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1 The Cold War 1945-1960 USA vs. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) Democracy vs. Communist Dictatorship Capitalism vs. Communism

1 The Cold War 1945-1960 USA vs. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) Democracy vs. Communist Dictatorship Capitalism vs. Communism

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The Cold War 1945-1960USA vs. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union)Democracy vs. Communist DictatorshipCapitalism vs. Communism

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Key Concept: How did the Cold War affect the domestic and foreign policies of the United States?Domestic Policies: •1. McCarthyism•2. HUAC

–House Un-American Activities Committee

•3. Loyalty oaths•4. Blacklists•5. Bomb shelters

Foreign Policies: •1. Korean War•2. Arms Race•3. Truman Doctrine•4. Eisenhower

Doctrine

Actors and writers protest the Hollywood Blacklist.

A 1950s era bomb shelter

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Key Concept: What were the six major strategies of the Cold War?

The six major strategies were: •1. Brinkmanship,•2. Espionage,•3. Foreign aid,•4. Alliances,•5. Propaganda,•6. Surrogate-Proxy wars.

2.

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Post WWII/Cold War Goals for US

• Promote open markets for US goods to prevent another depression• Promote democracy throughout the world, especially in Asia and Africa• Stop the spread of communism

–“Domino Effect”–Containment

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Post WWII/Cold War Goals for USSR•Create greater security for itself

– lost tens of millions of people in WWII and Stalin’s purges– feared a strong Germany

•Establish defensible borders•Encourage friendly governments on its borders•Spread communism around the world“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in

the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.”

Excerpt from Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain Speech.”

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What were the origins of the Cold War? Explain its broad ideological, economic, political, and military components.

Analyze and discuss America’s plans of containmentand economic aid and the consequentevents that characterized foreign affairs between1945 and 1952.

What were the causes, conduct, and consequences of the Korean War?

How did the Cold War affect domestic economic and political affairs in the 1950s?

How and why did civil rights emerge as a national domestic issue after 1954? THIS IS ON YOUR SHEET

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Former Allies Clash In the USSR the state controlled all

property and economic activityIn the Capitalist American system

private citizens controlled economic activity

In the USSR the Communist Party established a totalitarian government with one party

In the US voting by the people chose the President and members of Congress with competing parties

Spread of Capitalism and US trade?World-wide Communist revolution?

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Mistrust during the WarThe US knew that Stalin signed a non-

aggression pact with Hitler in 1939Stalin resented the fact that the Allies took

so long to open a second front in EuropeStalin resented that the US had tried to

keep the atomic bomb a secret from an ally the USSR

The United Nations became arena of competition

Truman did not have the diplomatic skills or the personal relationship FDR had with Stalin

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. The wartime cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union ended largely because they disagreed over the future of Eastern Europe and the development of nuclear weapons. At the end of World War II, the Allies did agree to disarm Germany, dismantle its military production facilities, and permit the occupying powers to extract reparations. However, plans for future reunification of Germany stalled, leading to its division into East and West Germany. As tensions mounted, the United States came to see Soviet expansionism as a threat to its own interests and began shaping a new policy of containment.

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Descent into Cold War, 1945–1946

Roosevelt had been able to work with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and in part as a memorial to Roosevelt, the Senate approved America’s participation in the United Nations in 1945.

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• Since the Soviet Union had been a victim of German aggression in both world wars, Stalin was determined to prevent the rebuilding and rearming of its traditional foe, and insisted on a security zone of friendly governments in Eastern Europe for protection.

• At the Yalta Conference, America and Britain agreed to recognize this Soviet “sphere of influence,” with the proviso that “free and unfettered elections” would be held as soon as possible, but, after Yalta, the Soviets made no move to hold the elections and rebuffed western attempts to reorganize the Soviet-installed governments.

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• On the 4th of February 1945 the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) convened at Yalta, on the Crimean Peninsula. It was the second of the large war time conferences, preceded by Tehran in 1943, and succeeded by Potsdam (after Roosevelt's death) later in 1945.

