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Summary of Trait Studies

Hindered by methodological problems

Problem connecting abstract trait and how it “shows up in behavior”

Can’t examined traits one-at a-time If traits matter, it is probably a

constellation of interacting traits which can’t be reduced to single traits, thus very difficult to study.

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Status of Trait Approach; an Example of the Fundamental Leadership Attribution Error Massive research failed to find traits

that guarantee leadership success A major reason: lack of attention to

intervening variables in the causal chain:

TraitsIntervening Variables, e.g.

SituationOutcomes

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Shifts in Research Focus

From “What are the traits?” 1940’sto

“What do leaders do? 1950s to

“What do effective leaders do? 1950-60s

to “What are the contingencies of

effectiveness?” 1960s

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Summary of Leadership Styles Research: The Two Clusters of Behavior: Task and People

Autocratic Initiating Structure Job Center Task Centered Concern for People Task Oriented Directive Behavior Manager Makes

Decision

Participative Consideration Employee Centered People Centered Concern for

Productivity Relationship Centered Supportive Behavior Group Makes the

Decision

Task People

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A Personality Theory by McClelland Acquired over time and shaped by one's life

experiences AffiliationThose with a high need for affiliation need harmonious

relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction.

PowerA person's need for power can be one of two types - personal and

institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization.

AchievementPeople with a high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk

situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, and need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements.

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8

1

1

9

9Task-Centered LeadershipTask-Centered Leadership

Peo

ple

-Cen

tere

d

Peo

ple

-Cen

tere

d

Lea

der

ship

Lea

der

ship

9, 9 9, 9 Team ManagerTeam Manager

1, 9 , 9 Authoritarian Authoritarian Manager Manager

5, 5 5, 5 Bureaucratic Bureaucratic ManagerManager

9, 1 9, 1 Country Club Country Club ManagerManager

1, 1 1, 1 Impoverished Impoverished ManagerManager

Blake & Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake & Mouton’s Managerial Grid

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Task behaviorsTask behaviors(direct behavior)(direct behavior)

Rel

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Rel

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(am

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(am

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Low

Low

High

High

Participating

Delegating

Selling

Telling

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational TheoryHersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

10Situational Leadership II® and SLII are the registered trademarks of The Ken Blanchard Companies.

TheContingencies

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Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard

Leadership style you choose is dependent on a number of situational factors.

Directing: the leader provides clear instructions and closely supervises the work of the follower(s);

Selling: the leader explains decisions and provides opportunities for clarity and buy-in through negotiating, influencing and consulting with follower(s);

Participating: the leader provides support and facilitates problem solving and decision making through a joint approach, to support and develop the followers' confidence in their abilities;

Delegating: the leader turns over responsibility for task implementation to the follower.

The style the leader chooses, depends on the level of readiness of the follower. This readiness is composed of two dimensions:

Willingness to perform the task (psychological readiness or motivation);

Ability to perform the task (knowledge, skills and availability of resources).

http://www.situational.com/

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Vroom-Jago Leadership Model

Assumptions (continued) The leadership style used in one situation should

not constrain the styles used in other situations. Several social processes influence the amount of

participation by subordinates in problem solving.

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Vroom-Jago Leadership Model:An Example of Contingent Leadership Theory

Assumptions The model should be of value to managers in

determining which leadership styles they should use in various situations.

No single style is applicable to all situations. The main focus should be the problem to be

solved and the situation in which the problem occurs.

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Vroom-Jago Leadership Model

Features of the Model Selection of the appropriate decision making

process involves considering two criteria of decision effectiveness: Decision quality - referring to the extent to which the

decision impacts job performance. Subordinate commitment - refers to how important it is

that the subordinate be committed to or accept the decision in order that it may be successfully implemented.

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Vroom-Jago Leadership Model

Features of the Model

Five Different Decision Styles

1. Decide You make the decision alone and either announce or “sell” it to the

group. You may use your expertise in collecting information that you deem relevant to the problem from the group or others.

2. Consult Individually You present the problem to the group members individually, get their

suggestions, and then make the decision.

3. Consult Group You present the problem to the group members, in a meeting, get their

suggestions, and then make the decision.

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4. Facilitate You present the problem to the group in a meeting. You act as facilitator,

defining the problem to be solved and the boundaries within which the decision must be made. Your objective is to get concurrence on a deci sion. Above all, you take care to ensure that your ideas are not given any greater weight than those of others simply because of your position.

5. Delegate You permit the group to make the decision within prescribed lim its. The

group undertakes the identification and diagnosis of the problem, developing alternative procedures for solving it, and deciding on one or more alternative solu tions. While you play no direct role in the group's deliberations unless explicitly asked, your role is an important one behind

the scenes, providing needed resources and encouragement. 

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Diagnostic Questions

It poses diagnostic questions for managers to ask about a decision. A. Decision Significance-How significant is the decision to the success

of the project or organization? B. Importance of Commitment-How important is the team members'

commitment to the decision? C. Leader's Expertise-Does the leader (you) possess the knowledge or

expertise related to this problem? D. Likelihood of Commitment-If you were to make the decision yourself,

what is the likelihood that the team would commit itself to the decision? E. Group Support for Objectives-To what degree does the team support

the organization's objectives at stake in this problem? F. Group Expertise-Do team members' possess the knowledge or

expertise related to this problem? G. Team Competence-Do team members have the ability to work

together in solving problems?

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Summary Examples of Contingencies StudiedQuality of leader-member relations.Willingness of follower to perform the task

(psychological readiness or motivation).Ability of follower to perform the task (knowledge,

skills and availability of resources).Quality Requirement: One best way to make

decision/do the job?Does leader have enough information about the

problem?Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates

important?Task Structure: little/lotPosition power of leader: Strong/ weakDo subordinates share goals?Is conflict among subordinate probable?