I~ U T T E R W O R T H E [ N E M A N N

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Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 31.5-325, 1995 Copyright (~) 1995 Elsevier Science Lid

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0261-5177/95 $10.00 + 0.00

Tourism development in Vietnam

The recent decision by the United States to lift the 20-year-old trade embargo is a great boost to Vietnam's economic development in general and to its tourism in particular. The emergence of mass tourism in the. 1960s bypassed Vietnam, and its neighbors Laos and Cambodia, because of war and political and economic constraints. Vietnam is therefore not ready for a large influx of tourists. Specifically, it lacks a suitable infrastructure, accommodation facilities, an appropriate tourism organi- zation and skilled staff. Vietnam's new economic policy of 'openness' (doi moi) will facilitate tourism development. This report examines Vietnam's tourism resources, market potential, and the need for govern- ment to assume the broad responsibility and policies that should optimize economic benefits whilst preserving the country's social, cultural and ecological features.

It has been convincingly argued that tourism has made a considerable eco- nomic contribution to Third World countries 'and that this contribution will continue in the future'.l The deci- sion by the United States, in January 1994, to lift the 20-year-old trade embargo, combined with Vietnam's efforts to develop an infrastructure for tourism, affords Vietnam significant opportunities for economic develop- ment that could benefit the Viet- namese people.

At present, Vietnam is very much moving from a non-existent to the 'embryonic' stage of tourism develop- ment. Therefore, it could benefit by learning from the tourism develop- ment experiences of other countries in the region which have developed tour- ism more or less successfully. For ex- ample, the expansion of tourism in Thailand with 5.1 million tourist a/Ti- vals in 1992 provides an illustration of a 'fast-track' tourism development model and its commensurate prob- lems, such as crowding, degradation of the environment, commercializa- tion of the culture and increased pros- titution.

Indonesia, with three million tourist arrivals in 1992, provides an example of a country which has opted for slow- growth tourism development. The In-

donesian government has turned tour- ism into an essential lever to enhance the national economy whilst making every effort to preserve cultural assets. It remains to be seen whether Indonesia will be able to sustain tour- ism development in its intended direc- tion as tourist arrivals have doubled since 1988.

Given the need for Vietnam to earn foreign exchange, it is tempting for the country to follow Thailand's 'fast- track' model. The rapid development of tourism in Vietnam in line with this scenario would be characterized by foreign direct investment, the ex- ploitation of sex tourism by an im- poverished people and the lack of tourism organization. In terms of potential touristic resources Vietnam is well endowed, and the market potential presents Vietnam with good opportunities for tourism growth. Transnational corporations are there- fore eager to invest in Vietnam's tour- ism sector. Prostitution, encouraged by the succession of military interven- tions, and foreign troops, has the potential to attract a significant num- ber of 'tourists', just as in Thailand and the Philippines. Lastly, there is no appropriate tourism organization and tourism management expertise in Vietnam. It will therefore be difficult

to control the phased expansion of Vietnam's tourist sector properly.

In this context, the question is whether the government will have the political will to take the lead to de- velop appropriate tourism, or opt for short-term laxity which is likely to encourage longer-term problems. 2 In case of the former, the government has to make a conscious decision to assume the broader responsibility for planned tourism development.

Background Vietnam is situated to the east of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Its long nar- row territory stretches 1700 km from north to south and in the centre a mere 50 km from east to west. Viet- nam has common borders with Cam- bodia in the west, Laos and China in the north. Typified by very hilly ter- rain, the country covers an area of some 327 500 km 2. Its varied land- scape ranges from forests and moun- tain areas (three-quarters of the land surface) to rivers, delta areas and beaches. The coastline, which extends for 3260 kin, has fine beaches and archipelagos , s t retching from the Tonkin Gulf to the Gulf of Thailand. Vietnam's landscape represents, in many respects, a basic resource for the development of tourism products.