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The Potsdam Conference• In July 1945 the Big Three met in Potsdam

near Berlin• Truman, Churchill/Attlee and Stalin• By July 1945 the USSR had consolidated

its grip on Eastern Europe• Truman took a tougher stance with Stalin• Stalin was concerned about security and

did not keep his promise for free elections in Poland, he wanted a buffer from the West and a divided weak Germany

• The USSR wanted reparations from Germany, the US wanted to trade in Eastern Europe and Reunite Germany

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• At Potsdam, the Allies agreed to disarm Germany, dismantle its military production facilities, and permit the occupying powers to extract reparations.

• Plans for future reunification of Germany stalled, and the foundation was laid for what would later become the division of Germany into East and West Germany.

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Satellite Nations•Stalin installed Communist Gov. in Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Poland•Satellite Nation is a country economically or politically linked to the USSR

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Containment• In February 1946 George F. Kennan

an American diplomat in Moscow proposed a policy of containment

• Containment was the doctrine in which military, economic, and diplomatic strategies were to be used to turn back communism

• Europe was divided into two political regions a mostly democratic Western Europe and a communist Eastern Europe

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The Cold War• The Cold War was an indirect state of

conflict between the US and USSR that would dominate global affairs and US Foreign Policy from 1945-1991

• In March 1947 Truman asked Congress for $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey so they could resist communist takeovers and Communist influence – The Truman Doctrine

• The US would assist “free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”

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Truman Doctrine•1947: British help Greek government fight communist guerrillas.

–They appealed to America for aid, and the response was the Truman Doctrine. – America promised it would support free countries to help fight communism.– Greece received large amounts of arms and supplies and by 1949 had defeated the communists.

•The Truman Doctrine was significant because it showed that America, the most powerful democratic country, was prepared to resist the spread of communism throughout the world.

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• For the next forty years, the ideological conflict between capitalism and communism determined the foreign policy of the United States and the Soviet Union and, later, China. The United States pursued a policy designed to contain Communist expansion in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.

• Truman Doctrine was an early version of the “Domino Theory”

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The Marshall Plan• After the war Western Europe was in

chaos, no fuel, no food, no shelter• Many Refugees had to bear one of

the coldest winters in 1946-1947• The US feared Communism would

spread to Western Europe• In June 1947 Sec. of State George C.

Marshall proposed the US provide aid to all European nations

• Between 1947 and 1951, 16 countries received $13 billion in aid

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• The reconstruction plan was developed at a meeting of the participating European states in July 12 1947. The Marshall Plan offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, if they would make political reforms and accept certain outside controls. In fact, America worried that the Soviet Union would take advantage of the plan and therefore made the terms deliberately hard for the USSR to accept.

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• The Marshall Plan met with opposition in Congress until a Communist coup occurred in Czechoslovakia in February 1948, after which Congress voted overwhelmingly to approve funds for the program.

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• Over the next four years, the United States contributed nearly $13 billion to a highly successful recovery; Western European economies revived, opening new opportunities for international trade, while Eastern Europe was influenced not to participate by the Soviet Union.

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• The United States, France, and Britain initiated a program of economic reform in West Berlin, which alarmed the Soviets, who responded with a blockade of the city.

• Truman countered the blockade with airlifts of food and fuel; the blockade, lifted in May 1949, made West Berlin a symbol of resistance to communism.

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The Berlin Crisis: June 1948-May 1949• 1948: three western controlled zones of Germany united; grew in prosperity due

to the Marshall Plan• West wanted East to rejoin; Stalin feared it would hurt Soviet security.• June 1948: Stalin decided to gain control of West Berlin, which was deep inside

the Eastern Sector– Cuts road, rail and canal links with West Berlin, hoping to starve it into submission

• West responded by airlifting supplies to allow West Berlin to survive• May 1949: USSR admitted defeat, lifted blockade

Map of Germany divided into zones after WWII

Map of Berlin divided into zones after WWII

A plane flies in supplies during the Berlin Airlift.

