1. Typhoid Fever Workup

6/19/2014 Typhoid Fever Workup

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-workup#showall 1/13

Typhoid Fever Workup

Author: John L Brusch, MD, FACP; Chief Editor: Michael Stuart Bronze, MD more...

Updated: Apr 1, 2014

Laboratory Studies

The diagnosis of typhoid fever (enteric fever) is primarily clinical.

Importantly, the reported sensitivities of tests for S typhi vary greatly in the literature, even among the most recentarticles and respected journals.

CultureThe criterion standard for diagnosis of typhoid fever has long been culture isolation of the organism.Cultures are widely considered 100% specific.Culture of bone marrow aspirate is 90% sensitive until at least 5 days after commencement of

antibiotics. However, this technique is extremely painful, which may outweigh its benefit.[36]

Blood, intestinal secretions (vomitus or duodenal aspirate), and stool culture results are positive forS typhi in approximately 85%-90% of patients with typhoid fever who present within the first week ofonset. They decline to 20%-30% later in the disease course. In particular, stool culture may bepositive for S typhi several days after ingestion of the bacteria secondary to inflammation of theintraluminal dendritic cells. Later in the illness, stool culture results are positive because of bacteriashed through the gallbladder.Multiple blood cultures (>3) yield a sensitivity of 73%-97%. Large-volume (10-30 mL) blood culture

and clot culture may increase the likelihood of detection.[37]

Stool culture alone yields a sensitivity of less than 50%, and urine culture alone is even lesssensitive. Cultures of punch-biopsy samples of rose spots reportedly yield a sensitivity of 63% andmay show positive results even after administration of antibiotics. A single rectal swab culture uponhospital admission can be expected to detect S typhi in 30%-40% of patients. S typhi has also beenisolated from the cerebrospinal fluid, peritoneal fluid, mesenteric lymph nodes, resected intestine,pharynx, tonsils, abscess, and bone, among others.Bone marrow aspiration and blood are cultured in a selective medium (eg, 10% aqueous oxgall) or anutritious medium (eg, tryptic soy broth) and are incubated at 37C for at least 7 days. Subculturesare made daily to one selective medium (eg, MacConkey agar) and one inhibitory medium (eg,Salmonella-Shigella agar). Identification of the organism with these conventional culture techniquesusually takes 48-72 hours from acquisition.

Table 2. Sensitivities of Cultures[2, 37, 38, 39] (Open Table in a new window)

Incubation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Bone marrow aspirate (0.5-1 mL) 90% (may decrease after 5 d of antibiotics)

Blood (10-30 mL), stool, or duodenal aspirate culture 40%-80% ~20% Variable (20%-60%)

Urine 25%-30%, timing unpredictable

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR):[40, 41] PCR has been used for the diagnosis of typhoid fever with varyingsuccess. Nested PCR, which involves two rounds of PCR using two primers with different sequences within

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the H1-d flagellin gene of S typhi, offers the best sensitivity and specificity. Combining assays of blood andurine, this technique has achieved a sensitivity of 82.7% and reported specificity of 100%. However, no typeof PCR is widely available for the clinical diagnosis of typhoid fever.Specific serologic tests

Assays that identify Salmonella antibodies or antigens support the diagnosis of typhoid fever, butthese results should be confirmed with cultures or DNA evidence.The Widal test was the mainstay of typhoid fever diagnosis for decades. It is used to measureagglutinating antibodies against H and O antigens of S typhi. Neither sensitive nor specific, theWidal test is no longer an acceptable clinical method.Indirect hemagglutination, indirect fluorescent Vi antibody, and indirect enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent assay (ELISA) for immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies to S typhi

polysaccharide, as well as monoclonal antibodies against S typhi flagellin,[42] are promising, but thesuccess rates of these assays vary greatly in the literature.

