1-Technology and the Mass Customization Cycle

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Technology and the Mass Customization Cycle

Sami Spahi, Yasser Hosni

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management SystemsUniversity of Central Florida

Abstract

Mass customization (MC) was initiated to benefit from economies of scale whilesatisfying the growing customization market. The number of organizations and companiesadopting MC is growing in various sectors. A major factor in boosting MC is the giganticadvances in technology. Examples for such technologies are Information Technology,Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems, and internet capabilities, which help

establish an efficient customer-to-producer relationship. Other technological advances in themanufacturing systems such as flexible, automated and rapid systems; contribute to therealization of MC systems. Owing to such technologies, venturing the market with highlycustomizable products is becoming more feasible, relatively cheaper and faster. This resultsin a wider market and more satisfied customers. This paper examines MC enablingtechnologies and their impact on the success of MC systems.

This paper Define Mass Customization and its cycle. It surveys customizationtechnologies in five different industries and the way it is being applied to enable implantationof MC: apparel, Orthodontics, rapid metal production, footwear and pharmaceutical. It has

been found that the companys information system plays a major role in linking and

coordinating the different sides of the MC cycle and also has a valuable input in marketresearch and development. The paper shows how technology contributes in the handling of the customers, the realization of the product or service, and the coordination between thosetwo sides, which is a vital element to the success of an MC system. It also demonstrates theeffect of technology on the level of customization and production volume.

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1. Introduction

The evolution of production and manufacturing systems occurred at several stages.Starting at a one-to-one customization, Craft Production was operating at a low volume of

production, satisfying each customer one at a time. It wasnt until the modern industrialrevolution that Standardization and Economies of Scale was conceived. The advancedmachinery, tools and production systems enabled the development of mass production.However, the ongoing competition led manufacturers to improve the efficiency andreliability of their existing processes by implementing new quality initiatives such as TotalQuality Management (TQM), Design for Six Sigma and Lean Thinking. While the existingsystems are being aggressively upgraded to better serve the customer, the current anddiversified market is becoming even harder to satisfy. Agile Manufacturing has beendeveloped to mitigate the effects of the ongoing and ever-increasing turbulence in customer satisfaction. However, there was a call for a new concept that thrives upon rather than dealswith diversification and personalization. The one size fit model is out-of-date; it doesntrepresent the dominant part of the market anymore. People are now more informed, able andwiling to make their own decisions; they want to be treated as individuals and are prepared to

pay an extra price for that. Mass customization was first conceived in the 1970s as a systemthat integrates the customer into the production process where the customer becomes theprosumer, that is the customer and producer in one (Toffler, 1971). However, this concepthas not really been practiced until the mid 1990s, when it was further developed by Pine(1993) in his book Mass Customization - The New Frontier in Business Competition. Pinedefines Mass Customization as the low-cost, high-quality, large-volume delivery of individually customized products (1993). The reason for such a delay is that technology wasnot mature enough to sustain the implementation of this new paradigm. MC can be defined asthe system that enables the individualization or personalization of products for the customer on a one-to-one basis but at a price and volume of production that is close to the alternative,single-fit, mass-produced item or service. During this process there is a dialogue or interaction that occurs between the customer and the producer to determine the unique and

precise needs of the customer.

Mass customization can also be described as integrating the customer into the production process, also defined as co-creation, in which the customer has a direct input in the designof his/her unique variant (final product). There is a value added in this process referred to asEconomies of Integration (Piller et al., 2004), which is mainly seen in three domains. Firstis the implementation of postponement principles which involves delaying some activitiesuntil a customer order is made. This reduces the risk of producing to stock or ending up witha surplus of FGI (Finished Goods Inventory). Second is to make use of first-hand customer information referred to as Sticky information (von Hippel, 1994). Having access to first-hand customer inputs is valuable in terms of market research and product development.Third is the increase of customer loyalty and re-use due to the direct interaction withcustomer or customer experience. Establishing a strong and stable relationship with thecustomer reduces marketing efforts and costs.

The customer integration process usually occurs via two approaches: collaborative andtransparent customization (Pine and Gilmore, 1997). The collaborative process involves an

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actual or virtual dialogue between the customer and producer in which the customer canchoose or dictate his/her exact requirements based on taste or personal preference. For example, the customer can select a distinctive set of colors and features for a productincluding personalized scriptures such as a name or phrase. The transparent process,however, assumes that the producer is the expert in the field. Equipped with the customers

particular information, the producer is more qualified to understand and address thecustomers real needs. For instance, this can be reflected in the case where anthropometricmeasurements are collected for a specific customer and used to manufacture a best fit or ergonomically optimized product. Typically, in an MC system, the customer integration ismanifested as a combination of those two approaches.

