing the component sounds of speech and with linking letters to sounds – inhibits the ‘sounding out’ of words)
2. Orthographic Dyslexia (difficulties recalling/recognizing the visual features of words; this is a particular problem with irregular words like ‘enough’ and ‘yacht’ and ‘the’)
3. Mixed Dyslexia (Impaired phonological and orthographic processing)
4. Comprehension Deficits (no obvious word level/mechanical reading deficits, but comprehension is impaired)
Subtypes of Language-Based Dysgraphias
1. Phonological Dysgraphia (spelling deficits associated with phonological processing deficits - students with this problem struggle with spelling by sound)
2. Surface (or “Orthographic”) Dysgraphia (marked difficulty with storing and/or retrieving the idiosyncratic appearance of words)
3. Mixed Dysgraphia (manifests itself in a combination of phonological spelling errors and orthographic errors depicting faulty sequential arrangement of letters)
4. Semantic/Syntactic Dysgraphia (the inability to master the rules for grammar that dictate precisely how words/phrases can be combined – writing reflects a breakdown of linguistic rules)
Phonological Dyslexia Difficulties
processing the component sounds of
speech and with linking letters to
sounds – inhibits the ‘sounding out’ of
words)
AKA: Dysphonetic Dyslexia
Phonological vs. Phonemic Awareness
Phonological
Awareness:
Syllables,Onsets &
Rimes
Phonemic Awareness:
Grasping language at
the phonemic
level.
Phonics (AKA: The Alphabetic Principle)
Key neuroanatomical structures in the decoding/encoding process
We’re talking primarily about the left brain (men more than women)
Broca’s Area (brain center located in the inferior frontal gyrus associated primarily with expressive language)
Wernicke’s Area (brain center located in the parieto-temporal region associated with word analysis and receptive language)
Occipito-temporal convergence (brain center associated with the storage and recognition/recall of word forms – how they look, sound, and what they mean)
Ventral occipito-temporal region
(the brain’s ‘letterbox’)
Letter/word
ID
Superior temporal
cortex(where letters and
sounds of language are
linked)
Letter/sound corresponden
ce
Pronun-
ciation
Broca’s Area(expressive language
center – where pronunciation occurs)
Vocabulary &
meaning
Medial temporal cortex
(a key ‘meaning’ center of auditory
processing)
Exec. contr
ol
Pre-frontal cortex
(primary center of executive
control and meta-cognition)
Brain Systems for Reading(adapted from Overcoming Dyslexia, S. Shaywitz, 2003
Orthographic Knowledge/Competency
Essential for ‘sight word’ recognition and,
of course, spelling.
Orthographic DyslexiaAKA: Surface or ‘dyseidetic’ dyslexia
Characteristics:
1. Good grasp of phonology and phonics
2. Difficulty recalling or grasping the visual
elements and visual gestalt of words
We’re talking here about a visual memory/visual
integration deficit
Why Orthographic Dyslexia is so common in English speaking countries:
English has DEEP
(complex) orthography!!That is, there is
not a 1:1 correspondence between all or our phonemes and all of our graphemes.
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Subtypes of Language-Based Dysgraphias
1. Phonological Dysgraphia (spelling deficits associated with phonological processing deficits - students with this problem struggle with spelling by sound)
Kids with phonological dysgraphia struggle, in a nutshell, with phonological processing, and display error patterns reflecting limited comprehension of sound/symbol relationships.
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Another language-based dysgraphia
2. Surface (or “Orthographic”) Dysgraphia (marked difficulty with storing and/or retrieving the idiosyncratic appearance of words)
In other words, these kids have little difficulty spelling by sound, but struggle with phonetically irregular words containing alternative spelling patterns.
“Yacht” spelled as “yat” and “enough” spelled as “enuff”
Test of Orthographic Competence
Assesses aspects of the English writing system that
are integral to proficient reading and writing. These
aspects include letters, spelling, punctuation,
abbreviations, and special symbols.
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Expressive Language Difficulties & Writing
Conversational language is not the same as academic (writing) language
Word retrieval difficulties sink both oral expression and written expression
Limited elaboration ability is often a prime suspect in written language that is often ‘Joe Friday’ in orientation.