Other nonspecific laboratory studiesMost patients with typhoid fever are moderately anemic, have an elevated erythrocyte sedimentationrate (ESR), thrombocytopenia, and relative lymphopenia.Most also have a slightly elevated prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time(aPTT) and decreased fibrinogen levels.Circulating fibrin degradation products commonly rise to levels seen in subclinical disseminatedintravascular coagulation (DIC).Liver transaminase and serum bilirubin values usually rise to twice the reference range.Mild hyponatremia and hypokalemia are common.A serum alanine amino transferase (ALT)tolactate dehydrogenase (LDH) ratio of more than 9:1appears to be helpful in distinguishing typhoid from viral hepatitis. A ratio of greater than 9:1 supports

a diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis, while ratio of less than 9:1 supports typhoid hepatitis.[43]

Imaging Studies

Radiography: Radiography of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder (KUB) is useful if bowel perforation(symptomatic or asymptomatic) is suspected.CT scanning and MRI: These studies may be warranted to investigate for abscesses in the liver or bones,among other sites.

Procedures

Bone marrow aspiration: The most sensitive method of isolating S typhi is BMA culture (see Lab Studies).

Histologic Findings

The hallmark histologic finding in typhoid fever is infiltration of tissues by macrophages (typhoid cells) that containbacteria, erythrocytes, and degenerated lymphocytes. Aggregates of these macrophages are called typhoidnodules, which are found most commonly in the intestine, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and bonemarrow but may be found in the kidneys, testes, and parotid glands. In the intestines, 4 classic pathologic stagesoccur in the course of infection: (1) hyperplastic changes, (2) necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, (3) sloughing ofthe mucosa, and (4) the development of ulcers. The ulcers may perforate into the peritoneal cavity.

In the mesenteric lymph nodes, the sinusoids are enlarged and distended by large collections of macrophages andreticuloendothelial cells. The spleen is enlarged, red, soft, and congested; its serosal surface may have a fibrinousexudate. Microscopically, the red pulp is congested and contains typhoid nodules. The gallbladder is hyperemicand may show evidence of cholecystitis. Liver biopsy specimens from patients with typhoid fever often showcloudy swelling, balloon degeneration with vacuolation of hepatocytes, moderate fatty change, and focal typhoid

nodules. Intact typhoid bacilli can be observed at these sites.[2, 4]

Staging

The proper treatment approach to typhoid fever depends on whether the illness is complicated or uncomplicated.Complicated typhoid fever is characterized by melena (3% of all hospitalized patients with typhoid fever), seriousabdominal discomfort, intestinal perforation, marked neuropsychiatric symptoms, or other severe manifestations.Depending on the adequacy of diagnosis and treatment, complicated disease may develop in up to 10% of treated



patients. Delirium, obtundation, stupor, coma, or shock demands a particularly aggressive approach (see

Treatment).[34]

Contributor Information and DisclosuresAuthorJohn L Brusch, MD, FACP Assistant Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Consulting Staff,Department of Medicine and Infectious Disease Service, Cambridge Health Alliance

John L Brusch, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians andInfectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)Thomas Garvey, MD, JD Primary Care Physician, Burlington Medical Associates; Co-chair, Medical AdvisoryCommittee for the Elimination of Tuberculosis

Thomas Garvey, MD, JD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Legal Medicine,American College of Physicians, and American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics


Roberto Corales, DO Vice President, Chief Medical Officer and Principal Investigator, AIDS Care

Roberto Corales, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, AmericanOsteopathic Association, and International AIDS Society


Steven K Schmitt, MD Staff Physician, Department of Infectious Disease, Cleveland Clinic

Steven K Schmitt, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Infectious Diseases Society of America


Specialty Editor BoardFrancisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical CenterCollege of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Richard B Brown, MD, FACP Chief, Division of Infectious Diseases, Baystate Medical Center; Professor,Department of Internal Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine

Richard B Brown, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, AmericanCollege of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, AmericanSociety for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, and Massachusetts Medical Society


Chief EditorMichael Stuart Bronze, MD David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart GWolf Endowed Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health ScienceCenter

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, AmericanCollege of Physicians, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Medicine, InfectiousDiseases Society of America, Oklahoma State Medical Association, and Southern Society for ClinicalInvestigation




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Documents

1. Typhoid Fever Workup