On the other hand, the producer faces a great challenge in establishing a reliable andreusable production or service system that can realize the individualized needs of thecustomer in a quick and cost-effective manner. The mass production of unique productsinvolves complexities in design, procurement, manufacturing, assembly and distribution thatare not present in standardized production. This cost of complexity is directly proportional tothe extent of features and components that are customizable. That is, the higher the level of customization, the greater the cost of attainment.

This paper shows how technology contributes in the handling of the customers, therealization of the product or service, and the coordination between those two sides, which is avital element to the success of an MC system. It also demonstrated the effect of technologyon the level of customization and production volume.

2. Basic Characteristics of an MC system

To be able to achieve a successful and effective MC system there are five main criteriathat ought to be present:

1- Product Differentiation (Piller, 2006): One of the characteristics of an MC system isto be able to avail a wide product family that includes a reasonable scope of component combination and/or feature variation. That would help better meet theindividualized needs of the customer.

2- Cost Effectiveness (Piller, 2006; Tu et al. , 2001): One of the competitive edgesoffered by an MC system is customization for the masses , which is offeringcustomized products/services at a price that is comparative to the traditionallystandardized alternative.

3- High Volume of Production (Tu et al. , 2001): In order to cover broad differentiatedmarket customization needs to be performed at relatively high volumes of production,which is the mass part of the MC system.

4- Customer interaction (Piller, 2006): In MC, it is necessary for the customer to interactwith the producer on an individual basis, where the customer contributes in the

building or realization of his/her own personalized demand. On large scales there is a

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need to avail sophisticated means, such as online interaction software, to handle wideranges of distinct demands.

5- Response Time (Tu et al. , 2001): It is essential that the products or services bedelivered at a lead time that is acceptable to the customer. The time factor is asignificant competitive edge that should not be undermined, especially whencompeting with similar on-the-shelf standard products that are at the customersdisposal. Lacking one of those criteria may lead to the failure of the system.Technology and innovation have a major hand in improving the way to meet theabove criteria.

3. Technology and the Customization Profitability Curve:

In Figure 1, curve A is a general representation of the effect of changing the level of customization in an MC system. Profitability here refers to the difference between the

benefits and the additional costs incurred due to MC at different degrees of customization.The figure shows that increasing the level of customization in a company would augment thecustomer benefits and company gains up to a certain level. Eventually the investment andoperational costs will catch up and reduce the overall net benefits or profitability.

Figure 1: Profitability curve and the effect of technology

The introduction of technological advances and modern industrial concepts will make iteasier for companies to customize more at lower costs. That will, in turn, change thecharacteristics of the profitability curve. For example, introducing the rapid manufacturingtechnology will enable the producer to fabricate solid freeform parts at a cost that isindependent of the geometrical complexity. Curve B shows that the profitability curve is

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expected to shift towards the High Level of customization end and achieve higher profitability upon the application of MC concepts. This shift reflects the fact that technologyand the use of new production systems can provide higher profitability to a firm whileoperating at a higher degree of customization.

4. Effect of Production Volume on Profitability:

MC originally emerged to help companies with a low to medium volume of productionhave a competitive edge when facing large sized companies that are experiencing the full

benefits of economies of scale. That was the case during Japans post war expansion, wheresmall to medium size companies needed to develop a new competitive edge to compete withgiant mass producing monopolies (Westbrooks et al , 1993). MC typically assumes a low tomedium volume of production. Customization at a high volume of production may entailhigher production costs and is, therefore, typically assumed to be unprofitable. On the other hand, standardizing at a low volume of production is in most cases also unprofitable.However, the latest technological advance defies this concept. Figure 2 addresses the effectof customization on profitability at high and low production volume before and after theintroduction of newer technology. It shows that technological advances have a hand inenabling companies to be profitable at high levels of customization and high volumes of

production.

