1

十九、替代（ substitution ）Substitution is a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion. There are three kinds of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution, and therefore three kinds of substitutes: nominal substitutes, verbal substitutes, and clausal substitutes.

1 、名词性替代（ Nominal substitution)A) What is nominal substitutionNominal substitution means the replacement of a noun or a noun phrase by a nominal substitute( 名词性替代词） , eg:

2

If you want a typewriter, they will provide you with one. There are good films as well as bad ones. He doesn’t like this book. Show him a more interesting

one.

Nominal substitutes include such items as “one, ones, the same, the kind, the sort”, eg: Slang disappears quickly, especially the juvenile sort

( 青少年俚语） .

Nominal substitutes also include some indefinite pronouns, such as “all, both, some, any, enough, several, none, many, much, (a) few, (a) little, the other, others, another, either, neither”, etc, eg: Can you get me some nails? I need some.

3

I don’t want any more food. I’ve had enough.

B) Use of one/ones as substitutesa) “one” 通常可用来替代上文中出现过的可数名词或以可数名词为中心词的整个名词词组，既可指人，也可指物。

例如： The grey horse is stronger than the black one.

(one=horse) I lose a neighbour and you gain one. (one=a neighbour)

替代词“ one” 的复数形式是 “ ones” ，只能替代复数可数名词，既可指人，也可指物。例如： The new design is much better than the old ones.

(ones=designs)

4

There were a few young people with some older ones in the house. (ones=people)

one/ones 作为替代词只能用以替代可数名词，不可用来替代不可数名词。例如不可以说： It’s cheaper to buy old furniture than to have new one

made. (╳) If you haven’t got fresh milk, I’ll take some tinned ones.

(╳)

在上述两例中，应该分别重复 furniture 和 milk 两个词，而不能用 one 和 ones 来替代。b) 当替代词 one 用以替代名词词组中心词时，它通常有限定词，但是，不定冠词和物主限定词通常不可以直接位于替代词 one 之前。在不定冠词和物主

5

限定词之后通常须跟有形容词或其他前置修饰语，随后才可用替代词 one 。比如可以说： Can I have a melon? I’d like a big one. Your car isn’t fast enough. Let’s take his new one.

而不可以说： …I’d like a one. (╳) …Let’s take his one. (╳)

在 both 和 own 之后通常不用 one 或 ones 。例如： I prefer roses to white ones, but my wife likes both. ( 不

说 both ones) I can’t write properly with your pen; I’d rather use my

own. ( 不说 my own one) If there’s any difficulty about cars, we can bring our

own. ( 不说 our own ones)

6

在基数词 two, three, etc 之后通常不用替代词one/ones 。例如： You have for children. I have only two. ( 不说 two

ones)

c) 替代词 one 如果不带任何前置修饰语，其所替代的对象便不是名词中心词而是整个名词词组，其意义通常是类指的。

例如： If you want a typewriter, they will provide you with one.

(one = a type writer) He is a brilliant hard-working student, one ( = a student)

who will be successful in whatever career he chooses. I need an electric heater to keep warm. Where could I

get one ( = an electric heater)?

7

d) 替代词 ones 通常不能单独使用，它总是带有限定词和前置修饰语（形容词），因此只能替代名词中心词，而不能替代整个名词词组。例如： I have a new dictionary and several old ones. (ones 替

代 dictionaries) I don’t like red roses, I like the white ones. (ones 替代

roses)

e) 在下列语境中 , 替代词 one/ones 可以省略：当 one/ones 带有“ this/these, that/those, which, either, neither, another, the last, the next” 等限定词时： Some of your answers were correct, but I don’t know

which (ones).

8

Judy broke the coffee-pot, so she has to buy another (one).

当 one/ones 之前有定冠词以及和上文形成对比的形容词时： I prefer the large bottle to the small (one). The new chapel( 小礼拜堂 ) will be like the old (one). There are, of course, bad architects( 建筑师 ) as well

as good (ones).

2 、动词性替代（ Verbal substitution) A) What is verbal substitutionVerbal substitution means the replacement of a verb element by a verbal substitute “do” or “do so”. What is replaced by substitute “do” may be “main verb + complementation”, eg:

9

A: We all hate hypocrisy ( 伪善 ). B: Yes, everybody does. (does = hates hypocrisy)

It may also be the main verb alone, eg: A: Have they moved the furniture? B: They have done ( = moved) the desks, but that’s all

so far.

Verbal substitute “do”, when used to replace “main verb + complementation”, usually occurs in the affirmative form. Its negative form does not represent verbal substitution but verbal ellipsis. Compare: A: Does Peter speak French? B: Yes, he does ( = speaks French). No, he doesn’t (speak French).

10

B) Use of verbal substitutesa) 在替代主语动词的用法中，动词替代词 do 所替代的通常是实义动词；如果被替代的主动词是及物的，则替代词之后须跟宾语。动词替代词可与情态助动词连用；在否定句和疑问句中有时还须引进助动词“ do” 的适当形式为操作词。

例如： She plays the piano better than she does (= plays) the

guitar. John speaks French as fluently as he does (= speaks)

German. The production increases as it has done (= increased)

for the last few years. John has never acted as he should have done (=

acted).