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NATO• In May of 1949 The Federal Republic of

Germany was established ( West Germany)

• In April 1949, Ten Western European nations joined with the US and Canada and formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO)

• It was a defensive military alliance in which an attack ( by the USSR) on one was an attack on all (500,000 troops in Western Europe)

• In 1955 the USSR formed The Warsaw Pact with its allies to counter NATO

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• The Soviets organized the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in 1949 and the military Warsaw Pact in 1955.

• In September 1949, American military intelligence had proof that the Soviets had detonated an atomic bomb; this revelation called for a major reassessment of American foreign policy.

• To devise a new diplomatic and military blueprint, Truman turned to the National Security Council (NSC), an advisory body established by the National Security Act of 1947 that also created the Department of Defense and Central Intelligence Agency.

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• The National Security Council gave a report, known as NSC-68, recommending the development of a hydrogen bomb, increasing U.S. conventional forces, establishing a strong system of alliances, and increasing taxes in order to finance defense building.

• The Korean War, which began two months after NSC-68 was completed, helped to transform the report’s recommendations into reality, as the Cold War spawned a hot war.

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• NSC-68 was a 58-page classified report written in February-April 1950 by Paul Nitze and issued by the United States National Security Council on April 14, 1950 during the presidency of Harry Truman. The report, written in the aftermath of the decision to build a hydrogen bomb, was declassified in 1977 and has become one of the classic historical documents of the Cold War era.

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Containment in Asia and the Korean War

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• American policy in Asia was focused on the region’s global economic importance as well as the desire to contain communism there. After dismantling Japan’s military forces and weaponry, American occupation forces began transforming the country into a bulwark of Asian capitalism. At the end of World War II, both the Soviets and the United States had troops in Korea, which was divided into competing spheres of influence. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea. Truman ordered U.S. troops to repel the invaders, leading to three years of vicious fighting. An armistice, brokered by President Eisenhower, was signed in July 1953. Korea was divided near the original border at the thirty-eighth parallel.

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• American policy in Asia was based as much on Asia’s importance to the world economy as on the desire to contain communism.

• After dismantling Japan’s military forces and weaponry, American occupation forces drafted a democratic constitution and oversaw the rebuilding of the economy.

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• In China, a civil war had been raging since the 1930s between Communist forces, led by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, and conservative Nationalist forces, under Chiang Kai-shek.

• For a time the Truman administration attempted to help the Nationalists by providing more than $2 billion in aid, but in August 1949 aid was cut off when reform did not occur; in October 1949 the People’s Republic of China was formally established under Mao, and Chiang Kai-shek’s forces fled to Taiwan.

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• The “China lobby” in Congress viewed Mao’s success as a defeat for the United States; the China lobbies influence blocked U.S. recognition of “Red China” leading instead to U.S. recognition of the exiled Nationalist government in Taiwan.

• The United States also prevented China’s admission to the United Nations; for almost twenty years U.S. administrations treated mainland China, the world’s most populous country, as a diplomatic nonentity.

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• At the end of World War II, both the Soviets and the United States had troops in Korea and divided the country into competing spheres of influence at the thirty-eighth parallel.

• The Soviets supported a Communist government, led by Kim Il Sung, in North Korea and the United States backed a Korean nationalist, Syngman Rhee, in South Korea.

• On June 25, 1950, North Koreans invaded across the thirty-eighth parallel; Truman asked the United Nations Security Council to authorize a “police action” against the invaders.