Figure 2: The effect of advances in Mass Customization on the on profitability

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5. Mass Customization Cycle

5.1 MC Cycle Components

In an MC system, the production cycle is triggered by a customer order that is translated

into a unique set of processing instruction. The instructions contain the product specification,list of components or material required, and other relevant information. The product is thenmanufactured and/or assembled and the cycle ends by customer delivery and feedback. Therepeatability and cost efficiency of this cycle distinguishes mass customization from regular customization, such as individual tailor-made costumes. The MC cycle can be divided intothree major components: the customer side, the producer side, and the interface betweenthose two sides (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The Three Sides of a Mass Customization Cycle

The customer side refers to the interaction between the customer and producer that leadsto the product design or configuration. The producer side involves the realization of thespecific order up to delivery. The interface mechanism is responsible for coordinating boththe customers and producers sides efficiently. Those three components complement each

other; if one of them is not capable enough or well established the entire system is at risk of failure. Technology and innovation play a role in all three sides.

5.2 The Process Flow

Figure 4 demonstrates the process flow for a single customer order up to delivery. Processfollows the following sequence:

- The customer sets his/her exact personal needs. Considering the available choices, thecustomer determines which configuration best satisfies those needs. In certain cases the

customer may introduce specific design features that the system needs to check for feasibility. The design may need to be iterated until the best fitting one is reached.Meanwhile, the producer, through software and communication, guides the customer through the process and offer alternative suggestions. For some products, the producer,may select/ provide a design that matches the customers needs. For example, if the productis a customized bicycle, the manufacturer, after obtaining the necessary anthropometricmeasurements and weight, can determine the ideal seat height and size that best fits the

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customer from an ergonomic stand-point. However, the customer may select the bicyclescolor and additional accessories that meet his/her personal taste and/or applications.

- If the order is feasible then the producer evaluates the selection by checking on theavailability, suppliers, and how well the current production schedule will fit the new order.Technology contributes in this regard through visualization of the final product, real-timequotation(s) for the selection/ design and in estimating the delivery dates.

- Once the order is placed, the producers set the bill of material, and processing instructionfor the job assisted by the proper software system.

- The processing order is then integrated into the master schedule. Typically, processes for highly customized products are sequenced by means of heuristics that optimize the processflow. For instance, common processes are grouped together in order of shortest processingtime to reduce overall idle time. The logic depends on the nature of the product or service.

- The next steps include the manufacturing and assembly of the product, which is then packaged and labeled to be delivered to the customer.

- Customer feedback is essential at this stage for further improvement or upgrade.

Figure 4: Mass Customization Cycle

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6. MC Technologies

6.1. Technology at the Customers Side:

Mass customization is a relatively new concept to the Market. Many ordinary customersmay not be aware of its existence and the value added it carries. It is therefore necessary toeducate the masses of the new system. Lately, with high speed internet capabilities,customers are becoming more familiar with mass customization services. For example, Ebay,Amazon, online banking systems, insurance companies, and other online services keep acustomer tracking number with a customer profile, history of interaction and an interface for customers to share their information and place their exact orders. Such online services aredealing with hundreds of thousands of people simultaneously on a one-to-one basis,answering each individuals precise needs.

Software technology such as in customer relationship management (CRM) has a largehand in facilitating sales in an MC system. Sales Force Automation systems (SFA), whichare a part of the companys CRM system, help the communication and tracking process whenhandling customers on an individualized basis. For an MC system to be successful it needs tooffer a user-friendly and self-explanatory media for the customer. The customer is notexpected to be knowledgeable about the product component details and the nature of thesystem. Too much unorganized information, choices and decisions to make can create massconfusion (Huffman et al., 1998; Piller, 2006). In addition, SFA systems, by availingspecialized guidance, can assist the customer to make the most suitable choices or bestdesign, in terms of fulfilling their needs. A challenge in MC is the difficulty of customer needs elicitation (Huffman et al., 1998; Piller, 2006). In some cases, artificial intelligence isemployed to better understand the customers tendencies or undisclosed needs. That can beanalyzed by using the customers unique information, background and keeping track of thehistory of purchases.