In 1991 Vietnam had a population of 69 million which, at an annual growth rate of 2.5%, is anticipated to reach 90 million by the year 2000. The popu l a t i on compr i ses 87% Kinh (Vietnamese), the bulk of whom live in the Red River delta in the North and the Mekong delta in the South. With traditions, languages and cul- tures that differ greatly, the ethnic minorities are spread over the high plateau and mountainous regions.

Vietnam is located in the Southeast Asia monsoon zone, between the Tro-

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pic of Cancer and the Equator, which gives rise to a humid climate. North Vietnam's climate is influenced by the winds of Central Asia, which give rise to pronounced winter and summer seasons. In Central Vietnam, the cli- mate varies from north to south. The part of Central Vietnam closest to the north of the country is almost identical to that of the Red River delta, where- as that part of Central Vietnam closest to the south has climatically more in common with the Mekong delta area. South Vietnam's climate is character- ized by a relatively constant tempera- ture, a rainy season from May to October, and a relatively dry to dry season from November to February and February to April, respectively. It is important to assess realistically the climatological constraints (monsoons and typhoons) and opportunities in relation to tourism product develop- ment from region to region. The tour- ist season is from October to Decem- ber and May to June in the north; from May to August and January to April in the centre and May to De- cember in the south.

The climate and fertile soil make for abundant vegetation. Diminished by war, chemical defoliation, and popula- tion growth, the tropical forests are still immense and cover two-fifths of Vietnam. The forests of Vietnam con- tain over 700 identified plant species, including oak, pine and cedar and in the south trees of oil and resin- producing variety. Vietnam's wildlife includes more than 200 species of mammals, including elephants, tigers, panthers, antelopes, tapirs, 180 spe- cies of reptiles and more than 270 species of birds.

From a cultural perspective, Viet- nam has much to offer visitors. It has rich historical si tes, archi tectural m o n u m e n t s , F r e n c h c o l o n i a l architecture primarily in the cities and 'Indo-Chinese' cultural heritage, war heritage and spirit. Importantly, the Vietnamese people are hospitable. The historical heritage of this country is still largely unknown to the outside world. The interpretation of these re- sources as tourism products implies comprehensive research and strategic marketing of interesting architecture, ancient and modern art, music, dance,

handicrafts (lacquerware, embroid- ery, bamboo ware, reed baskets, pot- tery and woodwork) and religious cus- toms and festivities. 3

This combination of natural and cultural resources forms a strong basis to develop a unique tourist product and has the potential to make Viet- nam an attractive destination for visi- tors seeking beach holidays and those who are interested in touring the natu- ral and scenic locations, historic places and cultural attractions.

Market potential A major tourism feature of the 1980s and especially since 1985 has been the sharply increased share of long-haul travel. Newly emerging destinations were strongly promoted whilst at the same t ime many short-haul destina- tions lost much of their attraction (such as the Mediterranean region for European travellers). Higher dispos- able incomes and an increasing in- terest in 'new' destinations made this shift practicable. According to tourism forecasts by the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) long-haul travel is set to grow, on average, 5.8% in the period 1989-2005, substantially faster than short- or medium-haul travel. Interna- tional tourist arrivals in East Asia and the Pacific region grew faster than any other region by an average of 8.9% per annum between 1980 and 1990 whilst receipts increased by 15% dur- ing the same period.

Whilst the share of European tour- ist arrivals is considerable, for exam- ple traffic between Europe and East Asia and the Pacific amounted to eight million arrivals in 1992, the major growth factor, however, throughout Asia, is intra-regional travel which comprised 73% of all tourist arrivals in 1992. In 1992, the major tourist- generating countries in the region were: Japan (11.7 million), Taiwan (4.2 million), Australia (2.2 million), Hong Kong (2.2 million), India (2.1 million) and Korea (2.1 million).