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North Korea Attacks• On June 25th, 1950 North Korean

forces swept across the 38th parallel• North Korean troops pushed South

Korean and US forces back to Pusan• The UN security council voted to

send troops to aid South Korea, 16 nations 520,000 troops,(90% American) 590,000 South Korean troops all led by General Douglas Mac Arthur

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The US Fights in Korea• On September 1950 MacArthur landed his

troops behind North Korean troops at Inchon and forced them back to the 38th parallel

• MacArthur pushed deep into North Korea and approached the Yalu River the border with China

• In Nov. 1950, 300,000 Chinese troops poured across the border and attacked UN troops

• The Chinese captured Seoul and both sides fought to a stalemate around the 38th parallel

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MacArthur Vs Truman• In 1951 MacArthur called for extending

the war into China buy blockading China and using atomic weapons

• MacArthur spoke to the press and to members of Congress about expanding the war and he was critical of President Truman

• On April 11th, 1951 Truman fired MacArthur

• He was welcomed home as a popular hero

• 69% of Americans favored MacArthur

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Stalemate in Korea• Peace Talks began at Pammunjom along

the 38th parallel in July 1951• In July 1953 an armistice was announced• The DMZ was established at the 38th

parallel• The Korean war cost 54,000 American

lives 2 million Koreans and Chinese and $67 - $100 billion “The Forgotten War”

• Many Americans turned toward the Republican Party by 1952 “IKE”

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• Two years after truce talks began, an armistice was signed in July 1953; Korea was divided near the original border at the thirty-eighth parallel, with a demilitarized zone between the countries.

• Truman committed troops to Korea without congressional approval, setting a precedent for other undeclared wars.

• The war also expanded American involvement in Asia, transforming containment into a truly global policy.

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• During the war, American defense expenditures grew from $13 billion in 1950 to $50 billion in 1953; though they dropped after the war, defense spending remained at over $35 billion annually throughout the 1950s.

• American foreign policy had become more global, more militarized, and more expensive; even in times of peace, the United States functioned in a state of permanent mobilization.

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Eisenhower and the “New Look” of Foreign Policy

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• In foreign policy, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles pursued a vigorous anti-Soviet line even though the death of Stalin had brought about a relative softening of the Soviet stance toward the West. In pursuit of containment, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) assisted in the overthrow of legitimate governments that seemed to fall short of staunch anticommunism. The arms race continued with the development of new weapons systems capable of “mutual assured destruction” in case of a nuclear attack

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Eisenhower Doctrine• The Eisenhower Doctrine was announced

in a speech to Congress on January 5, 1957.•It required Congress to yield its war-making

power to the president so that the president could take immediate military action.•It created a US commitment to defend the

Middle East against attack by any communist country.• The doctrine was made in response to the

possibility of war, threatened as a result of the USSR’s attempt to use the Suez War as a pretext to enter Egypt.

– The British and French withdrawals from their former colonies created a power vacuum that communists were trying to fill.

President Eisenhower with his Secretary of State John Dulles

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• Eisenhower’s “New Look” in foreign policy continued America’s commitment to containment but sought less expensive ways of implementing U.S. dominance in the Cold War struggle against international communism.

• One of Eisenhower’s first acts as president was to use his negotiating skills in order tobring an end to the Korean War.

• Eisenhower then turned his attention to Europe and the Soviet Union; Stalin died in 1953, and after a struggle, Nikita S. Khrushchev emerged as his successor in 1956.

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• Soviet repression of the 1956 Hungarian revolt showed that American policymakershad few options for rolling back Soviet power in Europe, short of going to war with the Soviet Union.

• Under the “New Look” defense policy, the United States economized by developing a massive nuclear arsenal as an alternative to more expensive conventional forces.

• To improve the nation’s defenses against an air attack from the Soviet Union, the Eisenhower administration developed the long range bombing capabilities of the Strategic Air Command and installed the Distant Early Warning line of radar stations in Alaska and Canada in 1958.

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• By 1958, both the United States and the Soviets had intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and they were competing in the development of missile-equipped nuclear submarines.

• The arms race curtailed the social welfare programs of both nations by funneling resources into soon-to-be-obsolete weapons.

• The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was created in 1954 to complement the NATO alliance in Europe.

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• U.S. policymakers tended to support stable governments, as long as they were not Communist; some American allies were governed by dictatorships or repressive right-wing regimes.

• The CIA moved beyond intelligence gathering into active, albeit covert, involvement in the internal affairs of foreign countries.