6.2. Technology at the Interface Level:

The interface here is not meant as the virtual dialogue between the customer and thesystem. However, it refers to the link between customers order and the ability of the currentsystem to comply with those needs. For example, if the client orders a feasible product, thesystem needs to check the current availability of resources, component inventory, suppliersreadiness, and schedule restraints before getting back to the customer. The advances ininformation technology (IT) can allow this process to operate on a real-time basis, serving alarge number of users. Built-to-order systems, such as Dell, who are considered masscustomizers, typically require a large number of differentiated components inventory tofulfill the personalized needs of the client. Some components can be produced in house ondemand; others need to be ordered from suppliers. In all cases, the company or supplier strives to keep the components inventory level at a minimum. Advances in managementinformation systems (MIS) help coordinate the process in such a way as to minimize or

possibly eliminate the components inventory. Having an MC system that is a pure pushsystem (on demand - not depending on forecast) and that operates on a just-in-time basis

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throughout the supply chain would be the ultimate goal from a logistics standpoint. In the past, achieving an effective MC system would not have been possible without advancednetworking and database infrastructure.

6.3. Technology at the Producers Side:

6.3.1. Supporting Software

For a successful MC system, it is essential to have a very powerful software andhardware support. From order tracking, to financial and powerful communication and DBmanagement tools, it is imperative that producer use the up-to-date technologies in thisregard. The following are the most critical software that may be needed for an MC system atthe producer side.

(a) Tracking Software

The producers side refers to the part dealing with the realization of the customized product or service on demand. It involves a set of instructions and activities that take placeafter the order has been placed. Each order may follow a unique path. Automated customer-order-tracking systems, such as barcodes, are necessary to deal with a wide variety of diverseorders on a large scale. The use of powerful software to run algorithms and heuristics may benecessary to optimize the substantial number of different routings in the production schedule.In a built-to-order system such tracking systems will accompany the products during their composition process all the way to delivery.

(b) Information System

The information system is an essential part of the mass customization cycle. The purposeof a database system is not only to keep records of the customers information, orders placed,inventory levels and others, however, it can also be utilized for research. Figure 4 shows thedifferent types of databases and the point at which the information is collected. In an MCsystem, the producer receives the exact input from each customer which is referred to asSticky information (von Hippel, 1994). Having access to first hand customer information isvery valuable in terms of market research and product development.

(C) Databases and its management

The MC system interacts with a complex DB at different stages of the cycle, as shown inFigure 5. Following are the main features of a typical MC DB.

- The customer database stores the customer profiles, background, and history of purchases. At the end of each cycle the customer feedback is collected. The customer information is later classified and correlated with their corresponding orders. For example, customers can be categorized by gender, age, origin of order, affiliation andother. Order trends or component selection tendencies can be concluded from the

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analysis. Artificial intelligence models such as genetic algorithms are typicallyemployed to better understand the individual customer tastes and needs.

- The procurement database records the pattern of movement in component inventoryand raw material levels. This helps predict the set of components or supplies havinghigher demands.

- The suppliers database keeps track of suppliers production statuses and their readiness to deliver the required raw material or components at different points intime. Mapping the companys component inventory database to the suppliersdatabase is essential. It helps the mass customizers (producer) become better gearedup and prompt to the differentiated demands.

- The marketing database keeps track of general changes in the market that may affectcertain demand trends. This helps the producer be more prepared and robust to overallmarket changes.

- The production database records the history of routings that were used for eachspecific product in the past. This information will help better sequence the production

processes and improve the general layout of the facility to better serve the majority of expected orders.

Figure 5: Database System for the Mass Customization Cycle

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6.3.2. Manufacturing Technologies

Similar to the supporting software, advances in manufacturing technologies promise to be of great value to an MC system. Following are sample of some of those technologies and itseffect on the production system.

(a) Additive Fabrication Technology and Rapid Tooling

The evolution of technology in the area of rapid prototyping (RP) paved the way for theapplication of rapid manufacturing (RM) or additive fabrication. This technology enables themanufacturer to build non-traditional parts, with relatively complex geometries, directly fromCAD designs. The additive technology was first conceived as a prototyping tool that aidsR&D. Its main advantage was cutting lead time to enter the market and reducing costs duringthe product development phase.

Figure 6: Evolution of RP methods and technology

When the RP methods became more mature in terms of part precision, building time andquality of materials being used, the term Rapid Tooling (RT) emerged. RT refers to thedirect or indirect use of additive fabrication techniques to produce tools such as injectionmolding tools or casting patterns. This practice mainly displaced the traditional and longmold fabrication process that was performed by skilled craftsman. It also complementedCNC machine operations, by reducing the material removal time.

Later on, the concept of rapid Manufacturing (RM) was developed, which is also referredto as the tool-less production. It involves the direct fabrication of finished or semi-finished

products via additive manufacturing techniques. The advantage is that the fabrication time isfast and independent of the shape or complexity of the design. In an MC system, RM canrealize one-off products or product components at a higher rate and lower price than was

traditionally conceived.