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A failure to communicate . . .
Word retrieval difficulties sound like, “Um,” “ah,” pauses, etc (lots of “stall” words), as well as “circumlocution” (substituting a definition for a word)
Kids with elaboration difficulties sound like Joe Friday (just the facts). Very little illustrative language and connective phrases. Often use summary words such as “stuff” and “things” – writing tends to be sparse.
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Kids with elaboration difficulties: Short-answer specialists
Kaufman: Do you like to write?Kid: Nope.Kaufman: Why not? What do you dislike about it?Kid: I dunno . . . BoringKaufman: Do you find all types of writing boring? Even story writing?Kid: I guess.Kaufman: Are there other things you dislike about writing?Kid: It’s hard.Kaufman: What’s hard about it?Kid: I dunno . . . Saying stuff.
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Activity 3
I am a small parasite. Add one letter and I am a thin piece of wood. Change one letter and I am a vertical heap. Change another letter and I am a roughly built hut. Change one final letter and I am a large fish. What was I and what did I become?
A Working Memory Brain Teaser!
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Activity 5
Elaboration difficulties are common among children (particularly boys).
Take a moment to consider ways that you might encourage ‘non-elaborative’ kids to become at least somewhat more verbose and productive on paper.
Share your thoughts with someone seated by you.
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And then syntax problems there are . . . (huh?) Word order is often confused
Words are placed next to each other in ways that aren’t appropriate in English (“I car washed with Dad”).
Sentences are generally poorly formed, and are hard to comprehend (sometimes even by the writer . . .)
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When syntax goes bad:An actual newspaper quote . .
No one was injured in the blast, which was attributed to a buildup of gas by one town official.
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Key question to ask when working a kid whose writing syntax (word order on paper) is problematic . . .
Is his/her spoken syntax similarly
jumbled or is it much better?
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If a child’s written syntax . . .
Matches his oral syntax:
The written syntax problems are likely related to an expressive language deficit.
Does not match his oral syntax:
The written syntax problems are likely related to an attention or working memory deficit.
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Wrestling with pen and paper
Neuromotor Functions and the Writing Process
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Fine-Motor Functioning = Grapho-Motor Functioning
Key Point to Remember . . .
Many kids with abominable handwriting draw well and have no difficulties manipulating small objects.
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Handwriting Development: How it’s supposed to work
1. Luria (1973): Said that kids learn to make letters by memorizing the parts of each letter through an interaction between the muscles, eyes, and kinesthetic feedback.
2. With continued practice, the letter formation process becomes more automatic – a single movement (or a “kinesthetic melody”).
3. Kids get faster/more accurate as they get older, but not a regular intervals.
4. Most kids have a close approximation of their adult handwriting by Grade 6
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Three common types of grapho-motor dysfunction(Mel Levine, Educational Care, pp. 212-213)
1. Motor memory dysfunctions
2. Grapho-motor production deficits
3. Motor Feedback Problems
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Motor Memory Dysfunction
Defined: Difficulty integrating memory input with grapho-motor output (Levine: These kids lack the procedural memory needed to know how to inscribe letters dependably on demand).
Often unable to recall (fluidly enough!) the sequences of muscle movements needed to form specific letters (Can’t recall the “kinetic melodies” of letters).
The writing of these kids tends to be slow, labored, with letter sizes varying widely and spacing being inconsistent.
Kids with this issue prefer manuscript (printing) to cursive!!
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Grapho-Motor Production Deficits
Defined: Difficulty transmitting/executing specific muscle assignments to the finger while writing
Levine: These kids show poor grapho-motor coordination (they lack grapho-motor fluidity), use heavy pressure, and write slowly
There’s a poor balance often between the muscles balancing the pencil and those moving it
These kids generally use ‘thumb over’ pencil grips and/or elongated fingers
These kids often show a co-morbid speech/language (articulation) impairments; Levine: They endure the same kind of trouble assigning mouth movements in speech as they do assignment finger movements in writing.
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Motor Feedback Problems Defined: Difficulties getting (or
comprehending) feedback from the fingers with regard to the pencil’s exact location as letters are being formed
Also known as “finger agnosia”
Levine: Affected students may compensate by keeping their eyes very close to the page in attempt to visual monitor the pencil point, since their fingers are failing to report back.