The future prospects for further tourism development in Southeast Asia look very bright. Within this international context Vietnam is well positioned, at least geographically, to obtain its fair share of the expanding

tourism market. The recent improve- ments of accessibility, by air, can be seen as a first indication of the con- tinuous expansion of tourism. With the travel and trade embargo from the USA repealed, it is most probable that this destination will increasingly be of interest to Americans. In the short term there is the potential of returning military personnel. But curious Amer- icans, who dodged the draft or walked in peace marches, may visit Vietnam in larger numbers than the war veter- ans. Other major tourist-generating countries for Southeast Asia are the UK, Singapore, Germany, France, Holland, Italy, Canada, Switzerland and New Zealand. Initially, business and pleasure travellers are likely to visit Vietnam as a stop-over on a regional tour. But Vietnam offers sufficient product variety for the coun- try to be able to promote itself as a single des t inat ion, once sufficient tourist facilities and hotels have been developed,

Current events have placed Viet- nam at a crossroads. It can choose to develop tourism for the broad market, or promote appropriate tourism which aims to attract specific market seg- ments that are compatible with the types of tourism that are most likely to contribute to the country's long-term well-being. To achieve appropriate tourism development, Vietnam will have to formulate intended strategies that align its strengths and weaknesses with environmental threats and oppor- tunities. Though Vietnam is, at pre- sent, somewhat of a curiosity, the novelty should wear off before long. Ultimately, Vietnam has to compete with other Asian destinations for the limited leisure time and discretionary income that tourists are prepared to part with. These include Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar (Burma) which are all attempting to expand their own tourism sectors.

It is anticipated that Vietnam will welcome about 1.5 million interna- tional tourists by 2000. However, thanks to the strong growth of the intra-regional market, the profile of future tourists and, as a consequence, the set of demands is likely to change. For instance, from the present small market segments of business tourists

316 Tourism Management 1995 Volume 16 Number 4

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and t rendset ters , such as special- interest groups, a shift towards other market segments, such as beach tour- ism, and cultural sightseeing tourism is expected.

In 1991 a tourism development mas- ter plan for the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was published by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) in col- laboration with the United Nations development plan. According to the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) masterplan (VIE/89/003), Vietnam has four 'poles' or regions that offer substantial market potential for tour- ism development (see Figure 1). 4

• Tourist region 1: Hanoi -Ha Long- Dien Bien Phu. Hanoi, a historic capital city with a long history (since the l l t h century), is still recognizable in the urban morphol- ogy. It has an attractive location in the Red River basin. Ha Long Bay and Haiphong comprise a major port area in the north, and there are also several beach resorts such as Do Son, Catbe Island, Hong Gai. The Hano i -Ha Long-Dien B i e n Phu t o u r i s t r e g i o n is

characterized by a coastline with karst l imes tone ou tc rops , and many islands that are attractive for sea excursions. Last but not least, Dien Bien Phu a village in the north-west is a French military heritage site.

• Tourist region 2: The historical site of Hue-Da Nang, once the impe- rial capital, with a citadel, enjoys a situation along with Song Huong (Perfume River). Now in a state of renovation (with UNESCO sup- port), the name Da Nang conjures up images and memories of the American troops landing in 1965. The Hue -Da Nang tourist region is also known for its tropical beach area and cultural heritage, for ex- ample, the Buddhist monastery.

• Touris t region 3: Nha T rang - Dalat. Tourist resources in Nha Trang are strongly based on the attractive coastlines and beaches and hot springs, in combination with Dalat which has been redesig- nated as a health centre (since 1893).

• Tourist region 4: Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) and surroundings. Ho Chi

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Minh City, situated in the Mekong delta, offers possibilities for river cruises and in addition has poten- tial for urban tourism develop- ment. As a basis for excursions to the beaches and islands, regional tourism development is a realistic perspective.

The geographical clustering of tourism development is advocated, based on the presence of major tourism attrac- tions on the one hand and on present hotel capacity on the other. In 1990, Vietnam had a total stock of 18 900 rooms, of which 7500 presently meet international standards. The bulk of these hotel rooms are located in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi and this is where the majority of new hotel pro- jects will be constructed. 4

The master plan clearly distin- guishes between short-term (till 1995) and long-term objectives (1996-2000). In the first stage of the master plan the following steps are recommended:

• rearranging the tourism organiza- tional structure;

• defining and planning priority tour- ist regions;

• the building of 2500 new hotel rooms and the upgrading of 4800 r o o m s .

