1 The Cold War 1945-1960 2 What is Communism: The Political Spectrum

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The Cold WarThe Cold War1945-19601945-1960

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What is Communism:What is Communism:The Political SpectrumThe Political Spectrum

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What is Communism?What is Communism?

• Modern day Communism was born out of the abuses of the workers during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution.

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• Modern day Communism is based on the writings of two German economists, Karl MarxKarl Marx and Fredrich Fredrich EngelsEngels, who answered the question “What is What is CommunismCommunism?” in their collaboration, “The The Communist ManifestoCommunist Manifesto” published in 1848.

Karl MarxKarl Marx

Fredrich EngelsFredrich Engels

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• In it they declared that many problems in society are due to the unequal distribution of wealth.

• To bring about happiness and prosperity for all, the differences between the rich and poor of society must be eliminated.

• And since the rich will never give up their goods or status voluntarily, a rebellion of the poor -- the working class -- is necessary.

http://writing.upenn.edu/wh/artgallery/soviet/armiya.jpg

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• Simply put, Communism is a social system in which there is no private ownership of property or wealth.

• All property and wealth are owned by the people of a communist country.

• The government’s role is to manage the wealth to ensure that everyone lives at the same economic level, (nobody gets rich or poor.)

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What is Communism?What is Communism?Pro Communism QuotesPro Communism Quotes

"I worked at a factory owned by Germans, at coal "I worked at a factory owned by Germans, at coal pits owned by Frenchmen, and at a chemical plant pits owned by Frenchmen, and at a chemical plant owned by Belgians. There I discovered something owned by Belgians. There I discovered something about capitalists. They are all alike, whatever the about capitalists. They are all alike, whatever the nationality. All they wanted from me was the most nationality. All they wanted from me was the most work for the least money that kept me alive. So I work for the least money that kept me alive. So I became a communist."became a communist."

- Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union from 1953-1964.

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What is Communism?What is Communism?Pro Communism QuotesPro Communism Quotes

"Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist "Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians (workers) have nothing revolution. The proletarians (workers) have nothing to lose but their chains. Working men of all countries, to lose but their chains. Working men of all countries, unite!"unite!"- Karl Marx

"There is no other definition of communism valid for "There is no other definition of communism valid for us than that of the abolition (ending) of the us than that of the abolition (ending) of the exploitation of man by man."exploitation of man by man."- Che Guevara leader of Cuban guerrilla militias.

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What is Communism?What is Communism?Anti Communism QuotesAnti Communism Quotes

““Communism has never come to power in a country that Communism has never come to power in a country that was not disrupted by war or corruption, or both."was not disrupted by war or corruption, or both."- President John F. Kennedy

"Communism is like Prohibition, it's a good idea but it "Communism is like Prohibition, it's a good idea but it won't work"won't work"- Will Rogers, Writer and humorist.

"How do you tell a communist? Well, it's someone who "How do you tell a communist? Well, it's someone who reads Marx and Lenin. And how do you tell an anti-reads Marx and Lenin. And how do you tell an anti-Communist? It's someone who understands Marx and Communist? It's someone who understands Marx and Lenin."Lenin."- President Ronald Regan

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What is Communism?What is Communism?Anti Communism QuotesAnti Communism Quotes

"A communist is like a crocodile – when it "A communist is like a crocodile – when it opens its mouth you cannot tell whether it is opens its mouth you cannot tell whether it is trying to smile or preparing to eat you up.”trying to smile or preparing to eat you up.”

- Winston Churchill

"Communism doesn't work because people like "Communism doesn't work because people like to own stuff."to own stuff."- Frank Zappa, popular 1960s song writer and musician.

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A Clash of InterestsA Clash of Interests• Even before the war ended the

wartime alliances between the U.S. and the Soviet Union had begun to show signs of strain.

• President Roosevelt had hoped that the defeat of the Axis powers and the creation of the United Nations would lead to a more peaceful world.

• Instead, the U.S. and the USSR became increasingly hostile toward each other after the war.

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A Clash of InterestsA Clash of Interests• This led to an era of

confrontation and competition, from 1946-1990, in which both sides (U.S. and the USSR), did everything to advance their goals without actually going to war with each other.

• This era became known as the

Cold WarCold War.

MADMutually Assured Destruction

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A Clash of Interests:A Clash of Interests:Soviet Security ConcernsSoviet Security Concerns

• Tensions between the U.S. and the USSR began to increase because the two sides had different goals.

• Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than 30 years.

• In order to make sure it didn’t happen a third time, the Soviets were determined to keep Germany weak and make sure the countries between Germany and the USSR were under Soviet control so as to create a buffer zone.

Buffer CountriesBuffer Countries

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• As much as security concerns influenced their thinking, Soviet leaders were also Communists.

• They believed that communism was a superior economic system that would eventually replace capitalism.

• As a result the Soviet Union encouraged the spread of communism in other nations.

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““Either death to capitalism, or Either death to capitalism, or death under the heel of death under the heel of

capitalism.” capitalism.”

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• Lastly, Soviet leaders also accepted Lenin’s theory that capitalist countries eventually would try to destroy communism.

• This made Soviet leaders suspicious of capitalist nations.

ParanoiaParanoia

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A Clash of Interests:A Clash of Interests:American Economic ConcernsAmerican Economic Concerns

• While Soviet leaders were focused on securing their borders, American leaders focused on economic problems.

• Many American officials believed that the Depression had caused WWII.

• Without it, Hitler would never have come to power, and Japan would not have wanted to expand its empire.

Never Again!Never Again!

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• American advisors believed that when nations close their borders and stop trading with other countries, it will eventually force them to go to war to get the resources they need.

• By 1945, President Roosevelt and his advisors were convinced that economic growth was the key to world peace.

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• American leaders wanted to:

1. Promote economic growth by increasing world trade.

2. Promote democracy and free enterprise.

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• They believed that democratic governments, with protections for people’s rights, made countries more stable and peaceful.

• They also thought the free enterprise system, with private property rights and limited government intervention in the economy, was the best route to prosperity.

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A Clash of Interests:A Clash of Interests:SummarySummary

Goal:Goal: Prevent another world war.

How:How: Spread democracy and free enterprise

Goal:Goal: Prevent being invaded again.