11

A: Mary studies modern history and doesn’t do (= study) modern languages.

B: Does she do (= study) ancient history, too?

A: No, she doesn’t.

b) 由“ do” 与“ so” 搭配构成的复合代动词“ do so” ，既可替代“动—宾”谓语结构，也可替代“动—状”谓语结构。例如： He smokes a lot. Does his brother do so? (do so =

smoke a lot) He said he would tell me the news, but he didn’t do so.

(do so= tell me the news) A: Jane is crying for some more cake in the kitchen.

B: Yes, but her little brother isn’t doing so. (doing so = crying for some more cake)

12

“do so” 有时可以和“ do that”, “do it “ 交替使用。例如： The boy played doctors and nurses. We watched them

doing that (= playing doctors and nurses) but they wanted us to do so(= to play doctors and nurses), too.

A: Sam is supposed to call the meeting.( 召集会议） B: No, Peter will do that. My brother said he was going to send a letter of protest

to the President. I did it last week.

3 、分句替化 (Clausal substitution)A) What a clausal substitutionClausal substitution means the replacement of a clause by a clausal substitute —so or not, eg: A: Do you think he’ll come tomorrow?

13

B: Yes, I think so. No, I think not.

As clausal substitutes, “so” and “not “can go with “if “to form verbless clauses “if so” and “if not”, eg: They say he will come tonight. If so, the meeting will be

held tomorrow. If not, there won’t be any meeting tomorrow.

B) Use of clausal substitution由上述诸例可以看出， 用分句替代词 so/not 所取代的 that- 分句通常带有不甚确定的含义，既不肯定，也不否定，所以 so/not 常与“ I’m afraid ， believe ， expect ， fear ， guess ， hope ， suppose ， think” 等词语搭配。在能作转移否定的结构中，以用“ I don’t think so, I don’t suppose so 更加自然。在表示明显

14

肯定口气或者怀疑口气的简短反应中，通常不用so/not 。例如： A: Are the girls coming to the party? B: I’m sure they are / I’m sure of it. I doubt if they are / I doubt it.

在上述答语中，不可以说 “ I‘m sure so / not”, or “I doubt so / not” 。基于相同的理由，通常也不说 “ I know so / not” 。分句替代词 so 还可以和某些表示说话的动词连用，而 not 通常不这样用。例如： A: The Yankees( 美国人） will win the game. B: All my friends say so. A: How do you know that he’s leaving soon? B: He told me so.

15

A: Your father and mine were great friends when

they were young.

B: I have been told so.

在上述诸例中，通常不用 not 与 say, tell 等动词搭配，除非主语是作类指的人称代词。例如： A: Are the Yankees a very strong team? B: No, they say not.

分句替代词 not 可与“ perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly, surely” 等表示情态意义的副词搭配，构成某些缩略句。例如： A: Is your brother going with you?

B: Perhaps not. (= Perhaps he is not going with me.)

16

A: Will Mary come to the party tomorrow?B: Possibly not. (= It is possible that she won’t

come.)A: Will you waste your time and money on that?B: Certainly not. (= Certainly I will not do it.)A: Does she really know him?B: Surely not. (= Surely she does not know him.)

在上述结构中，通常不用 so 。此外， not 还可与 why 搭配，构成缩略疑问句 why not 。例如： A: I didn’t stop him. B: Why not? (= Why didn’t you stop him?)

在上述结构中，用 why so 则比较少见。

17

ConclusionSo far substitution has been discussed in this lecture, which falls into the following three parts: Nominal substitution, Verbal substitution and Clausal substitution. Now let’s do some exercises…

Exercises:1. I’m looking for a flat. I’d really like ____ with a garden.

a. it b. flat c. one d. that

2. I like music very much. ___ does she.

a. Nor b. So c. More d. Same

3. ----Can you play the piano?

---- A little. There was ____ in the room.

18

a. piano b. it c. one d. kind 4. Will the Yankees win the game? ____ . a. I not hope b. I’m afraid c. I thought not d. I hope not5. He asked me to post a letter for him, and I ____ . a. have done so b. had done c. have posted so d. has done so6. While we admit his good points, we can see his bad

____ . a. one b. ones c. these d. those7. The first bomb didn’t explode. ____ did the second. a. Neither b. So c. No d. either8. The first runner finished a few yards in front of the next

___ . a. this b. / c. people d. ones

19

9. He will cut the grass this afternoon. _____. a. I suppose so b. I think c. I believe him d. It is true

10. Is he going to resign? _____ . a. I’ve been told so b. He is going c. I’m going to d. So is he 11. There were many people injured in the accident. All

people ____ . a. did so b. said so c. say so d. say12. John is smoking more now than he ____ before . a. were doing b. is doing so c. was doing d. did so (end)

20

二十、省略 (Ellipsis)Like substitution, ellipsis is also a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion. If substitution is the replacement of an identical item by a substitute, ellipsis means omission of the item or replacement of the item by a zero substitute. As ellipsis and substitution perform the same function, they are, in many cases, interchangeable, eg: A: Which do you prefer, the red or the green scarf?