Kids with this condition usually rely on their larger muscles (wrist and arm) to write, as they have more of a sense as to what these muscles are up to
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Levine’s Model of Grapho-Motor Dysfunction(The Myth of Laziness, p. 172)
MOTOR FAILUREDURING WRITING
Motor Memory:Trouble activating the right
motion sequences
Previsualization:Trouble picturing the letters
Localization: Trouble tracking finger
movements
Implementation:Trouble assigningmuscles to jobs
Spatial Awareness:Trouble comprehendingthe spatial relationshipsinvolved in letter/word
construction(Kaufman)
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A quick look at grips: The good, the bad, and the ugly Most good grips are
‘dynamic tripods’ in which the pencil rests on the third (middle) finger and is controlled by the thumb and index finger
Many problematic grips are ‘quadruped’ in nature, with the pencil resting on the fourth (‘ring’) finger and the thumb extended and wrapped over the index and middle fingers
“Thumb-wrap” grips and “hammer grips” essentially prevent the fingers from controlling the pencil
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Lefties and handwriting: A vast right hand conspiracy . . .
We’re automatically in a one-down position because we push the pencil/pen point into the paper (friction!)
Greater friction/muscle tension can lead to more thumb-wrap grips
Unless we’re taught to orient the paper to the right, we smear and/or hook like there’s no tomorrow
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Student Profiling to Inform Instruction and Learning Plan
Student’s Name: _______________
Neuro Profile
Attention/EF Language Memory Neuromotor Emotional
Academic Profile
Spelling/Usage Sentence Constr. Paragraph/Essay Constr.
Strategies
Mechanics/Rules
End of morning session . .
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5656
Next Time: STRATEGIES
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IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION
Best Practice Recommendations
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Assessment of WritingHelpful Perspectives . .
• Error patterns matter as much as (if not more than) standard scores
• ‘Management by Profile’ (Mel Levine
• ‘Kids succeed if they can’ (Ross Greene)
Purpose of assessment: To developfunctional hypotheses about what,specifically, is getting in the way.
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Helpful Assessment ToolsCognitive Academic
WISC-IV (verbal, visual/spatial, working memory, processing speed)
Bender-2 & RCFT (visual-motor integration and spatial organization skills)
WCST, CTMT, NEPY, BRIEF (attention/executive functioning)
CMS or WRAML (verbal vs. visual memory)
Classroom writing samples (nothing better)
TOWL-3
WIAT-II Spelling and Written Expression subtests
KTEA-2 Spelling and Written Expression subtests
C-TOPP/PAT (phonological processing)
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Meet Josh . . Age: 9 Grade: 4 Dx: History of ‘mild ADHD’)Problem: “Hates to write, produces little, and often shuts down or goes off-task when asked to write”
WISC-IV: FSIQ 103, VCI 114, PRI 102, WMI 82,PSI 88
Bender: Average copy and recall phase scores (slow and scattered approach)
RCFT: Below average copy phase characterized by slow, disorganized approach
WCST/CTMT/NEPY/BRIEF: Significant difficulties with set shifting, divided attention, visual andauditory attention, organization, impulse control,and self-monitoring
BASC-2 & Conners’: Clinically significant levelsof attention problems and hyperactivity; socialproblems and anxiety subscales moderately elevated
Classroom writing samples: Strong ‘voice,’ but writing is sparse, sloppy,poorly organized (‘one randomthought after another’), & capitalization& punctuation are erratic.
WIAT-II: Spelling is average in isolation,but significantly worse in narrativewriting; sentence combination skills are intact, although punctuation is erratic; writing prompt performance is consistent with classroom samples
TOWL-3: Intact vocabulary and spelling;no obvious language weaknesses; storywriting sample is vague, brief, and onlysomewhat related to picture prompt
Universal benchmarki
ng
Small group
progress monitoring
Sped eligibility
and progress
monitoringCBM data
informs the eval process
Curriculum-Based Measurement
Defined: CBM refers to the systematic measurement of students’ academic
achievement, using brief, highly content valid (‘curriculum-based’) measures
administered at regular intervals (e.g., 3x per year) as a benchmarking process or
more frequently (i.e., weekly) to gauge rates of response to specific interventions.