How:How: Build a buffer zone of countries and spread communism.

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The Yalta ConferenceThe Yalta Conference

• The agreements reached by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta, Ukraine in 1945 later played an important role in causing the Cold War.

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:PolandPoland

• After Russian forces liberated Poland in their march towards Berlin, they established a Communist government in the country.

• At Yalta, FDR and Churchill had argued that the Poles should be free to choose their own government.

• Stalin argued that it “was a matter was a matter of life and deathof life and death” that the Polish government had to be friendly to the Soviet Union. (In both WWI & WWII Germany had invaded Russia through Poland.)

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:PolandPoland

• Eventually, the three leaders compromised.

FDR and Churchill agreed to recognize the current Polish government set up by the Soviets.

In return, Stalin agreed that the government would include members of the prewar Polish government and that free elections would be held as soon as possible.

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:Declaration of Liberated EuropeDeclaration of Liberated Europe

• FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to issue the Declaration of Liberated EuropeDeclaration of Liberated Europe.

• The declaration asserted “the right of all people to the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they choose the form of government under which they will livewill live.”

• The Allies promised:1. That the people of Europe would be allowed “to to

create democratic institutions of their own choicecreate democratic institutions of their own choice.”2. To establish temporary governments that

represented all the people.3. Hold free elections as soon as possible.

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:Dividing GermanyDividing Germany

• FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany into four zones.

• Great Britain, U.S., France, and the Soviet Union would each control one zone.

• The same four countries would also divide the city of Berlin even though it was in the Soviet Union’s zone.

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GermanyGermany

BerlinBerlin

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• Although pleased with dividing Germany, Stalin also wanted to weaken Germany economically.

• Stalin demanded that Germany pay heavy reparations for the war damage it caused.

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• FDR insisted that the reparation payments be:

1. Based on Germany’s ability to pay.

2. Instead of cash, Germany would be allowed to pay with goods and products.

• Stalin eventually agreed to FDR conditions.

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• This decision however, did not resolve the issue over payments.

• Over the next few years, arguments about Germany’s reparations payments increased tensions between the U.S. and the USSR and became one of the major causes of the Cold War.

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:SummarySummary

1. Restore Poland’s independence……..

2. Divide Germany…………………….

3. Declaration of Liberated Europe……

4. War reparations……………………..

USAUSA USSRUSSR

Yes

Limited

Yes (lied)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes (lied)

Yes

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:Tensions Begin to RiseTensions Begin to Rise

• Two weeks after Yalta, the Soviets pressured the King of Romania into accepting a communist government.

• The U.S. accused the Soviets of violating the Declaration of Liberated Europe.

• Soon afterward the Soviets refused to allow more than three non-communist Poles to serve in the 18 member Polish government and did not hold free elections as promised.

King Michael IKing Michael I

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The Yalta Conference:The Yalta Conference:Tensions Begin to RiseTensions Begin to Rise

• On April 1st, 1945, President Roosevelt informed the USSR that their actions in Europe was unacceptable.

• Eleven days later President Roosevelt died, leaving President Truman with a deteriorating relationship with the Soviets.

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Truman Takes ControlTruman Takes Control• President Truman was inexperienced in

diplomacy however, he had his own views about how to deal with the Soviets.

• He felt that the U.S. should not make the mistake Britain had made in appeasing Hitler.

• The U.S. should standup to the Soviet Union.

• Ten days after taking office, Truman sent a strong message to Stalin, demanding that the USSR allow free elections in Poland as promised in Yalta. No Appeasement!

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Truman Takes Control:Truman Takes Control:The Potsdam ConferenceThe Potsdam Conference

• In July 1945, with the war in the Pacific still going on, Truman met with Stalin at PotsdamPotsdam, near Berlin, in order to work out a deal on Germany.

• Truman was convinced that building up Germany’s economy was vital to the rest of Europe.

• If Germany’s economy could not be revived than the rest of the European countries would never recover either and the European people might turn to Communism out of desperation.((Churchill was defeated in the 1945 Churchill was defeated in the 1945

British election and replaced by British election and replaced by Clement Attlee.)Clement Attlee.)

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• Stalin was equally convinced that they desperately needed reparations from Germany to help rebuild their devastated economy.

• Soviet troops had already begun stripping their zone in Germany of all it’s machinery and industrial equipment for use back home.

• But Stalin wanted Germany to pay much more.

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• At the conference, Truman took a firm stand against reparations. He insisted:

1. Germany’s industry had to be allowed to recover.2. The Soviets take their reparations from their zone only, while the Allies

allow industry to revive in the other zones.• Stalin opposed this idea because the Soviet zone of Germany was

mostly agricultural and did not have the wealth to pay.

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• To get the Soviets to accept the deal, Truman offered:

The Soviets only take a small amount of industrial equipment from the Allies’ zones which the Soviets would use to pay for food shipments to the German people.

To accept the new German- Polish border the Soviets had established.

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• In addition, Truman was informed the atomic bomb had successfully been tested, to which he informed Stalin.

• Stalin accepted the deal even though he felt bullied into it.

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• Since the Allies controlled Germany’s industrial heartland, the Soviets had no choice but to cooperate if they wanted to get any reparation payments at all.

• The Potsdam conference further increased tensions between the U.S. and the Soviets further paving the way for the Cold War.

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The Potsdam Conference: SummaryThe Potsdam Conference: Summary

President Truman: No more appeasement, time to play “hardball.”

$$ $$ War Reparations…………………..

USAUSA USSRUSSROnly from your half of Germany.

Forced to accept agreement.

Color photo of “Fat Boy.”

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The Iron Curtain DescendsThe Iron Curtain Descends

• The presence of the Soviet Army in Eastern Europe ensured that eventually pro- Soviet Communist governments would be established in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.

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• The communist countries of Eastern Europe came to be called satellite nationssatellite nations because they had to be Communist, friendly to the USSR, and had to follow policies approved by the Soviets.

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• As he watched the Communist takeover in Eastern Europe, Winston Churchill coined a phrase to describe what had happened.

• On March 5th 1946, in a speech delivered in Fulton, Missouri, Churchill said:“ From Stettin in the Baltic From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended iron curtain has descended across the continent…across the continent…”

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• With the Iron Curtain separating the Communist nations of Eastern Europe from the West, the World War II era had come to an end.