21

B: I’d like the red (scarf).

I’d like the red one.

When an identical item is omitted or replaced, attention is focused on the neighbouring element. Therefore, ellipsis and substitution are also means of emphasis.

省略句中被省略的部分可能是：1 ）主语： ( I ) beg your pardon. 请再说一遍。 ( I ) haven’t seen you for ages. 好久不见了！ ( It ) doesn’t matter. 没关系。 ( It ) looks like rain. 像是要下雨的样子。

22

2 ）谓语或谓语的一部分： ( Is there) anything you want? 你要什么东西吗？ ( There ) ought to be a comma here. 这儿应该有一个

逗号。 ( Has ) Mary done her homework? 玛丽作业做好了吗？ What (have) you got there? 你那儿是什么？

3 ）宾语： Which of them is the better choice? 他们谁是更合适的

人选？ Well, it’s hard to tell (it). 嗯，这很难说。 Where is George? 乔治在哪里？ I don’t know. 我不知道。

23

4 ）主语和谓语（或谓语的一部分），只剩下表语（ a ），宾语（ b ），状语（ c ）或其他成分（ d ）：a. --- What a pity (it is) you can’t go to the lecture!

真遗憾你不能去听课。 --- Sorry! 对不起！b. --- How many copies do you want?

--- Three copies, please. 你要几本？ 三本。c. (Come) this way, please. 请这边走。 --- Did you like the film? 这影片你喜欢吗？ --- Oh, very much. 啊，很喜欢。 d. --- Are they to paint it green or red?

他们预备把它漆成 绿色还是红色。 --- Red, I guess. 我想是漆成红色。

24

Got any ink? 有墨水吗？5 ）不定式： He didn’t come, though we had invited him to

(come). 我们曾邀请他来，但他没来。6 ）冠词： ( The ) trouble is we don’t have enough tools to go

round. 问题是工具不够。 ( The ) face is we don’t know it ourselves. 事实是

我们自己也不知道。7 ）其他东西： ( Of ) course that’s only a beginning. 当然这还只

是一个开头。 --- Shall we be late? 我们会不会迟到？ --- I hope ( we shall) not (be late). 我希望不会。

25

1 、简单句的省略：简单句中常有一些成分给省略掉。这种情况在对话时最为普遍，不管是回答别人的问题 (a), 或是在接着别人说话时 (b), 都会发生：

(a) How are you getting along with your work? ——Pretty well. 你们工作进行得怎样？ —— 还不错。 How is the weather? —— Going to clear up. 天气怎么样？——快晴了。 When are we due to arrive? ——In about two

hours. 我们什么时候能到？——两个钟头后。 Shall I bring you a pick or a shovel? ——Both, please. 给你带镐来还是带铁锨来？——劳驾把两样都带来。

26

(b) It looks like a shower. ——Yes, somewhat.

看起来要下一阵雨了。——是的，有点像。 I hope I am not disturbing you too much.

——Certainly not.

希望我这样不会过分打扰你。——当然不会。 I went to an exhibition this morning. ——With whom?

我今天上午去参观了一个展览。——和谁去的？这种句子中的省略部分常可从前面的那句话中找到。另外，在陈述自己的意见（ a ），提出问题或要求（ b ），或是在感叹句中（ c ）都可以作这种省略：(a) Hope to her form you soon. 希望不久能接到你的信。

27

Not feeling very well today. 今天觉得有点不舒服。(b) Right?——Right. 对吗？——对。 Doing anything tonight?——No, why? 今晚有事吗？——没有，怎么啦？(c) What a magnificent building! 多么宏伟的建筑！ You old? Not a bit of it! 你老了？才不哩！

2 、复合句的省略A ）复合句中某些成分省略的情形也是很多的。在回答问题时我们常这样做： Can you postpone it? ——I am afraid not. 能延期举行吗？—— 我想不能。 Is everything going all right? —— Well, not smoothly as we expected, though.

28

一切都进展得好吗？—— 嗯，可没有预料的那样顺利。 Do they produce chemical fertilizers? —— Not any that I know of. 他们生产化肥吗？—— 据我所知他们不生产。 Did you know anything about it? —— Not until you told me. 这事以前你知道吗？—— 你告诉我了才知道。B) 有些表示时间、地点、条件、方式或让步等的从句中，如果谓语包含有动词 be ，主句又和句子的主语一致（ a ），或者主语是 it (b) ，就常常可以把从句中的主语和谓语的一部分（特别是动词 be) 省略掉：

(a) Look out for cars when crossing the street. 过街时注意车辆。

29

When taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects. 若按说明服用，本药无任何副作用。

While there he joined in voluntary labour on a project. 他在那里时参加了一项工程的义务劳动。

If not well managed, irrigation can be harmful.

如果管理不善，灌溉还可能有害处。 The documents will be returned as soon as signed.

这些文件一签署就发还。(b) If necessary I’ll have the letter duplicated.