What is it???AIMSweb is a benchmark and progress
monitoring system based on direct, frequent and continuous student assessment. The results are reported to students, parents,
teachers and administrators via a web-based data management and reporting system to
determine response to intervention.
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Framing Your Thoughts, provides systematic and sequential instruction for
written expression. Instruction moves from barebone sentences through five kinds of
paragraph development. Framing Your Thoughts is a research-based written
expression instruction for K-12 students in general education (Tier I) and intervention (Tier II) classrooms. In Carroll County Public
Schools Framing Your Thoughts has also been used effectively with students that have special education needs (Tier III).
Superior temporal
cortex(where letters and
sounds of language are
linked)
Letter/sound corresponden
ce
Pronun-
ciation
Broca’s Area(expressive language
center – where pronunciation occurs)
Developing the brain’s phonemic and phonics skill
Sitton Spelling & Word Skills
Utilizes 1200 Core Words selected for their frequency of use in writing
Targets the building of children’s knowledge of English orthographic patterns
Heavily teacher-directed and explicit, with emphasis given to lots of guided practice and spiraled presentation of orthographic patterns via systematic word study methods.
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Research-Based Spelling Instruction
“What students store in memory about specific words’ spellingsis regulated in part by what they know about the general system. Learners who lack the knowledge are left with rote memorizationwhich takes longer and is more easily forgotten” (Ehri, p. 308, 1992).
Helping Dyslexic/Dysgraphic Children
Shaywitz: Since the neural systems responsible for transforming print into language may not be as responsive as in other children, the instruction for dyslexic kids must be relentless and amplified in every way possible so that it penetrates and takes hold. (Overcoming Dyslexia, p. 256)
Orton-Gillingham-inspired Reading Programs for Dyslexic Students
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Direct Instruction (DI) Reading Programs for Dyslexic Students
Technology-Centered Programs for Dyslexic Students
Dr. Marilyn Jager Adams
Dr. Ted Hasselbring
Visualization-Centered Programs for Dyslexic Students
Cover – Copy - Compare
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(For spelling problems) The student is instructed to cover the correct model on the left side of the page with an index card and to spell the word in the space on the right of the sheet. The student then uncovers the correct answer on the left to check his or her work.
(For vocabulary items) The student is instructed to cover the correct model on the left side of the page with an index card and to write both the word and its definition in the space on the right side of the sheet. The student then uncovers the correct model on the left to check his or her work.
Research-Based Spelling Instruction
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Ways to help language impaired kids: Levine’s main emphases:
Figure out as early as possible if a kid’s writing problems relate to language
Demystify the specific problems
Get all kids talking (a lot!), and provide guided feedback
Insist all kids always talk in full sentences
Actively teach/module vocabulary, syntax, and elaboration
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More Levine Strategies Provide lots of opportunities to practice
speaking (“Tell me more” “How else could you say that?”)
Have kids practice oral elaboration (have kids describe or explain pictures, photos, etc.)
Frame questions in such a way that kids can’t give one-word answers (instead of, “What is your favorite TV show,” ask kids, “What do you like best about your favorite TV show?”)
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A few Kaufman strategiesSentence Formation Elaboration
Have kids practice the sequence of words (fun with syntax!)
Have children practice creating sentences (silly and otherwise), incorporating a few key words (“Create a sentence that includes the words, clown, puddle, and banana”)
Draw kids’ attention to elaborative phrases and sentences used by other students
Teach specific idioms and give examples of how they can be used
Have kids practice adding details to their writing (have them go way overboard as an exercise)
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A Core Recommendation: Build Writing Fluency with Power Writing
A daily fluency building technique
Consists of brief timed writing events
In each one-minute interval, students are told to write as much as they can about a specified topic
The one-minute intervals are performed up to 3 times in a row
Usually kids are told to include one or more key words in their writing
Kids graph their progress (accuracy and length)
Fisher & Frey, 2007
Step by Step: Generative Writing
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1. Think of a word that begins with ‘b’ and write that word down.