• The Cold War was about to begin.

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East German Border Guard DogsEast German Border Guard Dogs

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West German West German border signs border signs warning people warning people of the border.of the border.

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Containing Communism:Containing Communism:The Long TelegramThe Long Telegram

• Through out the early years of the Cold War, the Soviets resisted all attempts by the Allies to have them compromise and allow some form of democracy to take place inside Eastern Europe.

• Exasperated, officials at the U.S. State Department asked the American Embassy in Moscow to explain Soviet behavior.

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• On Feb. 22nd, 1946, American diplomat George KennanGeorge Kennan responded with what came to be known as the “Long TelegramLong Telegram”, a 5,540-word cable message explaining his views of Soviet goals.

Originated the concept of Originated the concept of “Containment” “Containment”

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• According to Kennan:1. The Russian people have always felt insecure

and fearful of the West.2. This insecurity has been intensified by

communism which proclaims that communism is in a long term historical struggle against capitalism.

3. Therefore it was impossible to reach any permanent settlement with them.

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4. The U.S. should be patient, firm, and vigilant in containing Communism, preventing it from expanding outside of the Soviet Union.

5. The USSR has several major economic and political weaknesses.

6. If the U.S. could keep the USSR from expanding their power, then it would only be a matter of time until the Soviet system would fall apart.

7. Communism could be beaten without going to war.

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• The Long Telegram circulated widely in Truman’s administration and created the policy of containmentcontainment- keeping communism within its present territory through the use of diplomatic, economic, and military action.

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Containing Communism:Containing Communism:The Truman DoctrineThe Truman Doctrine

• The straits of the Dardanelles were a vital route from the Soviet Black Sea ports to the Mediterranean Sea.

• For centuries Russia had wanted to control this strategic route.

• In August 1946, Stalin demanded joint control of the Dardanelles with Turkey.

RussiaRussia

Straits of the DardanellesStraits of the Dardanelles

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• The U.S. saw this move as the first step in a Soviet plan to control the Mideast.

• President Truman ordered American warships into the Mediterranean Sea to protect Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean.

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• While the U.S. was supporting Turkey, England was helping Greece fight Communist guerrillas who were trying to take over the Greek government.

• For about six months the British troops helped the Greek army fight the guerrillas even though it put a huge strain on their economy, still weakened from WWII.

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• In Feb. 1947, Great Britain informed the U.S. that it could no longer afford to help Greece.

• On March 12th 1947, President Truman went before Congress to ask for $400 billion to fight communism.

• His speech outlined a policy which became known as the Truman DoctrineTruman Doctrine.

• This doctrine pledged that the U.S. would fight communism worldwide.

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Containing Communism: Containing Communism: The Marshall PlanThe Marshall Plan

• Postwar Western Europe faced grave problems.

• Economies were in ruin, people were near starvation, and political chaos was about to breakout.

• The terrible winter of 1946 made things even worse.

Article in Article in Life Life MagazineMagazine, 1946, 1946

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Containing Communism:Containing Communism:The Marshall PlanThe Marshall Plan

• In June 1947, Secretary Secretary of State, George C. of State, George C. MarshallMarshall proposed the European Recovery Plan or better known as the Marshall PlanMarshall Plan.

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• His plan would give European nations American aid to rebuild their economies.

• Truman saw the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine as “two halves of a two halves of a walnutwalnut,” both essential for containment.

• The Marshall Plan offered help to all nations including the USSR and Eastern European countries.

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• The Soviet Union and its satellite nations in Eastern Europe rejected the offer.

• Instead the Soviets developed their own economic program.

• This action further separated Europe into competing western and eastern halves.

• The Marshal Plan pumped billions into Western Europe, weakening the appeal of communism, and opened markets for trade.

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The Berlin CrisisThe Berlin Crisis

• The Soviet Union still wanted Germany to pay reparations while the U.S. was determined to rebuild Germany’s economy.

• Eventually this dispute brought the U.S. and the USSR to the brink of war.

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The Berlin Crisis:The Berlin Crisis:West Germany is FoundedWest Germany is Founded

• By early 1948, U.S. officials had concluded that the Soviets were deliberately trying to undermine Germany’s economy.

• In response the U.S., Great Britain, and France agreed to merge their zones in Germany and allow the Germans to have their own government.

• They also agreed to merge their zones in Berlin and to make West Berlin part of the new German Republic.

West GermanyWest Germany

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The Berlin Crisis:The Berlin Crisis:West Germany is FoundedWest Germany is Founded

• The new nation was officially called the Federal Republic of Germany, but it became to be known as West GermanyWest Germany as the Soviet zone became known as East East GermanyGermany..

• West Germany was not allowed to have a military, but in most respects, it was independent.

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The Berlin Crisis: The Berlin AirliftThe Berlin Crisis: The Berlin Airlift• The decision to create West Germany

convinced the Soviets that they would never get their reparations they wanted.

• In late June, 1948, Soviet troops cut all road and rail traffic to West Berlin isolating the western half of the city.

• The blockade provoked a crisis.• President Truman sent long-range

bombers with atomic weapons to bases in England.

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The Berlin Crisis: The Berlin AirliftThe Berlin Crisis: The Berlin Airlift

• The American commander in Germany, General Lucius General Lucius ClayClay warned that if Berlin fell, West Germany would be next.

• The challenge was to keep West Berlin alive without provoking war with the Soviets.

• In June 1948, Truman ordered the Berlin AirliftBerlin Airlift to begin.

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Candy bars with Candy bars with parachutes.parachutes.

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The Berlin Crisis: The Berlin AirliftThe Berlin Crisis: The Berlin Airlift• For 11 months, cargo planes supplied Berliners with food, medicine, and coal.• The airlift continued through the spring of 1949, bringing in over two million

tons of supplies.• Stalin finally lifted the blockade on May 12th.• The Berlin airlift became a symbol of American determination to stand by the

divided city.

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Berlin Airlift Berlin Airlift Monument at Monument at Templehof, BerlinTemplehof, Berlin

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The Berlin Crisis:The Berlin Crisis:NATONATO

• The Berlin blockade convinced many Americans that the Soviets were bent on conquest.