These recommendations are based on the forecast of about 500 000 foreign visitors per year by 1995, up from 250 000 in 1991. It is estimated that this growth will generate about 28 700 additional jobs in the tourism indus- try.

In the second stage of development the following steps are recommended:

• the strengthening of tourist market activities;

• the building of a further 8200 hotel rooms to raise the hotel capacity for a visitor flow of 1.5 million per year;

• the individual izat ion of tourist business;

• improving the transport facilities.

Product differentiation is a key issue. There is a great need for developing unique and eye-catching projects that cater to 'niche' markets as opposed to the mass market. Only by building tourism on its unique features can Vietnam hope to establish itself as a

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competi t ive destination. Presently, service in Vietnam is poor. It will take the raising of service standards and competencies to sustain Vietnam's competitiveness amongst other des- tinations in the region.

There are two examples that are especially worth sharing because they illustrate how sustainable tourism de- velopment strategies recommended by WTO/UNDP may be implemented in practice. In particular, the objective of the pilot project examples is to trans- late these plans into the development of specific tourist products.

The first example involves the de- velopment of a 'Vietnam by train' product. Vietnam by rail is inspired by the success of rail-based tourist pro- duct development on several conti- nents and countries, such as the Orient Express in Europe, and Anda- lucia Express in Spain, the Maharajah Express in India, and other such pro- posed projects in, for example, Au- stralia and Thailand. Within Vietnam there is a strong interest to explore the potential of the national railway net- work as a basis for tourism develop- ment . The Vie tnamese Rai lways (CFV) have the capability to organize tourist excursions and develop even more comprehensive tour packages on condition that the functioning of the systems is improved.

There are several important argu- ments that support the development of a 'Vietnam by train' product; these include:

• the existing North-South connec- tion, which was built by the French, offers the potential to make accessible the major areas of tourist interest in Vietnam and open a zone of 1600 km for tourism development, including a variety of scenic and cultural attractions. This product will spread tourism over the several regions in Vietnam and alleviate, to some extent, the strain on the four major tourism regions;

• the prospects of an international connection with the southern part of China, for example with the region of Guilin, which is of major tourist importance and with Cam- bodia, with Angkor Wat as a major attraction, allow for multi-country touring packages;

• an environmentally friendly travel mode which fits in perfectly with the latest trends towards alterna- tive tourism and nostalgic ways of travelling;

• the identification capacity of the project in terms of geographical zoning, and product development. The uniqueness of the product opens especially interesting marketing perspectives;

• the possibility of a wide involve- ment of (inter)national, regional and local interest groups. Public bodies (Vietnam tourism, Vietnam railways) as well as private entre- preneurs (national and internation- al) can be partners in this joint venture;

• the spin-off effect for the develo- ment of small business trade along the route (hotels, restaurants, bars, souvenir shops, indigenous art and handicrafts, food shops, taxi tour guides, etc.) All can benefit from this product development;

• the possibility to combine transport and accommodation (in hotels or guest houses along the route) into one product. This has an additional attraction for the marketing of the product;

• the opportunity for creating an ori- ginal 'tourist package' which can be offered to several target groups. Through differential pricing in par- ticular it will be possible to develop a portfolio of diversified products, including an up-market luxury package, a budget adventure tour package, an intensive programme and a more relaxed and compre- hensive programme.

