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Sociology

Definition: The scientific study of society and social

behavior.

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The Sociological Perspective

Looks beyond specific events and individuals to identify social patterns and explain them.

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Example: Terrorism

Terrorism: the attempt to utilize the fear or terror created by violence against a civilian population to achieve political ends.

Two types of terrorism: 1. Revolutionary Terrorism: intended to

upset the status quo and bring change. 2. State or repressive Terrorism: done

by the state or the power structure to preserve the status quo.

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Patterns associated with Middle East revolutionary

terrorism

Age: younger more than older people

Sex: males more than females Social class: social marginals are

more likely Religious ethnicity/ideology: radicals

more than moderates

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Seeing the general in the particular

Focus on how the behavior of particular individuals may reflect larger social patterns.

Basic insight: we are largely the products of the groups we belong to.

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Seeing the strange in the familiar

The sociological perspective involves detaching oneself from familiar ways of thinking in order to gain new insights.

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Ethnocentrism v. Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism: the tendency to judge other cultures from the values of one’s own culture.

Cultural relativism: awareness that values differ across societies.

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Putting individuals in context of social forces: the

case of suicide 19th Century View of Suicide

Due to psychological pathology. They have “sick minds.”

An isolated act of the deranged individual.

Emile Durkheim: suicide occurs in context of social forces too, not just psychological “pathologies.”

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Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Study (1897)

Research method: secondary data analysis of suicide records across Central Europe.

Findings: Some categories of people had higher suicide rates Males Protestants The wealthy Unmarried people

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What do these categories of people have in common?

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What do these categories of people have in common?

They all have lower levels of social integration. They are less socially bonded to others.

They have more autonomy or freedom, but they are less tied to others.

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Durkheim

Two social forces are critical to understanding societal suicide rates: 1. Level of social integration, or social

solidarity. How integrated are people to societal norms and values, to their families, to their jobs, etc? How high are levels of solidarity?

2. Level of social regulation. This is an issue of how compelling or regulatory the societal norms, values and institutions are for members of society. Example: a very authoritarian institution is over-regulatory while a very lenient institution is under-regulatory.

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Four types of Suicide (Durkheim) 1. Anomic Suicide (societal confusion or

anomie) Not enough regulation. Lots of individualism. Too much social change. Due to confusion over societal norms and values and

a low degree of regulation of individual behaviors. This person often senses that society is breaking down. Rapid social changes may cause the person to feel rootless, yet there are few constraints that keep them from destructive behaviors. This is associated with Western cultures.

2. Altruistic Suicide (honor bound) Too much integration. Not enough individualism. Due to excessively high levels of social solidarity, the

suicide is “encouraged” by societal norms as a matter of honor. This is associated mostly with traditional conservative cultures.

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Four types of Suicide (Durkheim) 3. Egoistic Suicide (individualistic)

Not enough integration. Too much individualism. Due to low levels of integration, this is related to

high levels of individualism in which people may not sense their ties to societal institutions, societal norms, or to other people. The individual senses that life is meaningless. This is more common in Western cultures.

4. Fatalistic Suicide (oppression) Too much regulation. Not enough individualism. Not enough social change. Due to high levels of regulation that force obedience

to the system – even if it is against one’s will. This person senses they are trapped by an oppressive social system and there is no way out. This is common in total institutions that are authoritarian (slavery, prisons, military).

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Durkheim

The needs of society must be balanced with the needs of the individual.

Western cultures were undergoing rapid social change due to industrialization and changing values. This brought increases in anomie and

individualism. Anomic and Egoistic suicide rates were

increasing in Europe.

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Note the negative correlation that Durkheim observed: decreased levels of social integration and regulation are associated with increased levels of anomic and egoistic suicide.

U.S. Suicide Rate by gender (1997)

Males Females 18.7 per

100,000 people 4.4 per 100,000

people

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“The social does not ‘influence’ the private; it dwells within it” … Russell Jacoby (1982)

The social world is the breeding ground of our internal psychological states.

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Sociology and Everyday Life

Social marginality: the state of being singled out as an outsider and excluded from social activity.

Minority group: people who have been singled out and marginalized, typically by race, sex, social class, age, religion, etc.

The greater the marginality, the more likely the person or group is aware of how social patterns affect their lives.

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Importance of a global perspective

Currently, about 80% of the world’s wealth goes to less than 20% of the world’s population.

The globe is stratified into three categories: 1. High income countries.

Highly industrialized. About 18% of the world’s population.

2. Middle income countries. Moderately industrialized. About 54% of the

population. 3. Low income countries.

Not yet industrialized, lots of poverty. About 27% of the population.

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Importance of a global perspective

Macionis – 4 insights related to global issues: 1. Where we live on the globe shapes our

lives. 2. Societies everywhere are increasingly

interconnected. When powerful nations impose themselves

upon weaker nations, they are likely to cause conflicts.

Global stratification encourages global conflict and terrorism.