(b) Reverse Engineering Technology

To complement the rapid manufacturing technology, new reverse engineering techniquesare utilized. An example of reverse engineering technologies is 3D scanning and 3D

photography, which are accompanied by specialized CAD packages. The following sectionwill present some applications in mass customization that are based on 3D image capturing.

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Companies such Geomagic, Inc. specialize in creating mass customization enablingtechnologies. They develop software that enables engineers and designers to transform thescanning data from physical objects into accurate digital models. Other companies such asFaro Technologies, Inc., Roland ASD, 3D Digital Corporation, Metris, and others provide thereverse engineering tools.

Quality control in an MC system can be challenging given the wide span of componentshaving different shapes and sizes that need to be measured for inspection. Modern reverseengineering tools such as portable coordinate-measuring machines (CMM), with laser

probes, facilitate the inspection process of variable parts by making it faster and moreaccurate.

7. Technology Applications for Mass Customization

In this section we shall present some technological applications that rendered thefeasibility of MC in some industries. Such technologies are referred to as MC enablingtechnologies or tools.

7.1. Apparel Industry

Recently, custom clothing has been an ambition; especially in e-commerce, wherecustomers can access the companys website and select a style fabric, color and bodymeasurements range, and then the customized garment would be home delivered in a fewdays at a price comparative to retail alternatives. There would be no more need for mallshopping in a quest to find clothes that best fit the unique shape and contours of the shopper.

Tailoring 3D Body Scanning has also played an important role in custom clothing.Examples of companies that ventured into this technology are Levi Strauss, Land's End,Smart Body Scanning Kiosks and Madison Avenue store. This technology offers acompetitive advantage by maximizing the customer satisfaction while minimizing finishedgoods inventory (FGI) storage costs and display expenses.

Figure 7: 3D body scanning at Madison Los Angeles

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The 3D body scanning technique:

1. A 3D point cloud is captured by the reflection of projected laser beams all round the bodycontours.

2. Multi-line triangulation software is used to rapidly acquire surface data from the point of cloud captured.

3. Cubic B-spline curves are used to connect and smooth body curves.4. Coons surfaces are constructed to form a digital model which is used as a 3D garmentdesign and for virtual try-on.

5. All necessary anthropometric measurements are captured and stored to be used astailoring measurements for different clothing styles.

Figure 8: My Virtual Model Website - www.mvm.com

Other companies allow customers to custom design their own clothes without the use of 3D body scanning. My Virtual Model website enables individual customers to input their own body parameters such as height, weight, waist size, body shape and other. Then basedon their profile information a 3D virtual model is displayed that can be rotated around toview how the matching of different clothes and shoes would appear. That is a clear exampleof how technology in e-commerce can act as a customer interface in an MC system.

7.2. Orthodontics

For years orthodontists or dentists used uncomfortable wired metal braces to align patients teeth for aesthetic and medical reasons. Clear aligners are now used instead becauseof their clear appearance and ease to handle. Align Technology utilizes 3D scanninghardware, automatic surfacing software, 3D animation programs, and rapid manufacturingsystems technology to mass produce differentiated aligners.

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Figure 9: Invisalign at Align Technology, Inc. - www.invisalign.com

Steps followed to fabricate clear aligner:

- The orthodontist takes an impression and x-rays of the patient's teeth and then prescribes a treatment plan.

- A physical model is cast from the patient's impression which is then digitized using a3D scanner.

- Via automated surfacing software the orthodontist devises a personal treatment plan,which includes a different set of aligners.

- The multi-stage aligners are built from the 3D scans by using Rapid Manufacturingtechnology.

- Several sets of aligners for different patients can be built together; this savesfabrication time and enables a higher production volume of aligners.

7.3. Rapid Metal Production

Direct metal deposition (DMD) is a technology that paved the way for rapidmanufacturing. Metallic built parts are improving in precision, finish, material properties,and speed of production. This led to the use of RP machines for the direct metal productionof finished or semi-finished metallic parts.

Figure 10: Rapid metal production at Prometal - www.prometal.com

Another enabling technology for rapid metal production is Rapid Casting, which involvesadditive manufacturing machines that are capable of directly producing the molds used for

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metal casting. It is enough to input the CAD files for the parts and the molds can be built for, possibly one-off metal parts, at a considerably short lead time. Prometal, as shown in Figure10 is a company that made use of the rapid manufacturing technology to produce a low tomedium production volume of differentiated metal parts.