The proposed 'Vietnam by train' pro- ject requires an extensive feasibility study. In particular, this concept needs to be further developed in terms of the core elements of the tourist product and identification of the main tourist attractions which can be linked by railway travel. In addition, the secondary elements of the tourist pro- duct have to be defined, especially the range of amenities that require de- velopment along the route. According to the WTO Masterplan and some initial orientation in the field this pilot project opens several interesting pers- pectives in terms of:

• creating an incentive for public- private partnership in tourism de- velopment;

• introducing relevant concepts in the planning process of tourism de- velopment;

• giving an example of how to pro- ceed in the marketing of a national tourist product;

• developing a flexible tourist pro- duct which can easily be adapted to changing demand of the interna- tional (and national) tourism mar- ket; and, last but not least

• a product which definitely holds many opportunities for the domes- tic tourism market, and guarantees a wide and fast economic spin-off in each of the regions along the route.

The second illustration involves a pilot project for the urban and regional tourism development of a specific re- gion: Northern Vietnam. Hanoi, being the capital city of the Republic and a main gateway for foreign visi- tors, is, in many ways, the 'identity card of Vietnam'. It can also be de- veloped as the staging area for excur- sions in an attractive region. For ex- ample, the surrounding region offers an attractive and diversified set of attractions such as:

• Ha Long bay, with its famous scen- ery, beaches and cruising possibili- ties;

• Dien Bien Phu, with its military heritage and attractive mountain scenery;

• the mountain area with colonial settlements, ethnic tribes and pos- sibilities for adventure travel in the beautiful scenery of Ninh Binh.

Both components, the local urban tourism potential and the regional potential, need to be studied in the context of tourism development in Northern Vietnam.

A start has already been made to develop urban tourism in Hanoi. The business community has played an im- portant role in this urban tourism de- velopment initiative. Hanoi offers a myriad of tourism potential and appeal: it is a relic of Vietnam's impe- rial and colonial past and has a cultu- ral heritage, architectural uniqueness, and as a capital city offers liveliness.

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Table 1 Tourism development plan for Hanoi

Recommendations

1. Preservation, development and education: • analyse where the interesting historical artefacts are located • integrate historical elements in the development of an urban tourist product in terms of

spatial clustering and functional associations • stimulate the awareness of the role of heritage in tourism development, through

education programmes 2. Planning and policy: • indicate key areas for tourism development in connection with the commercial areas • draft an urban tourism development plan in combination with urban conservation

policies • assess the planning and policy instruments to implement the urban tourist development

plan • identify ways to let tourism pay for the costs of urban conservation 3. Management of integration and implementation: • introduce concepts on integrated urban and regional tourism planning and marketing • create a wider platform for tourism development, involving urban planners and

architects, local and national authorities, public and private interest groups and investors

• provide national and local authorities with a tool for the professional management of tourism development

• link Hanoi with the region as a selling point for Vietnam

One source has corroborated Hanoi ' s appeal as follows: 5

The city of Hanoi has a history of more than one thousand years. The most distinc- tive features of the city, giving it a unique place among the cities of Vietnam, Asia and the World, are the buildings and streetscapes of the Old Sector and Ancient Quarter, together with the parks, lakes, Red River and other national features. Hanoi's built environment reflects the city's Chinese and Vietnamese feudal past, the period of French Colonial presence, and the recent years of independence. The most noteworthy features include the cen- tral Hoan Kiem Lake, the One-column Temple, the Van Mieu pagodas, the Ancient Quarter of the 36 Commercial Streets, north of Hoan Kiem and founded in 1010, and the public buildings, opera houses, villas and treelined boulevards, dating from the French period, 1850-1940, in the area south and east of Hoan Kiem.

However , a combinat ion of physical deter iorat ion and rapid economic de- ve lopment pressure and international business now places Hanoi ' s architectural heritage under threat (4 p 6).

In view of urban tourism develop- ment , the protection of the historical heritage is of vital importance. The issue of a conservation policy in rela- tion to tourism was also ment ioned explicitly in the W T O Master plan. The preparat ion of a tourism develop- ment plan for Hanoi implies following a set of guidelines which is summa- rized in Table 1 and incorporates the

notion of sustainable tourism develop- ment in an urban setting.