2. Use that word in a sentence.
3. Use that sentence as the first sentence in a paragraph of at least three sentences.
Fisher & Frey, 2007
Take 2: More Generative Writing
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1. Use the word ‘body’ in the second position in a sentence. (generative sentence)
2. Use the word ‘heart’ in a sentence of at least seven words. (sentence limiting)
3. Use the word lungs in a sentence with a prepositional phrase. (sentence pattern)
Fisher & Frey, 2007
Syntax Surgery
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Method:
1. Write a proper sentence on a strip of paper.
2. Cut apart the words
3. Reassemble the sentence into correct order
Fisher & Frey, 2007
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How many correct sentences can you create from these words?
THE TRAIN
RIDE WILL MONKEY
TO BIKE MARY THE
I am a camera: The ‘videocam in the mind’ technique
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Students should:
1. Pick a favorite activity or memory.
2. Close their eyes and ‘see’ the activity.
3. Write one or two word ‘bullet point’ descriptions of what they see, hear, smell, and/or taste (closing their eyes and viewing the internal image as often as necessary)
4. Write one or two word ‘bullet point’ descriptions of favorite parts/elements.
5. Write each bullet point into a complete sentence.
6. Combine the sentences into one or two cohesive paragraphs.
Vocabulary Grab Bag
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1. Choose one word from the left grab bag and one from the right.
2. Write a sentence that correctly combines the two words (so they make sense together), completing the sentence with words of your own.
3. Repeat the exercise five times using different words from the grab bag for each sentence.
4. Combine your five sentences (you pick the order) into a cohesive paragraph.
Hanson, 2002
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Handwriting Instruction: What Research Says Really
Works (Troia & Graham, 2003; Troia, 2006)
Pencil grip, letter/word formation, and paper orientation need to be explicitly modeled, practice, and reviewed
Facilitative supports such as dotted lines and arrows (particularly for kids with visual-spatial deficits)
Kids should be taught to monitor and evaluate the quality of their handwriting
Handwriting fluency can be achieved only via high levels of guided practice and review (speed drills help)
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Kaufman’s Two Cents: All kids with significant grapho-motor difficulties should have explicit plans that outline
. . . The types of
assignments for which:
they will write with their hands (i.e., short-answer work and worksheets
they will dictate or give oral presentations
they will access keyboard devices
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Writing and Comprehension
Writing is an act of discovering
what we think and understand.
Laura Robb, 2008Differentiating Reading Instruction:
How to Meet the Needs of All Students
Writing develops in struggling readers the heightened level of
interaction – talking to the text and author – that bonds learners to
books.
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Three Core Types of Reading Response Journal Entries (Robb, 2008)
Writing to build comprehension while reading (occurs during teacher read alouds – students reflect on what the author wants them to think/know)
Writing that reflects an understanding to text structure (i.e., character development and setting, type/structure of nonfiction, etc.)
Writing that shows students application of teacher-modeled comprehension strategies
Just Words vs Wilson Reading System
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Just Wordsfor students with deficits in decoding/encoding with word attack
scores between the 15th and 50th percentile rank.Tier II (usually general education students although some special
education students may be appropriate for Just Words).Can be delivered in groups up to 15 students.
Grades 4-adult
Wilson Reading Systemdeficits in decoding/encoding with word attack scores 15th
percentile or below.Tier III (usally identified with an IEP)Small homogenous groups no larger than 6 students.
Grades 2-12
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Framing Your Thoughts, provides systematic and sequential instruction for written
expression. Instruction moves from bare bone sentences through five kinds of paragraph development. Framing Your Thoughts is a
research-based written expression instruction for K-12 students in general education (Tier I)
and intervention (Tier II) classrooms.
Individualized Writing Plans
Write with his/her hand (e.g., short-answer and worksheet tasks);
Using keyboard and other tech devices
Use dictation/scribing approaches 92
Should explicitly specify the assignments situations in which the child will:
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A great web-based story development program
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A great I-Pad based story development application
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Silly Story Starters - Creative Writing for Kids
By daCapo Software
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What killer writing apps
have you come
across?
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Activity 6: Case Studies
‘Jason’
Lorraine
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End of day . .