如果必要我可以请人把这信复写一下。 Fill in the blanks with articles where (ver) necessary.

在空格中必要的地方填入冠词。 They will try to put the plan into practice as quickly as

possible. 他们将尽快把这计划付诸实施。

30

另外，在以 no matter what 等引起的让步从句中，也常有些词可以省去： In our company, everybody is well taken care of, no

matter what his position (is). 在我们公司每个人都得到很好的照顾，不管他的地位如何。

Anyone, no matter who (he is), may point out our shortcomings.

我们的缺点，不管是什么人，谁向我们指出都行。C) 在以 than (a) 或 as (b) 引起的从句中，常会有一些成分给省略掉：

(a) He told me not to use more material than (it is) necessary.

他让我需用多少材料就用多少材料，别用多了。 We should think more of the collective than of

ourselves. 我们应当多想到集体，少想到自己。

31

He is more of a poet than a dramatist.

他是剧作家，但在更大程度上是诗人。 We are more confident than (we have) ever (been) that

we will succeed in our programme.

我们比过去更有信心我们的计划能成功。 Many others are doing better than we are (doing).

有很多人干得比我们好。(b) They worked with as much enthusiasm as young

people (did). 他们干得像小伙子们一样热情。 He is now a vice-manager, but still often works in the

kitchen as before.

现在他是副经理，但仍经常和过去一样在厨房劳动。 Their training is free, as is all education.

他们接受培养是免费的，像一切教育一样的。

32

We will, as always, stand on your side. 我们要一如既往站在你们一边。 Here, as elsewhere in China, people are bubbling with

enthusiasm for labour. 这里，和中国别的地方一样， 人们洋溢着劳动热情。

在这类句子中，有时“缺”的部分是很少表示出来的。D) 除了这些，复合句还有一些其他成分给省略掉的情况，被省略的或是主句的一部分 (a) ，或是从句的一部分 (b) ：

(a) (Is there) Anything you wan to take with you? 有什么东西要带吗？ If he doesn’t want to stay in bed, we’d better not force

him to (do so). 如果他不愿躺在床上，我们还是不要勉强他的好。

33

(b) I shall do all that I can (do) to help you.

我要尽我所能来帮助你。 We will certainly help you if we can (help you).

要是 能够的话，我们是肯定会帮助你的。 We’ll get everything ready tomorrow if not earlier(=if we

can’t get it ready earlier).

我们明天把一切准备好，如果不能更早一些的话。Note: 有时主句和从句中都有省略部分： The sooner (we perform) the operation, the greater (is)

the hope of saving the hand.

越早动手术，越有希望保住手。 The sooner, the better. 越早越好。

有许多谚语都用这种省略结构：

34

The less said, the better. 话越少越好。 Easy come, easy go. （钱）来得快去得快。 Nothing ventured, nothing gained. 不冒风险难有收获。 Once bitten, twice shy. 一朝被咬，经常胆小。 More haste, less speed. 欲速则不达。 Like father, like son. 有其父必有其子。

3 、并列句的省略在并列句中如果后面分句中有与前面相同的部分，就常给省略掉，以免重复： I work in a factory and my brother on a farm. 我在工厂工作，我弟弟在农场工作。 The scenery was beautiful, and the acting superb. 布景很漂亮，演得极为出色。

35

Someone has borrowed my pen, but I don’t remember who. 有人借了我的钢笔，可是我记不得是谁了。

We’re bound to win some day. Yes, but when?

我们有一天准会打赢。是的，但是什么时候呢？这种句子中的省略部分是不难从前面的分句中推想出来的。另外我们还可能碰到下面这种省略句：(a) We tried to help her but (we tried) in vain.

我们想法子帮助她，但没用。 You must stop, and (stop) at once, this sort of

behaviour. 你必须停止，而且立即停止这种行为。 He did it and quite successfully too at the beginning.

他这样做了，而且开头还很成功。

36

(b) This happened and (it was) a good thing too, for it helped us to realize our shortcomings. 这事发生了，但是也好，它帮助我们明白了我们的缺点。

We still have shortcomings, and very big ones too. 我们还有缺点，而且是很大的缺点。

这种句子的后一分句中剩下的往往是一个恰可用来修饰前面分句中谓语的状语（ a ），在个别情况下也可以不是这样（ b ），但在多数情况下它们都表示一个事后想起的意念。Conclusion Ellipsis has been discussed in this lecture, which falls into three parts: the omission of simple sentence, the omission of complex sentence and

37

the omission of coordinate sentence. Now let’s do some exercises…

Exercises:1. ____ we should be glad. a. Were they to arrive tomorrow b. Were they arriving tomorrow c. They were to arrive tomorrow d. They would arrive tomorrow 2. If ____ from damage, solar cells can work well and

operate for a long time. a. being protected b. having been protected c. protected d. protecting3. We had hoped, in a moment of optimism, ____ the

government would work effectively.