G o v e r n m e n t policy

Vietnam has recently entered a new stage of development towards a free economy but its economy faces a diffi- cult period. In view of the generally run-down situation in most parts of the country, every vehicle for econo- mic revitalization, including tourism, should be used. So far, the Viet- namese government is placing particu- lar emphasis on those sectors which are likely to generate foreign currency in the short term such as the oil and gas industry, agriculture, the trans- portation sector (including airports, harbours, railways and roads) and tourism.

The new perestroika-like policy of doi moi, implying new arrangements for inves tments , opens interes t ing perspectives for the development of tourism in Vietnam. Doi moi was in- troduced during the Sixth Party Con- gress in 1986 and has opened the door for the private sector to capitalize on myriad opportunities.

The use of tourism planning as a management tool for purposes of inte- g r a t e d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t is rather new and totally foreign to Viet- namese traditions. ~ Therefore , in de- ve loping tour ism in Vie tnam, the

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transnational private sector will have to pay special at tention to the implica- tions of the current move of the coun- try from a planned economy to a f r ee -marke t economy. Within this con tex t V ie tnam has issued qui te liberal regulations on foreign invest- ments, in all sectors and also in the hotel sector, primarily because of the major lack of domestic captial.

Sustainabil i ty

There is often a tendency, especially in developing countries, to view tour- ism development as the natural out- c o m e of h o t e l i n v e s t m e n t . Th is approach holds, in essence, that more hotel beds generate tourist flows and equal better tourism results. But this u n i d i m e n s i o n a l sectoral a p p r o a c h ignores the functioning tourist system and fails to acknowledge the import- ance of developing simultaneously a sound tour i sm inf ras t ruc ture , and therefore risks the 'ills' inherent in rapid, ad hoc tourism development , including possible environmental , so- cial and cultural degradation. 7 The u n i d i m e n s i o n a l sectoral a p p r o a c h stands in stark cont ras t with the s trategic approach, which aims to promote sustainable tourism develop- ment through the creation of value for all constituents: the host society, tour- ists and the (trans)national tourism industry.

The Wor ld Commiss ion on En- vironment and Deve lopment defined sustainable development as develop- ment that meets the needs of the present wi thout compromis ing the ability to meet similar needs in the future, s At present, there may be no consensus on what exactly constitutes 'sustainable' or ' responsible ' tourism. But as Cooper and Ozdil pointed out, ' the way ahead is . . . to view re- sponsible tourism as a "way of think- ing" to ensure tourism is responsible to host environments and societies' . 9 Within this context, the principles of sustainable tourism are to a large ex- tent expressed in P A T A ' s Charter (Table 2). In particular, sustainable tourism development requires that:

• Tourism development is part of an integrated plan for economic and social progress.

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Table 2 tourism

PATA '91 conference resolutions: PATA code for environmentally responsible

In essence, the code calls for PATA's Association and Chapter members to adopt an environmental ethic which will enhance:

• long-term profitability • product sustainability • intergenerational equity

The specific responsibilities PATA members are asked to accept are:

• Adapt the necessary practices to conserve the environment, including the use of renewable resources in a sustainable manner and the conservation of non-renewable resources

• Contribute to the conservation of any habitat of flora or fauna, and of any site whether natural or cultural, which may be affected by tourism

• Encourage the relevant authorities to identify areas worthy of conservation and to determine the level of development, if any, which would ensure those areas are conserved

• Ensure that community attitudes, cultural values and concerns, including local customs and beliefs, are taken into account in the planning of all tourism-related projects

• Ensure that assessment procedures recognize the cumulative as well as the individual effects of all developments on the environment

• Comply with all international conventions in relation to the environment • Comply with all national, state and local laws in relation to the environment • Encourage those involved in tourism to comply with local and regional and national

planning policies and to participate in the planning process • Provide the opportunity for the wider community to take part in discussions and

consultations on tourism planning issues insofar as they affect the tourism industry and community

• Acknowledge responsibility for the environmental impacts of all tourism-related projects and activities and undertake all necessary responsible, remedial and corrective actions