• In 1953, the CIA helped to overthrow Iran’s premier after he seized control of British oil properties; in 1954, it supported a coup against the duly elected govenment of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in Guatemala after he expropriated land held by the United Fruit Company and accepted arms from Communist Czechoslovakia.

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The Cold War in the Middle East

• The American policy of containment soon extended to new nations emerging in the Third World.

• The United States often failed to recognize that indigenous or nationalist movements in emerging nations had their own goals and were not necessarily under the control of Communists.

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• The Middle East, an oil-rich area that was playing an increasingly central role in the strategic planning of the United States and the Soviet Union, presented one of the most complicated foreign-policy challenges.

• On May 14, 1948, Zionist leaders proclaimed the state of Israel; Truman quickly recognized the new state, alienating the Arabs but winning crucial support from Jewish voters.

• When Nasser came to power in Egypt in 1954, he pledged to lead not just his country but the entire Middle East out of its dependent, colonial relationship through a form of pan-Arab socialism and declared Egypt’s neutrality in the Cold War.

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• Unwilling to accept this stance of nonalignment, John Foster Dulles abruptly withdrew his offer of U.S. financial aid to Egypt in 1957; in retaliation, Nasser seized and nationalized the Suez Canal, through which three-quarters of Western Europe’s oil was transported.

• After months of negotiation, Britain and France, in alliance with Israel, attacked Egypt and retook the canal. Eisenhower and the UN forced France and Britain to pull back; Egypt retook the Suez Canal and built the Aswan Dam with Soviet support.

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• The Suez crisis increased Soviet influence in the Third World, intensified anti-Western sentiment in Arab countries, and produced dissension among leading members of the NATO alliance.

• After the Suez Canal crisis, the Eisenhower Doctrine stated that American forces would assist any nation in the Middle East requiring aid against communism.

• Eisenhower invoked the doctrine when he sent troops to aid King Hussein of Jordan against a Nasser-backed revolt and when he sent troops to back a pro-U.S. government in Lebanon.

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• The attention that the Eisenhower administration paid to developments in the Middle East in the 1950s demonstrated how the access to steady supplies of oil increasingly affected foreign policy.

• Just as the Korean War had stretched the application of containment from Europe to Asia, the Eisenhower Doctrine revealed U.S. intentions to influence events in the Middle East as well.

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The Cold War at Home

Postwar Domestic Challenges

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• Government spending dropped after the war, but consumer spending increased, and unemployment did not soar back up with the shift back to civilian production.

• When Truman disbanded the Office of Price Administration and lifted price controls in 1946, prices soared, producing an annual inflation rate of 18.2 percent.

• Inflation prompted workers to demand higher wages; workers mounted crippling strikes in the automobile, steel, and coal industries and general strikes effectively closed down business in more than a half dozen cities in 1946.

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• Truman ended a strike by the United Mine Workers and one by railroad workers by placing the mines and railroads under federal control; Democrats in organized labor were outraged.

• In 1946, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress and set about undoing New Deal social welfare measures, especially targeting labor legislation.

• In 1947, the Republican-controlled Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, a rollback of several pro-union provisions of the 1935 National Labor Relations Act.

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• Truman’s veto of the Taft-Hartley Act countered some workers’ hostility to his earlier antistrike activity and kept labor in the Democratic fold.

• In the election of 1948, the Republicans again nominated Thomas E. Dewey for president and nominated Earl Warren for vice president.

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• Democratic left and right wings split off: the Progressive Party nominated Henry A. Wallace for president; the States’ Rights Party (Dixiecrats) nominated Strom Thurmond.

• To the nation’s surprise, Truman won the election handily, and the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress.

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Fair Deal Liberalism • The Fair Deal was an extension of

the New Deal’s liberalism, but it gave attention to civil rights, reflecting the growing importance of African Americans to the Democratic coalition, and extended the possibilities for a higher standard of living and benefits to a greater number of citizens, reflecting a new liberal vision of the role of the state.

