Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
Social Psychologists look at human behavior in the context of societal rules and norms. They see human behavior as primarily shaped by social interactions. They recognize that people behave differently in the presence of others.
2
Which of the Following Is an Example of a Group?
Cheerleaders at a schoolA high school football teamPeople lined up to voteWomen at a baby showerPedestrians at a crosswalk
Group
In order for there to be a group, there must be more than one person and there must be face-to-face interaction.
3
4
Cheerleaders at a School
5
Tennis Team
6
People Lined Up to Vote
7
Women at a Baby Shower
8
Pedestrians in a Crosswalk
9
Families, couples in love, street gangs, social clubs
Relationships that are face-to-face and personal
term “primary group”--coined by Charles Cooley
two or more people who have a significant amount of interaction with one another
must know a lot about one another, and share strong, intimate emotional ties
“the nurseries of human nature” The values and norms people learn in primary
groups tend to remain with them for life
Primary Groups
10
Four Features of a Primary Group
Continuous, face-to-face interaction
Strong tiesMultifacetedEnduring
11
Organized around specific, impersonal goals
Not as much interaction as in primary groups
School classes, political parties, sports teams
Lots of primary groups within the secondary group
Secondary Groups
12
Secondary Group Characteristics
Limited face-to-face interaction Modest or weak personal identity with the
group Weak ties of affection Limited/shallow relations Not very enduring Task oriented
13
Why Join a Group ?
To satisfy the need to belong To compare experiences To use group standards to evaluate
ourselves For companionship To lessen anxiety and provide comfort Group accomplishments
14
Attribution Theory
People usually attribute others’ behavior either to internal dispositions or external situations.– INTERNAL or DISPOSITIONAL—attitude, work
ethic, morals, motivation– EXTERNAL or SITUATIONAL—other people, the
environment, the task, support
Fundamental Attribution Error
In judging others, we overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situations.– Billy failed the AP English exam because
he is dumb.– NOT, Billy failed because the teacher was
absent for 3 months on maternity leave.
15
Actor-Observer Bias
We judge ourselves AND others. Actor part—When we are in the situation, we judge
ourselves on environmental/external factors.– I failed the test because the teacher sucked.
Observer part—When we are not in the situation, we judge others on dispositional/internal factors.– She failed the test because she didn’t study.
16
17
Self-Serving Bias
How we judge ourselves:– Bad things happen because of
external situations. I failed the AP Computer Science test
because the test is too hard.
– Good things happen because of our internal dispositions/personal factors.
I passed the AP Biology test because I am amazingly smart.
18
Self-Effacing Bias
In other cultures (for example, Asian cultures), people tend to do the opposite of the Self-Serving Bias.– Bad things are because of internal disposition.
I failed the AP Chemistry exam because I didn’t work hard enough.
– Good things are because of external situations. I passed the AP Chemistry exam because Mrs. Wagoner is a
beast.
Individualist vs. Collectivist Culture
Individualist: putting personal goals ahead of group goals & defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes, not group memberships
Collectivist: putting group goals ahead of personal goals & defining one’s identity in terms of the groups you belong to
20
Social Facilitation
Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Social Loafing
People tend to extend less effort when they are working in a group. They assume that the group will do the work.
Deindividuation
To be less self-conscious and less restrained when in a group; feels anonymous
Message boards/forums an example
Group Polarization
If a group is like-minded, discussions will strengthen its prevailing opinions.
If a group has opposing opinions, the opposing groups will polarize even more.
Risky Shift--making riskier choices when part of a group
Social Trap and Prisoner’s Dilemma
when students make decisions to help themselves at a cost of the class’s well-being (Social Trap) (overfishing, deforestation)
When two people don’t cooperate even if it is in their best interest to cooperate (Prisoner’s Dilemma)
25
A group of friends or associates of about the same age and social position
Form cliques, clubs, gangs
Peer Groups
26
A group that serves as a standard for evaluating one’s achievement, behavior, or values
Reference Groups
27
Group Dynamics
The impact of group size
The dyad, or two-person group
The triad Multiples (division of
labor)
28
The Triad
• In a triad, one person may make a big difference in the group
• when a couple has their first child, their lives change dramatically. Whenever they want to go somewhere, they either need to get together everything they need to take the baby along, or they need to hire a babysitter. Sleepless nights, day care, and preschool also present new challenges.
• Finally, the relationship between the parents may change as well.
29
Leadership
Groups need leaders for two reasons
1. To direct tasks
2. Maintain good spirits Groupthink
– what happens when group members are isolated from their social or moral environment: they end up making decisions that appear from the inside to make perfect sense but are in fact fundamentally flawed
– Kennedy—Bay of Pigs/Cuba
30
Groupthink
Emphasizes group decisions in large organizations
People working together will make better decisions than an individual
Sometimes individuals acting alone in large organizations or bureaucracies can make decisions that reflect their own personal bias. If that individual can convince other members in the group that such decisions are based on sound, fundamental ideas, then the organization starts to fall into groupthink.