3. Many problems Americans face are far more serious elsewhere.

4. Thinking globally is a good way to learn about ourselves.

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The Origins of Sociology

The rise of science (defined): the accumulation of knowledge through rational systematic procedures.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Founder of the term “sociology” Scientist who applied a scientific

approach to the study of society. Positivist: believed objective truths can

be uncovered via the scientific method. Total objectivity was possible.

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Three key historical changes

1. Industrial revolution.2. Urbanization.3. Values/political revolution.

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1. Industrial Revolution

Before industrialization the economy was mainly agrarian, or farming-based. For most people, life centered on small-town rural life. The family was the central institution of

life. There were few distinctions between

work and family. Change was slow, tradition was

important, community and family responsibilities were the dominant concern.

Farms were relatively self-sufficient.

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Industrial Revolution, con’t. Industrial revolution began in England 350

years ago. Scientific advances spurred technological

innovations, bringing constant and rapid changes to social life.

These technologies and factories increased productivity and living standards for many.

People left their farms to work in these factories.

Work and family became differentiated institutions, with different functions. This process is called institutional differentiation.

The factories were increasingly large and rationalized (guided by formal rules, logical criteria, systematic).

Guided by the values of industrial capitalism: to maximize the private profits of the owner.

Conditions were very harsh for workers.

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Industrialization, con’t

A new way of life was emerging Standard of living increased for most

due to higher productivity. A middle class was emerging.

Rapid changes brought “progress” – a positive orientation to the future as bright thanks to new technologies- but were destabilizing.

Small communities declined, along with traditional ways of life and traditional values.

Mobility increased, with family size decreasing and most moving toward a city.

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2. Urbanization Mass urbanization was made

possible by new technologies. Factories offered wages, driving

people off the farm and its increasingly obsolete way of life.

Property became privatized, forcing migration.

Industrial urban life brought stimulation but it also brought increases in crime, pollution, homelessness, alienation, slums, overpopulation. Urban problems needed solutions;

hence, sociologists emerged to address these issues.

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3. Political/values changes

Agrarian societies in Europe tended to be monarchies. The king was all-powerful.

He claimed divine nobility. There was no separation of church and

state. He demanded loyalty and obedience.

The king owned all the land, forcing the masses to be serfs or peasants.

The king and the aristocracy promoted a caste system of rigid stratification.

People were ascribed their wealth and privileges.

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Political/values changes, con’t

Rise in individualism, a radical new value. Individualism: a sense of personal

autonomy or personal freedom. Political effect: increased push for liberty and

civil rights.

Other revolutionary political/values changes: From monarchy toward democracy (with

separation of church and state) From slavery (indentured servitude)

toward freedom From rigid status hierarchy toward

equality “all men are created equal” – a statement

directed at the king. From illiterate toward literate

(education)

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Modernity: social patterns resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and other recent historical changes. Features include:

1. Decline in small communities. 2. Expansion of individualism. 3. Increased diversity. 4. Orientation to the future (progress). 5. Increased rationalization.

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Were these rapid changes “good” or “bad” for society? Theorists disagree.

Auguste Comte: rapid social changes threaten the social order and are “bad” for society.

Karl Marx (1818-1883): rapid or revolutionary social changes are “good” if they bring about equality. The old monarchies created social

conflicts between the “haves” and the “have-nots” – they promoted oppression.

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Sociological Theory

Three basic sociological theories or paradigms: 1. Structural-functionalism. 2. Social conflict paradigm. 3. Symbolic interactionism.

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1. Structural-functionalism

This model views society as a complex system whose parts “function” together to promote stability.

Key features of structural functionalism: 1. Social structure: society consists of

various components or structures: stable patterns of social life, including norms, values, institutions, etc.

2. All structures of society have social functions – they have purposes and consequences for the operation of the whole society.

3. Society and its structures are held together by shared norms and values.

4. The structures or components of society are interrelated and interdependent, such that a change in one structure produces effects on other components.

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Structural funcionalism, con’t

Noted functionalists: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Robert Merton.

Herbert Spencer (English/American, 1820-1903); an early structural-functionalist. Applied a biological analogy to the study of society: he

likened society to an organism consisting of organs, tissue, muscles.

Each “organ” is a structure with specific functions. Each “organ” is interrelated with other components. If a key “organ” stops functioning properly, the organism

may die. Example: The family is one of many interrelated

institutions of society and has several key functions, like reproduction and primary socialization. A “breakdown” in the family threatens the survivability of society itself and produces effects on other institutions, which may adjust to try to compensate for this family “breakdown.”

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Structural-functionalism, con’t

Spencer and other early functionalists tended to assume that if a structure existed, it must have functions for the survivability of society – it must be necessary. But was slavery a necessary institution? Is

racism a necessary core value? Criticism led to modifications in the

theory. Modern functionalists examine all structures for their functions (helpful or stabilizing effects) as well as their dysfunctions (harmful or destabilizing effects).