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• Congress adopted only parts of the Fair Deal: a higher minimum wage, an extension of and increase in Social Security, and the National Housing Act of 1949.

• The activities of certain interest groups — Southern conservatives, the American Medical Association, and business lobbyists — helped to block support for the Fair Deal’s plan for enlarged federal responsibility for economic and social welfare.

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Senator Joe McCarthy (1908-1957) • McCarthy, a Republican senator from Wisconsin, did the most to whip up anti-communism during the ‘50s.• On February 9, 1950, he gave a speech claiming to have a list of 205 Communists in the State Department. • No one in the press actually saw the names on the list.• McCarthy continued to repeat his groundless charges, changing the number from speech to speech.• During this time, one state required pro wrestlers to take a loyalty oath before stepping into the ring. • In Indiana, a group of anti-communists indicted Robin Hood (and its vaguely socialistic message that the book's hero had a right to rob from the rich and give to the poor) and forced librarians to pull the book from the shelves. • Baseball's Cincinnati Reds renamed themselves the "Redlegs."

Cincinnati Redlegs primary logo in use from 1954-1959

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The Great Fear • As American relations with the

Soviet Union deteriorated, a fear of communism at home started a widespread campaign of domestic repression, often called “McCarthyism.”

• In 1938, a group of conservatives had launched the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to investigate Communist influence in labor unions and New Deal agencies.

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• In 1947, HUAC intensified the “Great Fear” by holding widely publicized hearings on alleged Communist activity in the film industry.

• In March 1947, Truman initiated an investigation into the loyalty of federal employees; other institutions undertook their own anti subversive campaigns.

• Communist members of the labor movement were expelled, as were Communist members of civil rights organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Urban League.

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• In early 1950, Alger Hiss, a State Department official, was convicted of perjury for lying about his Communist affiliations; his trial and conviction fueled the paranoia about a Communist conspiracy in the federal government and contributed to the rise of Senator Joseph McCarthy.

• McCarthy’s accusations of subversion in the government were meant to embarrass the Democrats; critics who disagreed with him were charged with being “soft” on communism.

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• McCarthy failed to identify a single Communist in government, but cases like Hiss’s and the 1951 espionage trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg lent weight to McCarthy’s allegations.

• McCarthy’s support declined with the end of the Korean War, the death of Stalin, and when his hearings as he investigated subversion in the U.S. Army were televised revealing his smear tactics to the public.

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McCarthy’s Downfall • In the spring of 1954, the tables turned on McCarthy when he charged that the Army had promoted a dentist accused of being a Communist.• For the first time, a television broadcast allowed the public to see the Senator as a blustering bully and his investigations as little more than a witch hunt.• In December 1954, the Senate voted to censure him for his conduct and to strip him of his privileges. • McCarthy died three years later from alcoholism.• The term "McCarthyism" lives on to describe anti- Communist fervor, reckless accusations, and guilt by association.

Movie poster for the 2005 film Good Night and Good Luck about the fall of Joseph McCarthy

Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible was on the surface about the Salem Witch Trials. It’s real target, though, was the hysterical persecution of innocent people during McCarthyism. (poster for 1996 film version)

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Modern Republicanism

• In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower secured the Republican nomination and asked Senator Richard M. Nixon to be his running mate.

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• The Eisenhower administration set the tone for “modern Republicanism,” an updated party philosophy that emphasized a slowdown, rather than a dismantling, of federal responsibilities.

• The Democrats nominated Governor Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for president and Senator John A. Sparkman for vice president.

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• Eisenhower was popular with his “I Like Ike” slogan, his K1 C2 (Korea, Communism, Corruption) formula, and his campaign pledge to go to Korea to end the stalemate.

• As president, Eisenhower hoped to decrease the need for federal intervention in social and economic issues yet simultaneously avoid conservative demands for a complete rollback of the New Deal.

• The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was founded in 1958, the year after the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first satellite.