• Both the public and Congress began to support a military alliance with Western Europe.

• By April 1949, an agreement had been reached to create the North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization, (NATONATO)- a mutual defense alliance.

• NATO initially included 12 countries: U.S., Canada, England, France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, and Iceland.

• These countries agreed to come to the aid of any member who was attacked.

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• For the first time in history the U.S. had committed itself to maintaining peace in Europe.

• Six years later NATO allowed West Germany to rearm itself and join the defense alliance.

• This decision alarmed Soviet leaders. They responded by organizing a military alliance in Eastern Europe, which became known as the Warsaw PactWarsaw Pact.

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The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:Civil War and Revolution in ChinaCivil War and Revolution in China

• During the 1920s Communist forces led by Mao ZedongMao Zedong had been fighting against the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shekChiang Kai-shek.

• During WWII both sides suspended their fight to resist the Japanese occupation of their country.

• After WWII the two sides resumed their fight.

• Neither side could win, and neither side would accept a compromise.

Mao ZedongMao Zedong Chiang Kai-shekChiang Kai-shek

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• To prevent a Communist revolution in Asia, the U.S. sent the Nationalist government $2 billion in aid beginning in the mid 1940s.

• However, because of corruption and poor military planning the Nationalist government squandered the money resulting in the Communist capturing the Chinese capital of Beijing in 1949.

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• The defeated Nationalists then fled the Chinese mainland for the small island of TaiwanTaiwan (Formosa).

• The victorious Communists established the People’s People’s Republic of ChinaRepublic of China in Oct. 1949.

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The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:After the FallAfter the Fall

• China’s fall shocked Americans.• To make matters worse, in Sept.

1949, the Soviets announced that it had successfully tested its first atomic weapon.

• Then in 1950, China and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship and alliance.

• Many Western leaders feared that China and the Soviet Union would support Communist revolutions in other countries.

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The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:The Cold War Spreads to East Asia:After the FallAfter the Fall

• Once the U.S. lost China as its chief ally in Asia, it focused on rebuilding Japan’s industrial economy.

• Just as the U.S. viewed West Germany as the key to defending all of Europe against Communism, it saw Japan as the key to defending Asia.

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The Korean WarThe Korean War

• At the end of WWII, American and Soviet forces entered Korea to disarm the Japanese troops stationed there.

• The Allies divided Korea at the 3838thth parallel of latitude parallel of latitude.

• Soviet troops controlled the north, while American troops controlled the south.

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• As the Cold War began, talks to reunify Korea broke down.

• A Communist Korean government was organized in the north, while an American-backed government controlled the south.

• Both governments claimed authority over all of Korea with border clashes along the 38th parallel.

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• The Soviet Union provided extensive military aid to the North Koreans, who quickly built up a large well-equipped army.

• On June 25th, 1950, North Korean troops invaded into the south, rapidly driving back the poorly equipped South Korean forces.

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The Korean War: The UN IntervenesThe Korean War: The UN Intervenes

• Truman saw the Communist invasion of South Korea as a test of the containment policy and ordered U.S. naval and airpower into action.

• He then called on the United Nations to act.

• With the pledge of UN troops, Truman ordered General General MacArthurMacArthur to send American troops from Japan to the Korean peninsula.

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• In the beginning of the war, poorly equipped American and South Korean troops were driven back into a small pocket of territory near the port of Pusan.

• Inside the “Pusan PerimeterPusan Perimeter” the troops stubbornly resisted the North Korean onslaught, buying time for MacArthur to organize reinforcements.

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An air drop of supplies to the soldiers inside the Pusan perimeter.An air drop of supplies to the soldiers inside the Pusan perimeter.

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The Korean War:The Korean War:The UN IntervenesThe UN Intervenes

• On Sept. 15th, MacArthur ordered a daring invasion behind enemy lines at the Port Port of Inchon.of Inchon.

• The Inchon landing took the North Koreans by surprise.

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The Korean War:The Korean War:The UN IntervenesThe UN Intervenes

• Within weeks the they were in full retreat back across the 38th parallel.

• Truman then gave the order to pursue the North Koreans beyond the 38th parallel which MacArthur did, pushing up to the Yalu RiverYalu River, the border with China.

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The Korean War:The Korean War:China Enters the WarChina Enters the War

• The Communist Chinese government saw the advancing UN troops as a threat and warned the forces to halt their advance.

• When those warnings were ignored, China launched a massive counter-attack across the Yalu River in November.

• Hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops flooded across the border, driving the UN forces back across the 38th parallel.

Chinese soldiers crossing the Yalu Chinese soldiers crossing the Yalu River into Korea.River into Korea.

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The Korean War: China Enters the WarThe Korean War: China Enters the War

• As his troops fell back, an angry MacArthur demanded approval to expand the war against China.

• He asked to blockade Chinese ports, the use of Nationalist Chinese forces in Taiwan, and the bombing of Chinese cities with atomic bombs.

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The Korean War:The Korean War:Truman Fires MacArthurTruman Fires MacArthur

• President Truman refused MacArthur’s requests because he didn’t want to expand the war into China or to use the atomic bomb.

• MacArthur persisted, publicly criticizing the president saying. “there is no substitute forthere is no substitute for victoryvictory.”

• Determined to maintain control of policy and show that the president commanded the military, an exasperated Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination in April, 1951.

President Truman on TV President Truman on TV announcing his decision announcing his decision

to relieve Gen. to relieve Gen. MacArthurMacArthur..

You’re Fired!You’re Fired!

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The Korean War:The Korean War:Truman Fires MacArthurTruman Fires MacArthur

• Despite being fired, the WWII general remained very popular with the American public receiving a hero’s welcome.

• Despite severe criticism, Truman remained committed to limited warlimited war- a war fought to achieve a limited objective, such as containing communism.

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Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s farewell speech Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s farewell speech given at West Pointgiven at West Point

The shadows are lengthening for me. The twilight is here. My The shadows are lengthening for me. The twilight is here. My days of old have vanished - tone and tints. They have gone days of old have vanished - tone and tints. They have gone glimmering through the dreams of things that were. Their glimmering through the dreams of things that were. Their memory is one of wondrous beauty, watered by tears and memory is one of wondrous beauty, watered by tears and coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday. I listen then, coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday. I listen then, but with thirsty ear, for the witching melody of faint bugles but with thirsty ear, for the witching melody of faint bugles blowing reveille, of far drums beating the long roll.blowing reveille, of far drums beating the long roll.