31
When Does Groupthink Occur?
When group members are unable to evaluate other available options
Inability to comprehend negative consequences
32
Conditions for Groupthink
The group is isolated from the outside
There are time limits Not having an impartial
leader
33
34
Examples of Groupthink
JFK’S invasion of Cuba Nixon’s Watergate fiasco Waco, Texas standoff
35
A group with which a person identifies and feels that he or she belongs
A “greedy group”
In-groups
36
Characteristics of In-groups
1. Sacrifice 2. Investment 3. Renunciation 4. Communication 5. Mortification 6. Transcendence
37
A group with which a person does not identify and does not feel that he or she belongs to
Out-groups
38
Gangs/Gang Locations
L.A. is the gang capital of America
Chicago, Seattle, Kansas City
Importance of drugs
39
Why Join a Gang?
Power Identity A surrogate family Security
40
Attitudes
41
42
Definition of “Attitude”
A predisposition to respond in a particular way
3 main elements
1. A belief or opinion
2. A feeling about something
3. A tendency to act toward something in a particular way
43
Attitudes
Are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to people, objects and events. If we feel that someone is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act unfriendly.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Petty & Cacciopo– Central Route to Persuasion—using analytical
or systematic information regarding the issue to persuade others—more thoughtful, more durable
– Peripheral Route to Persuasion—incidental cues, endorsements cause snap judgments—less thoughtful, less durable—using colors, attractive salespeople
44
Factors in Persuasion
SOURCE Factors: Who is persuading MESSAGE Factors: What is the message CHANNEL Factors: How is the message
delivered RECEIVER Factors: Who is being
persuaded
Source factors—Who?
Credibility Expertise Trustworthiness Likability Attractiveness Similarity
46
Message factors—What?
Fear appeal vs. logic One-sided vs. two-sided argument Repetition
47
Channel factors—By what means?
In person On television Via audio Others?
48
Receiver factors—To whom?
Personality Expectations Preexisting attitudes Intelligence
49
50
Cognitive Dissonance—Leon Festinger
We become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide, so we experience this tension.
We try to bring them together.
– Rationalization– Changing actions– Denial
Zimbardo on Cog. Dissonance
51
Cognitive Sources for Persuasion
Factual information Cognitive dissonance
52
Emotional Sources for Persuasion
Strong feelings without knowing why– a commercial or political advertisement might try to
change people’s attitudes by employing a series of emotionally charged images accompanied by with some cognitive information like on-screen words or audio narration.
– pictures are processed in the right hemisphere of the brain, which also processes many of our emotions
Classical conditioning Subliminal techniques
53
Size of an Object
Close-ups = larger than life, sense of urgency, used to sell necessary products
Far away = luxury items, removes the sense of urgency and replaces it with a feeling of extravagance
54
Social Sources for Persuasion
CultureReference groups
as a standard for evaluation
55
Behavioral Sources for Persuasion
Behavior itself can cause attitudes to change
“Doing is believing.”
56
How Are Attitudes Measured?
Psychologists use many different techniques to measure attitudes
57
Public Opinion Polls
Selecting a representative sample is crucial
Important to avoid biases (Social desirability bias)
58
Attitude Scales
Likert Scale
1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Undecided
4. Disagree
5. Strongly disagree
59
Semantic Differential
asks people to rate others by using one of two adjectives that are polar opposites of one another
Good/bad Happy/sad Beautiful/ugly Wise/foolish Funny/humorless
60
Unobtrusive Methods
Milgram/lost letter Letters addressed to less
“acceptable” groups and organizations were not mailed as often as letters addressed to charities or groups considered beneficial to society.
61
How Are Attitudes Changed?
People are always trying to change your attitude
62
Conformity
Asch conformity study, 1950 People will usually conform to other people’s ideas
even when they disagree with those ideas
63
Asch’s Experiment
Which line segment, is closest in length to the sample line: a, b, or c?
Asch Experiment (2 min)
64
Obedience to Authority
Stanley Milgram—1962 The psychologist as experimenter designed to determine the conditions under which people
would obey or defy authority Would they obey the commands of an authority figure or
pay attention to the cries of a victim who seemed to be undergoing extreme suffering?
Explains the atrocities committed by the Nazis during World War II?
65
Who Were Milgram’s Subjects?