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• To advance U.S. technological expertise, Eisenhower persuaded Congress to appropriate funds for college scholarships and for research and development.

• The creation of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1953 consolidated government control of social welfare programs.

• The Highway Act of 1956 authorized $26 billion over a ten-year period for the construction of a nationally integrated highway system and was an enormous public works program that surpassed anything undertaken during the New Deal.

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The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National and

International Issue

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Civil Rights under Truman • Truman offered support for civil rights not only

because he wanted to solidify the Democrats’ hold on African American voters but also because he was concerned about

• America’s image abroad.• Lacking a popular mandate on civil rights,

Truman turned to executive action; he appointed the National Civil Rights Commission in 1946, ordered the Justice Department to prepare a brief for Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), which ruled against discrimination in home buying, and signed an executive order to desegregate the army in 1948.

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• The Kraemers were a white couple who owned a residence in a Missouri neighborhood governed by a restrictive covenant. This was a private agreement that prevented blacks from owning property in the Kraemers' subdivision. The Shelleys were a black couple who moved into the Kraemers neighborhood. The Kraemers went to court to enforce the restrictive covenant against the Shelleys.

• Question Presented Does the enforcement of a racially restrictive covenant violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment?

• Conclusion State courts could not constitutionally prevent the sale of real property to blacks even if that property is covered by a racially restrictive covenant. Standing alone, racially restrictive covenants violate no rights. However, their enforcement by state court injunctions constitute state action in violation of the 14th Amendment.

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• Southern conservatives blocked Truman’s proposals for a federal antilynching law, federal protection of voting rights, and a federal agency to guarantee equal employment opportunity.

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Challenging Segregation

• Legal segregation of the races still governed southern society in the early 1950s; whites and blacks were segregated in restaurants, waiting rooms and toilets at bus and train stations, and all forms of public transportation were rigidly segregated, with even drinking fountains being labeled “White” and “Colored.”

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“Whites Only” Waiting Room

A black man is ordered out of a “whites only” waiting room. Separate facilities for blacks and whites were maintained throughout the South from the end of

the 19th century until the 1960s.

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" A rest stop for Greyhound bus passengers on the way from Louisville, Kentucky to Nashville, Tennessee, with separate accommodations for colored passengers."

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• The first significant civil rights victory came in 1954. In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the Supreme Court overturned the long-standing “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

• 3. Over the next several years, the Supreme Court used the Brown case to overturn segregation in public recreation areas, transportation, and housing.

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• Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does.

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• Over the next several years, the Supreme Court used the Brown case to overturn segregation in public recreation areas, transportation, and housing.

• In the Southern Manifesto of 1956, southern members of Congress denounced the Brown decision as an abuse of judicial power and encouraged their constituents to defy the ruling; White Citizens’ Councils in the South sprouted up dedicated to blocking school integration and other civil rights measures and the ranks of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) swelled.

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• In response to the Little Rock school-integration incident, Eisenhower, though showing little interest in civil rights, became the first president since Reconstruction to use federal troops to enforce the civil rights of blacks.

• President Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne Division into Little Rock to insure the safety of the "Little Rock Nine" and that the rulings of the Supreme Court were upheld.

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Little Rock Police work to keep protesters behind barricades at Central High on Sept. 27, 1957.

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• Students wait beside Arkansas National Guard troops blocking their admission to Little Rock Central High.

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• Rosa Parks’s refusal to give up her bus seat to a white person prompted the 381-day 1956 Montgomery bus boycott, which ended only when the Supreme Court declared bus segregation unconstitutional.

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• Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was catapulted into national prominence after the bus boycott; in 1957, he and other black clergy founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in Atlanta.

• While the SCLC and the NAACP achieved only limited victories in the 1950s, that laid the organizational groundwork for the dynamic civil rights movement of the1960s.

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The Impact of the Cold War

Nuclear Proliferation

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• The escalating nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union brought Eisenhower to the United Nations on December 8, 1953. In his "Atoms for Peace" speech before the United Nations, Eisenhower sought to solve "the fearful atomic dilemma" by finding some way by which "the miraculous inventiveness of man would not be dedicated to his death, but consecrated to his life." Since Hiroshima, the destructive power of nuclear weapons had increased dramatically.