In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns, the rattle of In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns, the rattle of musketry, the strange, mournful mutter of the battlefield. But musketry, the strange, mournful mutter of the battlefield. But in the evening of my memory I come back to West Point. in the evening of my memory I come back to West Point. Always there echoes and re-echoes: Duty, Honor, Country.Always there echoes and re-echoes: Duty, Honor, Country.

Today marks my final roll call with you. But I want you to Today marks my final roll call with you. But I want you to know that when I cross the river, my last conscious thoughts know that when I cross the river, my last conscious thoughts will be of the Corps, and the Corps, and the Corps.will be of the Corps, and the Corps, and the Corps.

I bid you farewell.I bid you farewell.

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The Korean War: The Korean War: Changes in PolicyChanges in Policy• Truman chose General General

Matthews RidgewayMatthews Ridgeway to replace MacArthur.

• By mid 1951, the UN forces had pushed the Chinese and North Korean forces back across the 38th parallel.

• The war then settled down into a series of relatively small battles over hills and other local objectives.

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The Korean War: Changes in PolicyThe Korean War: Changes in Policy

• In November, 1951 peace negotiations began, but an armistice would not be signed until July 1953.

• More than 33,600 American soldiers died in action in the Korean War.

• The Korean War marked an important turning point in the Cold War.

• Until 1950, the U.S. had preferred to use political pressure and economic aide to contain Communism.

• After the Korean War began however, the U.S. began a major military buildup.

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The Korean Peninsula TodayThe Korean Peninsula Today

CommunismCommunism

CapitalismCapitalism

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M*A*S*HM*A*S*H

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The Korean War: Changes in PolicyThe Korean War: Changes in Policy

• The Korean War expanded the Cold War to Asia.• In addition to Western Europe, the U.S. became

committed to defending Communism in Asia by signing defense agreements with Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines and Australia.

• American aid also began to flow to the French forces fighting Communist guerrillas in Vietnam.

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A New Red ScareA New Red Scare

• By the 1950s just about all of America believed that Communists were trying to take over the world.

• The Red ScareRed Scare began in Sept. 1945, when a clerk name Igor GouzenkoIgor Gouzenko walked out of the Soviet Embassy in Canada and defected.

• Gouzenko was told by the Soviet Union to infiltrate organizations and government agencies in Canada and the U.S. with the specific goal of obtaining information about the atomic bomb.

Gouzenko wearing a Gouzenko wearing a hood in public so as hood in public so as not to be identified.not to be identified.

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A New Red ScareA New Red Scare

• The Gouzenko case stunned America.• It implied that spies had infiltrated the American

government .• Soon the search for spies escalated into a general fear

of Communist subversionsubversion- an effort to secretly weaken a society and overthrow its government.

• As the Cold War intensified in 1946-1947, Americans began to fear that Communists were secretly working to subvert the American government.

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A New Red Scare:A New Red Scare:The Loyalty Review ProgramThe Loyalty Review Program

• In early 1947, just nine days after his powerful speech announcing the Truman Doctrine, the president established a loyalty loyalty review programreview program.

• It’s purpose was to screen all federal employees to determine if they were truly loyal to America.

• Instead it confirmed fears that Communists had infiltrated the government and helped increase the fear of communism sweeping the nation.

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• Between 1947-1951, over six million federal employees were screened for their loyalty- a term difficult to define.

• What was a communist supporter?Someone who read books about communism?Someone who visited communist countries?Someone who watched pro-communist foreign films.Someone who belonged to pro- communist groups.

Communist???Communist???

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• About 14,000 federal employees were investigated by the FBI resulting in about 2,000 employees quitting their jobs during the scrutiny.

• Another 212 were fired for “questionable questionable loyaltyloyalty” though no actual evidence against them was uncovered.

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A New Red Scare: HUACA New Red Scare: HUAC• FBI Director, , JJ.. Edgar Hoover Edgar Hoover,

was not satisfied with the screening of federal employees.

• Hoover went before the House Un-House Un-American Activities Committee American Activities Committee (HUAC)(HUAC), formed in 1938 to investigate both communist and fascist activities in the U.S.

• HUAC was a minor committee until Hoover urged them to hold investigations on communist subversion.

• The committee, Hoover said, could reveal, “the diabolic machinations the diabolic machinations of sinister figures engaged in un-of sinister figures engaged in un-American activitiesAmerican activities.”

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A New Red Scare:A New Red Scare:HUACHUAC

• Once Communists were identified, he explained, the public would isolate them and end their influence.

FBI Director, J. Edgar HooverFBI Director, J. Edgar Hoover

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A New Red Scare: Alger HissA New Red Scare: Alger Hiss• Alger HissAlger Hiss was a prominent government official accused of being a

communist spy by Whittaker ChambersWhittaker Chambers, a Time Magazine editor and former Communist Party member in testimony to HUAC.

• Hiss sued Chambers for libellibel (telling lies that hurts a person’s reputation.)

• Both Hiss and Chambers appeared before the HUAC testifying against each other.

Alger HissAlger Hiss

Whittaker ChambersWhittaker Chambers

Communist!!!Communist!!!

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A New Red Scare: Alger HissA New Red Scare: Alger Hiss

• To defend himself, Chambers produced copies of secret documents along with microfilm that he had hidden in a hollow pumpkin on his farm.

• These “pumpkin paperspumpkin papers” Chambers claimed, proved that he was telling the truth.

• A jury agreed and convicted Hiss of perjury, or lying under oath.

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A New Red Scare:A New Red Scare:The RosenbergsThe Rosenbergs

• Another sensational spy case centered around accusations that American Communists had sold the secrets of the atomic bomb.

• Many people did not believe the Soviet Union could have produced an atomic bomb in 1949 without help.

• This belief intensified the hunt for spies.

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A New Red Scare: The RosenbergsA New Red Scare: The Rosenbergs

• In 1950, a British scientist admitted sending information to the Soviet Union.

• His testimony led the FBI to arrest JuliusJulius and Ethel Ethel RosenburgRosenburg, a New York couple who were members of the Communist Party.