38

a. which b. / c. when d. that

（在宾语从句中，尤其是在口语中， that 可以省略。但如果在that 引导的宾语从句前又插入另一个从句或其他成分时，that 则不可以省略。）

4. Anges was the first girl ___ when you got there.

a. you talked to b. who talked you

c. whom you talked d. you talked to whom

5. ____ in today’s papers, every taxi driver should have his license renewed within the week.

a. Like announced b. Which is announced

c. As it announced d. As announced

( 在 as 引导的非限制性定语从句中 , 如果从句中有系动词 be时 , 可将 be 省略。 )

6. There is somebody at the door ____ to see you.

39

a. wants b. wanted c. whom want d. to want

7. You work harder than ___ at your age.

a. I b. I so c. I have d. I did

8. “ I’m not going to buy that book.”

“ ____ . It’s too expensive.”

a. So am I b. I don’t, either

c. Neither am I d. I’m not, too

9. We tried to help her but ____ .

a. we not b. we don’t

c. in vain d. with an effort

10. “ Are you going to attend Bill’s birthday party ?”

“ Yes, I ___ .”

a. intend to b. intend c. intend to it d. intend so

40

11. “Have you gone to see your parents?” “No, but ____ .” a. I’m going to see b. I’m going to c. I go d. I go to see12. I’ve decided to do what I ____ . a. like to b. like it c. like d. like it to ( 当 want, like 用作从句谓语时 , 其后续的不定式如与主句有关内容重复 , 应连同小品词 to 一同省略。 )

13. She’ll never leave home; she hasn’t got ___ . a. the courage in b. the courage c. the courage at it d. the courage to it( 如果不定式位于形容词或名词之后 , 可连同 to 一并省略。 )

（ end ）

41

1 、“虚义” it (Empty “it”)“虚义” it 是一种“非指代性” it ，以示区别于人称代词 it ，常用作没有具体意义的主语，出现于表示气候、天气、温度、时间、地点、距离等意义的句子中。例如 : It is very warm and wet in South China these days. It was very cold; it snowed and grew dark. It seemed a long time before my turn came. It’s two miles to the nearest post office from here.

二十一、 It- 句型 (“It” patterns)

42

“虚义” it 也常用来表示一般的笼统的情况。例如： It’s awful —I’ve got so much work I don’t know where

to start. It has fared ( 进展 )well with him. It was dull when Mary was away. It was amusing when the conjuror produced the

rabbit.

“虚义” it 也常见于下列结构： It looks as if the college is very small. It seems as though our plan’ll be perfect. It’s my turn.

43

“虚义” it 也常用在某些习惯用语中，作形式上的动词宾语或介词补足成分，各该习惯用语是有具体意义的，但 it 并无具体意义。例如： You will catch it (= will be scolded) for breaking the

glasses. He was hard put to it to earn a living for his family.

(= He had great difficulty in earning a living for his family.)

There seemed nothing for it but to travel the 80 miles.

(= There seemed to be no other way but to travel the 80 miles).

Hop it (= Go away). You are in the way here. Jack had a hard time of it. (= Jack was suffering.)

44

2 、“先行” it (Anticipatory it)It 的另一种用法是充当形式主语或形式宾语，后面的真正主语或真正宾语通常是不定式结构、 -ing分词结构或名词性分句。 It 的这种用法叫做“先行” it 。例如： It’s illegal to drive without a license. It was pleasant meeting you in London that day. He made it clear that he didn’t want to speak to me. It was not known whether there was gold left in the

mine.

在上述诸例中，后置的真正主语可以取代先行 it 的位置，而出现于句首：

45

To drive without a license is illegal. Meeting you in London that day was pleasant. Whether there was gold left in the mine was not

known.

上述结构远不如用先行 it 结构普通。此外，也并非所有先行 it 结构都可作上述转换。例如： It seems that John’s not coming after all. It happened that John was the only witness.

上述两例只能转换为： John doesn’t seem to be coming after all. John happened to be the only witness.

46

3 、 it 用于强调句 (“It” in an emphatic construction)强调句型的结构形式是： It + be 的一定形式 + 中心成分 + that - / who- 分句。例如： It was Jane that / who called this morning. It was a parcel that she brought him.

通过这种结构可以强调除谓语动词以外的大多数句子成分。例如： John gave Mary a handbag at Christmas. It was John that / who gave Mary a handbag at

Christmas. It was Mary that John gave a handbag (to) at

Christmas.

47

It was a handbag that John gave Mary at Christmas. It was at Christmas that John gave Mary a handbag.

强调句的谓语动词 be 还可以采取复杂形式 : It may have been at Christmas that John gave Mary a

handbag. It might have been John who gave Mary a handbag.

强调句可以强调多种多样的状语成分，例如强调时间状语、地点状语、方式状语等： It was when she was about to go to bed that the

telephone rang. It was in Shanghai that I first met Philip. It was very reluctantly that she agreed to help.

48

也可以强调由 because 引导的原因状语分句： It was because it raised so many difficult questions

that the book took a long time to come out.

Conclusion “It” patterns have been discussed in this lecture,

including empty “it”, anticipatory “it” and “it” in an emphatic construction. Now let’s do some exercises…

Exercises:1. Put emphasis on the parts in italics by reconstruction

each sentence using the “it is /was …that…” pattern:

1) Kuwait is rich in oil resources.