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• The Cold War extended to the most distant areas of the globe, but it also had powerful effects on the domestic economy, politics, and cultural values of the United States.

• It permeated domestic politics, helped to shape the response to the civil rights movement, and created an atmosphere that stifled dissent.

• The postwar expansion of the military produced a dramatic shift in the country’s economic priorities, as military spending took up a greater percentage of national income

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• One of the most alarming aspects of the nation’s militarization was the dangerous cycle of nuclear proliferation that would outlive the Soviet-American conflict that spawned it.

• The nuclear arms race affected all Americans by fostering a climate of fear and uncertainty; bomb shelters and civil defense drills provided a daily reminder of the threat of nuclear war.

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• Federal investigators documented a host of illnesses, deaths, and birth defects among families of veterans who had worked on weapons tests and among “downwinders,” and later reports showed that many subjects used in the Atomic Energy Commission’s experiments in the 1940s and 1950s did not know that they were being irradiated.

• By the late 1950s, public concern over nuclear testing and fallout had become a high profile issue; antinuclear groups such as SANE (the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy) and Physicians for Social Responsibility called for an international nuclear test ban.

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• Eisenhower also had second thoughts about a nuclear policy based on the premise of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and found spiraling arms expenditures a serious hindrance to balancing the federal budget.

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Arms Race• Cold War tensions

increased in the US when the USSR exploded its first atomic bomb in 1949.

• Cold War tensions increased in the USSR when the US exploded its first hydrogen bomb in 1952. It was 1000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.

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149

Space Race• Cold War tensions increased in the

US when the USSR launched Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite into geocentric orbit on October 4, 1957. – The race to control space was on.

• April 12, 1961: Yuri Gagarin became first human in space and first to orbit Earth.• US felt a loss of prestige

and increased funding for space programs and science education.

• On May 25,1961, Kennedy gave a speech challenging America to land a man on the moon and return him safely by the end of the decade.

• Apollo 11 landed on the moon on July 16, 1969.

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The U-2 Incident• USSR was aware of American U-2 spy missions but lacked technology to launch

countermeasures until 1960. –May 1, 1960: CIA agent Francis Gary Powers’ U-2, was shot down by Soviet missile.

• Powers was unable to activate plane's self-destruct mechanism before he parachuted to the ground, right into the hands of the KGB.

• When US learned of Powers' disappearance over USSR, it issued a cover statement claiming that a "weather plane" crashed

after its pilot had "difficulties with his oxygen equipment." US officials did not realize:

– Plane crashed intact, – Soviets recovered its photography equipment– Captured Powers, whom they interrogated extensively for months before he made a "voluntary confession" and public apology for his part in US espionage

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• Eisenhower tried to negotiate an arms limitation agreement with the Soviet Union, but in 1960, progress was cut short when an American spy plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers was shot down over Soviet territory.

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• The Department of Defense evolved into a massive bureaucracy that profoundly influenced the postwar economy; federal money underwrote 90 percent of the cost of research on aviation and space and subsidized the scientific instruments, automobile, and electronics industries.

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• Pentagon spending created a powerful defense industry, with companies such as Lockheed and Boeing becoming dependent on government orders.

• Increased defense spending put money in the pockets of the millions working in defense-related industries, but it also limited the resources available for domestic needs

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• In his final address in 1961, Eisenhower warned against the growing power of what he termed the “military-industrial complex,” which by then employed 3.5 million Americans, but had the potential to threaten civil liberties and democratic processes.

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• At the end of his administration Eisenhower invited President-elect John F. Kennedy to come to the White House to see how things worked in the Executive Offices. On that visit Eisenhower warned Kennedy of a hard truth that accompanied the nation's highest office, "No easy matters will ever come to you ... If they're easy they will be settled at a lower level."