• The government charged them with heading a Soviet spy ring.

• The Rosenburgs denied the charges but were convicted and condemned to death.

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A New Red Scare: The RosenbergsA New Red Scare: The Rosenbergs• Many people believed

they were not leaders or spies, but victims caught up in the wave of anti-communist frenzy.

• Despite many appeals for clemency the Rosenbergs were executed in June 1953.

First time in American history that a First time in American history that a person was executed for espionage.person was executed for espionage.

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Project VenonaProject Venona• Even as Americans hotly debated the guilt or innocence of individuals like

the Rosenbergs, there was however, solid evidence of Soviet espionage.• Although very few Americans knew at the time, American cryptographers,

working for a project code-named “VenonaVenona”, had cracked the Soviet spy code of the time, enabling them to read approximately 3,000 messages between Moscow and the U.S.

Most of the code Most of the code breakers were women.breakers were women.

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Project VenonaProject Venona• The messages confirmed extensive Soviet spying.

• To keep the Soviets from learning how thoroughly the U.S. had penetrated their codes, authorities chose not to make the intercepted messages public.

• Not until 1995, did the government reveal Project Venona’s existence.

• The Venona documents provided strong evidence that the Rosenbergs were guilty.

Guilty!Guilty!

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The Red Scare SpreadsThe Red Scare Spreads

• Following the federal government’s example, many state and local governments, universities, businesses, unions, and churches began their own efforts to find Communists.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense”

• By 1949, the Red Scare intensified even further.

• The Soviets had exploded an atomic bomb and China fell to Communism causing many Americans to believe that the U.S. was losing the Cold War.

• Americans were convinced that Communist agents had infiltrated the government and remained undetected.

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• In Feb. 1950, Joseph Joseph McCarthyMcCarthy, a little known Senator from Wisconsin, gave a political speech in which he claimed that he had a list of 205 government officials working in the State Department who were members of the Communist Party.

• By the next day Senator McCarthy’s claim had appeared in newspapers around the country.McCarthy on television McCarthy on television

addressing the American people.addressing the American people.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense”• The list never appeared but it made McCarthy a household name.• McCarthy proclaimed that Communists were a danger both at home and abroad.• He accused Democratic party leaders of corruption and of protecting Communists.• His wild accusations included the Secretary of State Dean Acheson and the former

Army Chief of Staff and Secretary of State, George Marshall of disloyalty and being a member of ““a conspiracy so immense as to dwarf any previous such a conspiracy so immense as to dwarf any previous such ventures in the history of manventures in the history of man.”

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• Because of the mood of the country, many Americans were ready to believe him.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense”McCarthy TacticsMcCarthy Tactics

• After the 1952 election gave the Republicans control of Congress, McCarthy became chairman of the Senate subcommittee on investigations.

• Using the power of the committee to force government officials to testify about alleged Communist influences, McCarthy turned the investigation into a witch huntwitch hunt- a search for disloyalty based on flimsy evidence and irrational fears.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense”McCarthy TacticsMcCarthy Tactics

• His tactic of damaging reputations with vague and unfounded charges became known as McCarthyismMcCarthyism.

• McCarthy’s sensational accusations drew the attention of the press, which put him in the headlines and quoted widely.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense” McCarthy Tactics McCarthy Tactics

• When he questioned witnesses, McCarthy would badger them and then refuse to accept their answers.

• His tactics left a cloud of suspicion that McCarthy and others interpreted as guilt.

• Furthermore, people were afraid to challenge him for fear of becoming targets themselves.

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““A Conspiracy So Immense”A Conspiracy So Immense”McCarthy’s DownfallMcCarthy’s Downfall

• In 1954 McCarthy began to look for Soviet spies in the U.S. Army.

• Alerted to his intentions, the army conducted its own internal investigation and found no spies or any suspicion of espionage.

• Furious, McCarthy took his investigation onto television.

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• On television, he questioned and challenged officers in a harsh voice, harassing them about trivial details and accusing them of misconduct.

• Millions of Americans watched McCarthy bully witnesses which resulted in his popularity to start to fade.

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• Finally, to strike back at Joseph WelchJoseph Welch the chief counsel for the Army, McCarthy brought up the past of a young lawyer in Welch’s law firm who had been a member of a communist organization during his law school years.

• Fully prepared for this accusation, Welch exploded at McCarthy on live television for trying to ruin the young man’s career.

Joseph Joseph WelchWelch

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• ““Until this moment, I think Until this moment, I think I never really gauged your I never really gauged your cruelty or your cruelty or your recklessness…You have recklessness…You have done enough sir, at long done enough sir, at long last! Have you no sense of last! Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? decency, sir, at long last? Have you no sense of Have you no sense of decency?”decency?”

• Spectators cheered, Welch had said what many Americans had been thinking.

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• McCarthy had lost the power to arouse fear.

• Newspaper headlines repeated, “Have you no sense of decency?”“Have you no sense of decency?”

• Later that year the Senate passed a vote of censurecensure, or formal disapproval against McCarthy- one of the most serious criticism it can level against a member.

• His influence gone, McCarthy faded from public view.

• He died in 1957 at the age of 48, a broken and embittered man.

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The Power of the The Power of the “Big Lie.”“Big Lie.”

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Life During the Early Cold War:Life During the Early Cold War:Facing the BombFacing the Bomb

• The Red Scare and the spread of nuclear weapons had a profound impact on life in the 1950s.

• Already upset by the first Soviet atomic test in 1949, Americans were shocked when the USSR again, successfully tested the much more powerful hydrogen bombhydrogen bomb, or H-bombH-bomb in 1953.

• This was less than a year after the U.S. had tested its own H-bomb.

Between Between 1946-1962 1946-1962 the U. S. the U. S. exploded exploded 217 nuclear 217 nuclear weapons weapons over the over the Pacific and Pacific and in Nevada.in Nevada.

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Life During the Early Cold War: Facing the BombLife During the Early Cold War: Facing the Bomb

A page from an U.S. Army training pamphlet.A page from an U.S. Army training pamphlet.

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What did Hollywood claim all those What did Hollywood claim all those nuclear tests had created?nuclear tests had created?

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• American students prepared for a surprise Soviet attack.