49

Answer: It is Kuwait that is rich in oil resources.

2) The biggest hydro-electric power station will be built at the Sanmen George.

Answer: It is at the Sanmen George that the biggest hydro-electric power station will be built.

3) In 1960 the first communications satellite was launched.

Answer: It was in 1960 that the first communications satellite was launched.

4) The solar cell is the most highly developed and most useful type of solar energy.

Answer: It is the solar cell that is the most highly developed and most useful type of solar energy.

5) The trouble between ‘town and gown’ in Oxford caused some students and their teachers to leave.

50

Answer: It was the trouble between ‘town and gown’ in Oxford that caused some students and their teachers to leave.

6) It is said that John Montagu Sandwich invented sandwich.

Answer: It is John Montagu Sandwich who is said to have invented sandwich.

7) The great English playwright William Shakespeare was born in 1564.

Answer: It was in 1564 that the great English playwright William Shakespeare was born.

8) She did not return until she had finished all her work.

Answer: It was not until she had finished all her work that she returned.

2. Translate:

51

1 ）冬天，天色晚得早。Answer ： It gets dark early in winter. 2 ）问他没有用，他什么也不知道。Answer ： It’s no use asking her. She doesn’t know anything.3 ）从这儿到车站有两英里路程。Answer ： It’s two miles to the station from here.4 ）你见过下冰雹吗？Answer ： Have you seen it hail?5 ）由你来决定该怎么办。Answer ： We have it to you to decide what must be done.6 ）据说，特务暗中在他的茶里放了砒霜。Answer ： It is said that the spy slipped arsenic in his tea.7 ）可惜你错过了那次音乐会。 Answer ： It’s a pity that you missed that concert.

52

8 ）看来，他很害怕。Answer ： It looks as if he were very afraid.9 ）牛奶已经泼翻，哭也没有用。Answer ： It is no use crying over spilt milk.10 ）几个月之后我们才又见面。Answer ： It was several months before we met again. 3. Translate the following into Chinese, paying attention to

the italicized parts:1) Some day I will have it out with him.Answer ：迟早我要跟他说个明白。2 ） We missed the last bus and have to foot it home.Answer ：误了末班车，我们只好步行回家。3 ） Do that again and you’ll catch it.Answer ：再做那件事，你就要受到责罚。

53

4) If you go mountaineering in such weather, you’ll have to rough it.

Answer ：在这种天气登山，你一定会吃苦头。5 ） With the bridge destroyed, there was nothing for it;we

had to swim across.Answer ：桥梁被冲毁，除泅渡外别无他法。6 ） There’s no help for it.Answer ：那是没有办法的事。7 ） If you break the law, you can’t get away with it.Answer ：如果犯了法，你是逃脱不了罪责的。8 ） We decided to go swimming at midnight just for the hell

of it.Answer ：只是为了好玩，我们才决定半夜去游泳。 （ end ）

54

二十二、直接引语和间接引语（ Direct and Indirect Speech ）

In quoting someone’s words, we can either use the direct speech, ie repeat the actual words of the speaker without changes in grammar, or use the indirect speech, ie tell what he said without repeating the actual words. Direct speech is usually put in quotation marks; indirect speech normally occurs after a reporting verb without being put in quotation marks. The present lecture is devoted to the transformation of direct speech into indirect, and this transformation usually

55

entails some changes in tense forms, word order, pronouns, determiners, temporal or locative adverbials as well as other aspects of grammar.

1. Indirect statementsWhen a statement is turned from direct speech, there is no change of tense if the reporting verb is in the present. But the time reference is usually back-shifted if the reporting verb is in the past tense.

1) Present time back-shifted to the pastWhen the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the indirect speech should be turned from:

56

Direct Indirect the simple present the simple past the present progressive the past progressive the present perfective the past perfective the present perfective the past perfective progressive progressive

For example:He said, “The committee are quarrelling among themselves.“

He said the committee were quarrelling among themselves.He said, “The secretary has turned down the proposal.”

He said the secretary had turned down the proposal.

There are cases, however, in which no such changes are necessary even though the reporting verb is in the past tense. This happens:

57

A) When what is reported is a timeless fact, a scientific truth, a present habit or a proverb:He said, “ The word ‘laser’ is an acronym”.

He said the word “laser” is an acronym.

B) when the verb in the direct speech is a be -subjunctive:“I suggest the meeting be put off till next week,” he said.

He suggest that the meeting be put off till next week.

C) when the statement is still valid at the time of reporting:“I’m forty” he said. He said he was forty.

D) when the verb phrase in the direct speech contains a modal auxiliary that has not a past form:

58

He said, “You mustn’t smoke in the roon.” He said I mustn’t smoke in the room.

He said, “ It must be pretty late. I really must go.” He said it must be pretty late, and he really must go.

2) Past time back-shifted to past in the pastThe shifting of a past tense verb to an earlier time reference is normally guided by the following rules:

A) The simple past is generally changed to the past perfective:He said, “I didn’t recognize you.”

He said he hadn’t recognized me.