7.4. Footwear Industry:Adidas in Mi-Adidas have demonstrated a clear example of how technology can be

employed to achieve mass customization in the footwear industry. This can be achieved in asimple 3 step procedure:

1- The customers foot length and width are precisely measured for each of the right andleft foot, to provide a perfect fit.

2- A foot-scan is captured while the customer is on the move to get the foot pressuredistribution. That would help design the best performance shoes.

3- The customer engages in designing the shoe appearance by selecting different sets of colors for various shoe components, including the ability to print his/her name or

phrase on the shoe.

Figure 11: Mass Customization at Adidas - www.adidas.com

This process entails both transparent and collaborative customization. Transparentcustomization serves the first two steps where the producers medical and ergonomicexpertise is utilized to design the best fit and performance shoe for the customer. On theother hand, collaborative customization is dominant at the third stage as the customer isdirectly involved in the artistic color selection and design for the shoe. The softwaretechnology and advanced machinery allowed the shoe manufacturer to generate custom-madeshoes at a rate and cost that is close to mass production.

7.5 Pharmaceutical Industry:

MTS Medication Technologies (MTS-MT) is a company specialized in themanufacturing of fully automated drug packaging machines. MTS-MT is involved in the

production of mass customization enabling technologies or tools. That is this company provides the machines or equipment that allows drug stores or pharmacists to become masscustomizers. For instance, the MTS-500 (one of the most sophisticated and recent models

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produced my MTS-MT) is capable of producing approximately 960 completed medication punch cards per hour (Figure 12). Each patient (the customer or end user) receives a personalized multi-dose packet with name, times and details for up to four times a day for amonth. Such equipment enables the individualized packaging of drugs at a high volume, highspeed and at a reasonable cost. That is regardless of the fact that this style of packaging holdsadditional value added and benefits over the traditional packaging system.

Figure 12: MTS Medication Technologies - www.mts-mt.com

Benefits for the automated packaging system include:

- Personalized drug packaging promotes compliance among patients, and minimizeserrors during the use of drugs. The use of multi-dose packets makes it is less probablefor patients to forget or confuse doses.

- The fact that each set of dosages are prearranged and well accounted for makes itmore practical and convenient for the patients. It also saves the time and effort of sorting out different drugs and figuring out from the prescription which and wheneach set of doses are taken.

- The system delivers a larger number of orders per hour. Even though the orders or drug packages have to be hand inspected later on, it still saves the labor time of hand

packaging.- Human packaging errors are reduced. Pharmacists tend to make mistakes after

prolonged hours of work or after a large number of items are packaged (Malone el al ,2007). Machine mistakes, if any, can be checked during the hand inspection phase.

- Labor packaging costs are cut in the long run.-

8. Conclusion

A summary of different applications for MC enabling technologies has been presented invarious industries. Some of those technologies were serving the customer interaction, the

product manufacturing, or the link between both. Those applications demonstrate the impactof technological advances in various areas on the achievement and success of MC. Now

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firms venturing into MC can be profitable at elevated levels of customization and higher production volumes.

The success and progress in mass customization is based on technological advances at thecustomer side, producer side and the interface between both sides. It is not the manufacturingand production technology alone that plays a role in the success of an MC system, but it is

also the sophistication of the customer interface, which is the ability to convey the clientsexact needs. We have presented a typical MC cycle starting from the customer order all theway to delivery. For this cycle to be effective, it is important to adequately coordinate thethree aforementioned components. A weakness in any part of the MC cycle could jeopardizethe success of the entire system. The information system structure is the backbone of the MCcycle; it keeps track and coordinates all of the customers database, procurement database,suppliers database, production database, and marketing database. Unlike other mass

production systems an MC system, without the need for customer survey or questionnaires,has access to the exact demands, tastes and background of customers on an individual basis.This direct information is considered a valuable asset for market research and analysis. Itoffers the means to better understand the voice of customer and promote continuousimprovement, which helps better serve the customer while maintaining the efficiency of

production.

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- Von Hippel, E., (1994), Sticky information and the locus of problem solving.Management Science , 40(4), 429439.

- Westbrook R., Williamson P., (1993), Mass Customization: Japans New Frontier. European Management Journal , Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 38-45

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Documents

1-Technology and the Mass Customization Cycle