In all but one version of the experiment, the subjects were males
40%=skilled and unskilled 40%=white collar (sales and business) 20%=professionals
20 percent of subjects were in their 20s, 20 percent were in their 30s, and 20 percent were in their 40s
66
The Set-Up
67
68
Making Mistakes
After 75 volts are administered for a mistake, the learner moans
At 90 volts, the learner cries out in pain After 180 volts, the learner screams, saying
he cannot stand the pain, and then begins to bang on the wall
69
39 Psychiatrists Surveyed Believed That…
Most subjects would stop at 150 volts Only 4% would go as high as 300 volts One in 1000 would go to 450 volts
70
5 Versionsof the Experiment
First version: all men, 65% went all the way (450 volts)
Experimenter absent: 20.5% Women: 65% Experimenter chooses shock level: 2.5% High school students: 85%
By the way….
The shocks were not real!
Milgram Experiment 5 min
71
72
Why Do People Obey?
American society places a high value on obedience to people in positions of authority
(Derren Brown)
73
Prestige And Credibility
Volunteers were influenced by their role as a subject in an experiment
Done by a professor at Yale university
74
Not Everyone Is Equally Obedient
Sadistic or obedient? Personality variables Life experiences
75
Civil Disobedience
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott
76
Aggression
77
Violent Crimes
1.5 million violent crimes are committed in the U.S. each year, including 90,000 rapes and 20,000 murders
3 ½ times more likely to be murdered by a relative
78
Why Are We Aggressive?
Thanatos—Freud’s death instinct View of evolutionary
psychologists– our aggressive behavior is related to our
evolutionary heritage. It is a part of the Darwinian notion of “survival of the fittest.”
Hereditary aggression
The painting depicts a 10-year-old Vietnamese orphan girl who had been befriended by a U.S. Green Beret during the Vietnam War. He used to give her chocolate bars. She eventually shot and killed him.
79
The Brain and Aggression
Amygdala Hypothalamus Prefrontal cortex
– plays a role in processing violent urges
– Years ago, surgeons often performed pre-frontal lobotomies on violent patients
80
Hormones and Aggression
Testosterone, a primary male hormone
Alcohol and other drugs
81
Learning and Aggression
People learn aggression by watching and imitating others
People become more aggressive if rewarded
Frustration-Aggression Model
82
Pornography Connection
•According to some psychologists, there is a direct link between different types of pornography and sexual aggression—especially between violent pornography and rape. •Child pornography has a corresponding correlation with pedophilia and/or child molestation. •According to serial killer Ted Bundy pornography not only influenced his criminal behavior, but also influenced the behavior of every one of the inmates he came in contact with while he was sitting on death row in a Florida prison. •Bundy brutally killed more than 37 young women and was eventually executed.
83
Altruism/Unselfishness Concern for Another’s Welfare
84
The Cost–Reward Theory
People find the sight of another person being victimized as anxiety-provoking; helping relieves this anxiety
Diffusion of responsibility– Sometimes if there are others present
during a crisis, people assume that someone else will step in to aid in the situation.
Bystander Effect
Kitty Genovese
Darley & Latane, 1969
Diffusion of Responsibility
85
86
Empathy-Altruism Theory
People are more likely to act altruistically—even when the cost of helping is high—if they feel empathy toward the person in need
87
Evolutionary Theory
“Survival of the fittest”: A person will risk their life for someone else because if they survive, it increases the likelihood that their traits will endure through generations
88
Attitude and Prejudice
Prejudice is a preconceived notion toward a person or a group
Prejudice is strengthened by stereotyping
Discrimination is an action motivated by prejudice
Attraction
Proximity—geographic nearness is friendship’s most powerful predictor
Mere Exposure Effect
If you are neutral about something, you tend to learn to be attracted to or start liking it if you have continued exposure.
Example: Remember the Titans Your own face—pictures
Laws of Attraction
Similarity Attractiveness
– Average– Symmetry
Reciprocity
Robber’s Cave Experiment
Superordinate Goals (Muzafer Sherif) Two competitive groups, when given a
superordinate goal, will work together for the good of both groups.
Example: Remember the Titans Example: When Democrats and
Republicans worked together after 9/11
Stanford Prison Experiment
Phil Zimbardo The Power of the Situation Social Roles: widely shared expectations
about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave
Stanford Prison Experiment 14 min
Social Influence Strategies
Foot-in-the-Door Technique: small request first, then bigger request
Lowball Technique: commit to an attractive proposition before revealing hidden costs
Door-in-the-Face Technique: Ask for something huge, get turned down, and then ask for something more reasonable
Representativeness Heuristic
When someone makes a judgment or choice based on how well a choice represents what you are looking for
Choosing Mrs. Crain over Mrs. Thomas for a basketball team before you even see what their skills are
Availability Heuristic
When someone makes a decision based on what has been readily available (in memory/experiences) rather than on real information
Example about parents’ worries