• Schools set aside special areas as bomb shelters.

• In bomb drills, students learned to duck under their desks, turn away from the windows, and cover their heads with their hands.

• These “duck-and-coverduck-and-cover” actions were supposed to protect them from a nuclear bomb blast.

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• While “Duck-and-CoverDuck-and-Cover” might make people feel safe, it would not protect them from nuclear radiation.

• Experts predicted that for every person killed by the nuclear blast, four more would die later from falloutfallout, the radiation left over after the blast.

• To protect themselves, some families built backyard fallout fallout sheltersshelters, and stocked them with canned food.

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This chart purported to show the various levels of radioactivity that could be This chart purported to show the various levels of radioactivity that could be expected following a widespread nuclear attack. expected following a widespread nuclear attack.

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What does the “bomb” have in common with the bikini bathing suit?

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In 1946, French engineer Louis Reard and fashion designer Jacques Heim invented the first modern bikini bathing suit. They named it after the Bikini

Atoll Islands, site of a series of American nuclear weapon’s tests. They said the burst of excitement the bikini would cause would be like a nuclear bomb

exploding. Via la France!

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AmericaAmerica

Unprecedented economic prosperity and optimism.

McCarthyism, fears of communist spies, and the threat of an atomic attack.

Anxiety!!Anxiety!!

For the upcoming 1952 elections, Americans were looking for a leader that would make them

feel secure.

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Eisenhower’s PoliciesEisenhower’s Policies

• By the end of 1952, many Americans were ready for a change in leadership.

• Many Americans believed that Truman’s foreign policy was not working. The Soviet Union had the “bomb”, consolidated it’s hold on Eastern Europe, China had fallen to Communism, and American troops had to fight to defend South Korea.

Election night 1952.Election night 1952.

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Eisenhower’s PoliciesEisenhower’s Policies• Tired of criticism and uncertain he could win, Truman decided not to

run again.• The Democrats nominated Adlai StevensonAdlai Stevenson, governor of Illinois.• The Republicans chose Dwight D. EisenhowerDwight D. Eisenhower, the general who had

organized the D-Day invasion.• Despite Stevenson’s charming personality and skilled speech making,

he was no match against a national hero who had helped win WWII.

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Eisenhower’s PoliciesEisenhower’s Policies

• Americans were looking for someone they could trust to lead the nation in its Cold War struggle against communism.

• Eisenhower won in a landslide.

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Eisenhower’s Policies:Eisenhower’s Policies:“More Bang for the Buck”“More Bang for the Buck”

• Eisenhower was convinced that the key to victory in the Cold War was not simply military might but also a strong economy.

• The U.S. had to show the world that free enterprise could produce a better and more prosperous society than communism.

• At the same time prosperity would prevent Communists from gaining support in the U.S.

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Eisenhower’s Policies:Eisenhower’s Policies:“More Bang for the Buck”“More Bang for the Buck”

• As a professional soldier, Eisenhower knew the costs associated with a large- scale conventional (non nuclear) war.

• Preparing for that kind of war would cost far too much money.

• As a result, Eisenhower declared a “New LookNew Look” in defense policy was needed.

• Instead of maintaining a large and expensive army, the nation “must be prepared to use atomic weapons in all must be prepared to use atomic weapons in all forms.forms.”

• Nuclear weapons, he said, gave, “gave more bang for the gave more bang for the buck.buck.”

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Eisenhower’s Policies:Eisenhower’s Policies:Massive RetaliationMassive Retaliation

• The Korean War had convinced Eisenhower that the U.S. could not contain communism by fighting a series of small wars.

• Such wars were unpopular and too expensive.• Instead, they had to be prevented from happening in the

first place.• The best way to do this was threaten to use nuclear

weapons if a Communist country tried to seize territory by force.

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• This policy came to be calledThis policy came to be called massive retaliation.massive retaliation.

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• The new policy allowed Eisenhower to cut military spending from $50 billion to $34 billion.

• He did this by cutting back the Army, which required a lot of money to maintain.

• At the same time, he increased America’s nuclear arsenal from about 1,000 bombs in 1953 to about 18,000 bombs in 1961.

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Eisenhower’s Policies:Eisenhower’s Policies:The The SputnikSputnik Crisis Crisis

• The New Look’s emphasis on nuclear weapons required new technology to deliver them.

• In 1955 the Air Force unveiled the huge B-52 bomberB-52 bomber, which was designed to fly across continents and drop nuclear bombs anywhere in the world.

• Eisenhower also began development of intercontinental intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) ballistic missiles (ICBM) that could deliver bombs anywhere in the world.

• He also began a program to build submarines capable of launching nuclear missiles.

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• As the U.S. began to develop long-range nuclear missiles, American were stunned to discover the Soviet Union had already developed their own.

• On Oct. 4th 1957, the Soviets launched SputnikSputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth.

• This technological triumph alarmed American, who took it as a sign that the U.S. was falling behind the Soviet Union in missile technology.

• Eisenhower insisted that he was not worried just because the Soviets “put one small ball into put one small ball into the airthe air.”

Sputnik on the Sputnik on the launch pad.launch pad.

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• UFO sightings sky rocketed in the 1950s.

War of the War of the WorldsWorlds

Hollywood used aliens as a metaphor for Hollywood used aliens as a metaphor for whom ??whom ??

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• Members of Congress, on the other hand, feared the nation was falling behind in scientific research.

• The following year, Congress created the National National Aeronautics and Space Aeronautics and Space Administration, (NASA.)Administration, (NASA.)

• It also passed the National National Defense Education Act, Defense Education Act, (NDEA)(NDEA), which provided funds for education and training in science, math, and foreign languages.

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Brinkmanship In ActionBrinkmanship In Action• President Eisenhower’s

apparent willingness to threaten nuclear war in order to maintain world peace worried some people.

• Critics called this brinkmanshipbrinkmanship- the willingness to go to the brink of war to force the other side to back down.

• Several times President Eisenhower felt compelled to threaten nuclear war during a crisis.

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Brinkmanship In ActionBrinkmanship In Action

A nuclear game of chicken!A nuclear game of chicken!

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Brinkmanship In Action:Brinkmanship In Action:The Korean War EndsThe Korean War Ends

• Weeks after his election, President Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise to visit the American soldiers in Korea.