But this change may not take place where “past in the past” is self-explanatory:

59

Ann said, “She emigrated to Paris in 1955.”

Ann said she emigrated to Paris in 1955. B) The past progressive is generally turned into the

past perfective, but sometimes the verb form may remain unchanged,eg:Robert said, “I was joking with Mary.”

Robert said that he had been / was joking with Mary.

C) the past perfective remains unchanged,eg:He said , “We had returned to the store when she came.”He said they had returned to the store when she came.

D)the simple past and past progressive expressing hypothetical meanings remain unchanged, eg:He said, “It is time we stopped work.”

He said it was time they stopped work.

60

He said, “I wish I knew.” He said he wished he knew.

He said, “I’d rather you lived closer to us.” He said he’d rather I lived closer to them.

在有些情况下 , 变或不变需视意义而定 :He said, “ If you called on me tomorrow, I could see you for half an hour.”

He said if I called on him the next day he could see me for half an hour.He said, “If I had any money, I’d buy you a drink.”

He said if he’d had any money he’s have bought me a drink.

E) The simple past and past progressive in temporal clauses may remain unchanged,eg:

61

John said, “ When I lived in London, I often saw Jane.” John said that when he lived in London he had often seen /

often saw Jane.

3) Future time back-shifted to future in the pastThis kind of back-shifting commonly occurs in auxiliaries used in future sense, eg:He said, “The sausages will to off if you don’t cook them today.”

He said the sausages would go off if I didn’t cook them that day.He said, “ The house is to be pulled down the next month.”

He said the house was to be pulled down the next month.

But the change may not happen if the future event is yet to come at the moment of speaking, eg:

62

He said, “I’ll be waiting for you tomorrow.” He said he’ll be waiting for me tomorrow.

4) Other changes in indirect speechIn addition to changes in verb forms, there are also changes in pronouns, determiners, and adverbs, eg: first and second person pronouns are turned into third person pronouns; this / these into that / those; now into then; here into there; ago into before, today into that day; yesterday into the day before; tomorrow into the next day / the following day; next week /year, etc. Into the following week / year, etc. There are three possible types of change in time adverbial and verb form:

63

A) There is change both in time adverbial and in verb form:He said, “It was completed a year ago.”

He said it had been completed a year before.

B) No change in time adverbial, but there may or may not be change in verb form: She said, “We left Paris at eight.”

She said they left / had left Paris at eight.

C) Whether time adverbial changes or not depends on the context or situation. For instance, time adverbial may remain unchanged if the act of reporting occurs within the time span of the reported event:

64

Mr. Black said, “ We started learning Chinese last month.”

If the speech is quoted in the same month, we may say:

Mr. Black said they had started learning Chinese last month.

2. Indirect questionsAll the transformational rules mentioned in the preceding section also apply to questions when they are turned into indirect speech. But apart from these rules there are other points worth noting.

1) Introductory word of indirect questionsWhen quoting a general or tag question, we can either use whether or if as the introductory word

65

but an indirect alternative question can only be introduced by whether, eg:“Does he really mean it?”

I wondered whether / if he really meant it.“Is this book yours or his ?”

She asked whether that book was mine or his.“Shall I open the window?”

He asked whether / if he should open the window.

When a special question is quoted, the question word such as who, what, how, when, etc. is repeated in the indirect question, eg:“ Which chair shall I sit in ?”He asked which chair he should sit in.“Why didn’t you stop her?”He asked why I hadn’t stopped her.

66

2) Communicative functions of indirect question

As has been mentioned before, there are utterances that are only questions in form, but functionally they are used to make a request, an offer, a suggestion or to give a piece of advice.

To turn these “questions” into indirect speech, it is necessary to choose appropriate lexical verbs to perform the same communicative functions. For example:

A) ask, advise, want, etc. can be used to make a request or to give advice, eg:“Would you buy me some stamps?”

He asked me to buy him some stamps.

67

“Why don’t you phone her first ?” He advised me to phone her first.

B) Suggest is usually used to make a suggestion, eg:“Why don’t you send it back to the factory?”

He suggested that I send it back to the factory.“Shall we get the tickets first?”

He suggested getting the tickets first. He suggested that they bet the tickets first.

C) Offer is commonly used to make an offer, eg:“ Shall I post them to you?”

He offered to post them to me.

3. Indirect commands and exclamations

68

Let us now move on to indirect commands and exclamations.

1) Indirect commands Commands are reported by such constructions as “ verb + object + infinitive”. Verbs used in these construction include ask, beg, tell, urge, warn, remind, advise, etc. eg:“Leave the room quietly.”

He told me to leave the room quietly.“Be careful with the dog.”

I warned you to be careful with the dog.

“ Verb + that-clause” or “ verb + -ing participle”, eg:“Let’s stay here till the storm has passed.”

69

He suggested that we should stay there / suggested our staying there till the storm had passed.“Don’t drive too fast.”

He told me that I wasn’t to drive too fast.

“offer + infinitive”, eg:“Let me give you a lift home.”Harry offered to give me a lift home.“Let us make lunch for you.”They offered to make lunch for me.