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Structural functionalism, con’t

Robert Merton (American, 1968) added new insights toward functionalism. He argued that any component of society can have many functions, some of which are hidden.

1. Manifest functions: any consequences that are intended and recognized as helpful to society.

2. Latent functions: any consequences that are unintended or unrecognized but which are nevertheless helpful to society.

3. Dysfunctions: any consequences which are undesirable and harmful to society.

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Critique of functionalism As a macro theory, it tends to ignore

micro social processes. Its emphasis on social stability and the

survivability of the social order tends to bias it against forces of change/instability as “bad” forces. This may not always be true, as the American Revolution itself was born out of the force of change.

It assumes society is held together by shared norms and values – by consensus - but to what extent are values really shared by all of us?

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2. Conflict theory View of society: a complex system in which

different groups, with different levels of power, compete over scarce resources. 1. Society has valuable resources, like money,

jobs, etc. 2. These resources are not equally distributed. 3. This creates tension and conflict over access to

resources. 4. The powerful (elites) tend to use their power to

hold on to the best resources, and this may involve oppressing others and/or persuading others to accept the dominant ideology that justifies the status quo and its “pecking orders.”

5. Inequality breeds social conflict, because not everyone accepts the dominant ideology of elites.

6. Conflict may be good for society if the outcome reduces inequality and creates a more fair and just society.

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Conflict theory, con’t Heavily influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx

(German, 1818-1883). An advocate of economic equality as a means

toward social utopia in an age of early industrial capitalism and concentration of wealth.

Marx believed capitalism created new conditions for oppression of the many by the few – a virtual secular monarchy was emerging that threatened freedom.

Marx advocated a workers’ revolution in capitalist factories to bring about an egalitarian system of democratic socialism.

Capitalist factories were totalitarian and oppressive to the masses as long as they operated under private ownership.

Modern conflict theorists are interested in any form of oppression, such as economic, racial, sexual, etc.

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Critique of Conflict Theory

As a macro theory, it tends to ignore micro social processes.

Whereas functionalists are often biased against social change, conflict theorists are often biased in favor of social change, as long as such change is seen to bring about more equality. It ignores the downside of rapid social

changes. It assumes that egalitarianism is the best way

to go, but is it always? It tends to assume that there is not much

real consensus in society, which may or may not be true.

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3. Symbolic Interactionism

This model examines how people construct subjective reality to pattern their everyday social interaction.

1. Focuses on micro-level social interaction.

2. Focuses on the process of ordinary everyday social interaction.

3. Everyday social interaction is made possible through shared symbols and meanings, such as speaking a common language.

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Interactionism, con’t

4. We respond to each other on the basis of how we interpret each other, not necessarily who we really are. Subjective reality (what we perceive to be

true), not necessarily objective reality (what is true independent of our perceptions), is crucial to understanding behavior.

W. I. Thomas theorum: a situation defined as real becomes real in its consequences.

5. Subjective reality is negotiated and learned via social interaction.

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Interactionism, con’t

Max Weber (German, 1864-1920) greatly influenced the emergence of this model.

Weber emphasized the importance of verstehen: the importance of empathy or understanding the subjective reality of others in order to understand their behavior. What meanings do people attach to their

actions and to social interaction? Where did they learn these meanings? How close to objective reality are these subjective realities? How taken-for-granted are these subjective realities?

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Critique of Interactionism

A common criticism is that their micro level approach leads to ignoring the macro forces that influence our lives.

Good for a social-psychological approach to the study of society.

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Example of model application: Analysis of

Education Functionalism

The education system is one of the structural components of society that ensures a stable society.

This system is interdependent with other institutions, particularly work and family.

Functionalists adopt a macro analysis of education.

What are the manifest functions of edu. system?

What are the latent functions of the edu. system?

What are some dysfunctions of the edu. system?

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Example of model application: Analysis of

Education Conflict Theory

This model adopts a critical perspective by examining conflicts within the education system, especially as they relate to the power structure and to industrial capitalism. It adopts a macro approach.

Is there a school stratification system that dis-empowers particular people? Are students oppressed by administration rules?

Do any categories of people (women, the poor, racial minorities, etc) get lower quality education due to forces of inequality?

Who benefits and who pays in current education policies?

How is the curriculum influenced by the agenda of industrial capitalists and other elites in society? Do U.S. schools propagandize the virtues of capitalism, competition, and other dominant values?

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Example of model application: Analysis of

Education Symbolic Interactionism

This model approaches education as a key source of subjective reality, in which students negotiate and learn to perceive the world in particular ways. Schools are agents of socialization. They teach particular symbols that convey particular messages.

Unlike the other models, this model adopts a micro or social-psychological approach.

What symbols and meanings are being conveyed in our education systems?

What are the key statuses, roles and “realities” that schools promote?

How are statuses and roles negotiated in the everyday interaction at school?

How is everyday school life similar to a stage drama, with actors performing scripted roles, such as the role of student, teacher, administrator?

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End of Chapter 1