• Eisenhower was convinced that the ongoing war was costing too many lives and bringing few victories.

• The president then quietly let the Chinese know that the U.S. might continue the Korean War, “under under circumstances of our own circumstances of our own choosingchoosing”- a hint at nuclear attack.

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• The threat to go to the brink of nuclear war seemed to work.

• In July, 1953 negotiators signed an armistice .• The battle line between the two sides, which was very

near the prewar boundary, became the border between North Korea and South Korea.

• A “demiltaterized zonedemiltaterized zone” (DMZDMZ) separated them.• There was no victory, but at least the war stopped the

spread of communism in Korea- the goal of containment.• American troops are still based in Korea, helping South

Korea defend its borders.

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The National Korean War MemorialThe National Korean War Memorial

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167

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““Our nation honors her sons and daughters who answered the Our nation honors her sons and daughters who answered the call to defend a country they never knew and a people they call to defend a country they never knew and a people they

never met.”never met.”

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Brinkmanship In Action:Brinkmanship In Action:The Taiwan CrisisThe Taiwan Crisis

• Shortly after the war ended, a new crisis erupted in Asia.

• Although the Chinese Communists had taken power in mainland China, the Chinese Nationalists still controlled Taiwan and several smaller islands along China’s coast.

• In the fall of 1954, China threatened to seize two of the islands from the Nationalists.

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• Eisenhower saw Taiwan as part of the “anticommunist anticommunist barrierbarrier” in Asia.

• When China began shelling the islands and announced that Taiwan would soon be liberated, Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the use of force to defend Taiwan.

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• Eisenhower then warned the Chinese that any attempt to invade Taiwan would be resisted by American naval forces stationed nearby.

• He also hinted that they would use nuclear weapons to stop an invasion.

• Soon afterward, China backed down.

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Fighting Communism CovertlyFighting Communism Covertly

• President Eisenhower relied on brinkmanship on several occasions, but he knew it could not prevent Communists from staging a revolution within countries.

• To prevent Communist uprisings in other countries, Eisenhower decided to use covert, or hidden, operations conducted by the Central Intelligence Agency, (CIA.)Central Intelligence Agency, (CIA.)

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Fighting Communism Covertly:Fighting Communism Covertly:Containment in Developing NationsContainment in Developing Nations

• Many of the CIA’s operations took place in developing developing nationsnations- nations with primarily agricultural economies.

• Many of these countries blamed European imperialism and American capitalism for their problems.

• American officials feared that these countries leaders might align their nations with the Soviet Union or even stage a Communist revolution.

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Fighting Communism Covertly:Fighting Communism Covertly:Containment in Developing NationsContainment in Developing Nations

• One way to prevent developing nations from moving into the Communist camp was to offer them financial aide.

• Where the threat of Communism was greater, the CIA staged covert operations to overthrow anti-American leaders and replace them with pro-American leaders.

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Fighting Communism Covertly:Fighting Communism Covertly:Iran and GuatemalaIran and Guatemala

• Two examples of covert operations that achieved American objectives took place in Iran and Guatemala.

• In 1953, pro- Communist Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed MossadeghPrime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh attempted to overthrow the pro-American Shah (king) of Iran.Shah (king) of Iran.

• America quickly sent agents to organize street riots and arrange a coup that ousted Mossadegh, and returned the Shah to power.

Mohammed MossadeghMohammed MossadeghThe Shah and his The Shah and his

wife, 1953.wife, 1953.

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Fighting Communism Covertly:Fighting Communism Covertly:Iran and GuatemalaIran and Guatemala

• In 1951, pro-Communist Jacobo Arbenz GuzmanJacobo Arbenz Guzman became elected as the new president of Guatemala.

• He quickly took over large estates of land owned some of which were owned by the American-owned United Fruit Company.

• In 1954, Communist Czechoslovakia supplied Guatemala with weapons.

• The CIA responded by arming the Guatemala opposition and trained them at secret camps in Nicaragua and Honduras.

• Shortly after these CIA-trained forces invaded Guatemala and forced Guzman from office.

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Continuing TensionsContinuing Tensions

• By 1956, Nikita Nikita KhrushchevKhrushchev emerged as the new leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin had died.

• In 1957, after the launch of Sputnik, Khrushchev boasted “we will bury we will bury capitalism…Your capitalism…Your grandchildren will live grandchildren will live under communismunder communism.”

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Continuing TensionsContinuing Tensions• In late 1958, Khrushchev

demanded that the Allies withdraw their troops from West Berlin.

• The U.S. rejected the Soviets demands by announcing that NATO would respond with military force if necessary to defend West Berlin.

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• To try and improve relations, Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to visit the U.S. in late 1959.

• The visit went well, and the two leaders agreed to meet in Paris in 1960 for a summitsummit- a formal face-to-face meeting to discuss important issues.

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• Shortly before the summit was to begin, the Soviet Union shot down the American U-2 spy U-2 spy planeplane piloted by Francis Gary Francis Gary Powers.Powers.

• At first, Eisenhower claimed the aircraft was a weather plane that had accidentally strayed off course.

• Then Khrushchev dramatically produced the pilot.

Soviet photo of captured Gary Powers.Soviet photo of captured Gary Powers.

Sentenced to ten years of hard labor.Sentenced to ten years of hard labor.

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• Eisenhower refused to apologize saying the flights had protected American security.

• In response Khrushchev broke up the summit.

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Continuing TensionsContinuing Tensions• In this climate of heightened tension, President Eisenhower prepared to

leave office.• In January, 1961, he delivered a farewell address to the nation.• In his speech, he pointed out that a new relationship had developed between

the military and the defense industry.• He warned Americans to be on guard against the immense influence of this

military-industrial complexmilitary-industrial complex in a democracy.

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• Although he had avoided war and kept communism contained, Eisenhower admitted to some frustration.

““I confess I lay down my official responsibility I confess I lay down my official responsibility in this field with a definite sense of in this field with a definite sense of disappointment…I wish I could say that a disappointment…I wish I could say that a lasting peace is in sight.”lasting peace is in sight.”

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Questions?Questions?

Documents

1 The Cold War 1945-1960 2 What is Communism: The Political Spectrum