2) Indirect exclamationsExclamations can be reported in two ways:

A) We can use what, how or that as introductory word, eg:“What a lovely house!”

70

He remarked what a lovely house it was.

He remarked that it was a lovely house.

“How well he looks!”

He said how will he looked.

He exclaimed that he looked well.

B) We can rephrase the exclamation in a statement, eg:“How kind of you!”

He acknowledged my kindness.

“What beautiful weather!”

He commented on the beautiful weather.

“ Many happy returns of the day!”

He wished me many happy returns of my birthday.

71

“ Good morning!” He greeted me. / He wished me a good morning.

“Congratulations!” He congratulated me.

“ What a nuisance!” He exclaimed with disgust / annoyance.

“ Be careful!” He warned.

4. Mixed types of indirect speechWhen a passage with different types of sentence

is turned into indirect speech, we should adopt other devices in addition to the above-mentioned transformational rules.

1) Adding connectives or other expressions

72

Compare:“Come in and look round. There is no obligation to buy.”

He invited us to come in and look round, assuring us that there was no obligation to buy.

“Could you show me how to work it ? I’m not used to electric typewriters.”

She asked him to show her how to work it, explaining that she wasn’t used to electric typewriters.

2) Rephrasing the original utterance

Compare:“Bother! I’ve left my address-book at home.”

He expressed his annoyance at having left his address-book at home.

73

A: Hey! Did you win yesterday’s match?” B: No, we didn’t. A: What a pity! Better luck next time. He shouted to attract our attention and asked us if we had

won the previous day’s match. When we said we had not, he expressed his sympathy and wished us better luck the next time.

Conclusion:So much for direct and indirect speech. Four major

problems are discussed here: indirect statements, indirect questions, indirect commands and exclamations and mixed types of indirect speech. Now let’s do some exercises…

Exercises:

74

1. Replace the word said in the sentences with one of the words listed below. Use each word only once. Then put the sentences into indirect speech:

1) “ I’m the best tennis –player in this town,” he said.

Answer: He boasted that he was the best tennis-player in that town.

2) “Let’s go there by train,” he said.

Answer: He suggested that we should to there by train.

3) “ Stop making that terrible noise in the classroom,’ the teacher said.

Answer: The teacher shouted to the students to stop making that noise in in the classroom

admitted, complained, promised, suggested, agreed, insisted, protested, boasted, muttered, shouted

75

4) “ He has been very rude to me,” she said.Answer: She complained that he had been very rude to her.5) “ Yes, I broke the window with my catapult,” the boy

said.Answer: The boy admitted that he had broken that window

with his catapult.6) “ You can’t take me to prison. I know my right.”Answer: The man protested that he could not be taken into

prison and that he knew his rights.7) “ This teacher doesn’t know what he’s talking about,”

said the student.Answer: The student muttered that that teacher didn’t know

what he was talking about.8) “ Well, yes, if we can’t save up enough money for our

trip to Switzerland, we’ll have to give it up,” he said.

76

Answer: He agreed that if they couldn’t save up enough money for their trip to Switzerland, they would have to give it up.

9) “ If you can’t come today, you simply must come tomorrow,” she said.

Answer: She insisted that if I couln’t come that day, I simply had to come the following day.

10) “ You shall have the money back by the end of the week,” he said.

Answer: He promised that I should have the money back by the end of that week.

2. Put the direct into indirect speech:1) John said, “It’s one of the most interesting tours I’ve ever

had.” Answer: John said that it was one of the most interesting

tours he’d ever had.

77

2) The postman said, “There are a couple of letters with wrong addresses.”

Answer: The postman said that there were a couple of letters with wrong addresses.

3) He held out his hand and said, “ My name is Carl Wang.”Answer: He held out his hand and said that my name was

Carl Wang.4) Joan said to me, “Come and meet some of my friends

tomorrow night.”Answer: Joan asked me to come and meet some of her

friends the next night.5) Professor Smith said, “I’m thinking of spending one

month in Japan and three months in China next year.”Answer: Professor Smith said that he was thinking of

spending one month in Japan and three months in China the following year.

78

6) The lecturer said to the class, “Alexander Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in1945.”

Answer: The lecturer said to the class that Alexander Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in1945.

7) The elderly woman said with feeling, “I’ve never met a kinder person.”

Answer: The elderly woman said with feeling that she’d never met a kinder person.

8) Robert told the reporter, “I was looking into the shop window when I heard a crash behind me. I turned round and found that a car had collided with a truck.”

Answer: Robert told the reporter that he was looking into the shop window when he heard a crash behind him. He said that he turned round and found that a car had collided with a truck.

79

9) He said, “ If what you said is true I must go to the police.”

Answer: He said If what I said was true he must / would have to go to the police.

10) “You mustn’t forget to put the stamp on, or your friend will have to pay double postage,” he told me.

Answer: H e told me I mustn’t forget to put the stamp on, or my friend would have to pay double postage.

11) Mary said, “ When I saw them last they were listening to the recording.”

Answer: Mary said when she saw them last they were listening to the recording.

(end)