• Encourage regular environmental audits of practices throughout the tourism industry and encourage necessa~'y changes to those practices; foster environmentally responsi- ble practices including waste management, recycling and energy use

• Foster in both management and staff of all tourism-related projects and activities an awareness of environmental and conservation principles

• Support the inclusion of professional conservation principles in tourism education, training and planning

• Encourage an understanding by all those involved in tourism of each community's customs, cultural values, beliefs and traditions and how they relate to the environment

• Enhance the appreciation and understanding by tourists of the environment through the provision of accurate information and appropriate interpretation

• Establish detailed environmental policies and/or guidelines for the various sectors in the tourism industry

Source: Asia Travel Trade Ecotourism: Going Green (June 1992) 28.

• Strategies for tourism development benefit the host country and the host population.

• Environmental ly responsible poli- cies fully respect the natural and cultural ident i ty of tourism re- sources.

• Local/national enterprises and in- itiatives are strongly involved and supported.

• Internat ional investments should fit into the overall tourism develop- ment plan in terms of place and type of tourism product: put dif- ferently, the ' r ight ' type of de- ve lopment in the 'right ' place.

Sustainable tourism development de- pends on both Vietnam's characteris-

tics, including the country 's physical features, economic and social struc- tures, and its level of economic and tourism development and the type and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t o u r i s t s attracted. 1° For example, the oppor- tunity spectrum which western tourists expect to find in a holiday destination tends to be broad. Their demand for comple te tourist packages of high quality should be anticipated, in order to be successful in the competi t ive tourist market . However , tourism de- ve lopment in a Third World setting which caters to the mass recreational tourist market can place the indige- nous culture and even the economic benefits at risk (s p 378).

This observation implies the need

for a government policy which strives to achieve an appropriate match be- tween the supply of tourist products and market demand. Prior to the de- ve lopment of tourism, the carrying capacity of development sites needs to be assessed. The very attraction of particular places, without planning for resource and visitor management and community involvement , carries an in- herent risk of spoiling them if, for example, without any further thought the mass market is attracted, or an inappropriate mix of tourism facilities is developed. The capacity to develop tourism facilities in a particular place, or along a specific route, therefore demands careful planning and market- ing. Fur thermore , the possible impact of tourism needs to be assessed in the destination areas and also along the transit routes. The balance between supply and demand, between econo- mic benefits and social costs, needs to be moni tored continuously and there- fore an appropriate mechanism must be deve loped for moni tor ing pur- poses.

A major trap in tourism develop- ment is raising tourists' expectat ions to a level where it becomes difficult to live up to their expectations. Ano the r danger lurks in the urge to profit from tourism on a short-term basis, to the extent that the long-term impact of tourism or the social costs become irrelevant. To attain long-term objec- tives and compensate for the absence of an exper ienced tourism sector, Jenkins has argued the requirement for government involvement in tour- i sm d e v e l o p m e n t in d e v e l o p i n g count r ies . "

It appears that the Vietnamese gov- e rnment is commit ted to develop tour- ism along sustainable guidelines, be- cause it has taken the following steps recently:

• It has introduced a new law, the Statute on Tourism Business man- agement , regulat ing the tourism bus iness u n d e r con t ro l of the Ministry of Commerce and Tour- ism.

• It has organized the 'VISIT Viet- nam Year ' in 1990, to create more awareness of the role of tourism amongst the Vietnamese people.

• It has become a member of P A T A

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(Pacific and Asian Tourist Associa- tion).

• It has become a m e m b e r of ASEAN, in order to develop coop- eration with South Asian countries in the field of tourism.

• It has formulated a Tourism Master Plan, with the help of WTO and UNDP, which constructs a useful framework for the future policy of tourism development in Vietnam.

Summary The opening up of Vietnam presents the country with both opportunities and challenges. The future prospects for further tourism development in Southeast Asia look very bright. With- in this international context Vietnam is well positioned, at least geographi- cally, to obtain its fair share of the expanding tourism market. However, an approach of just generating and regenerating a 'stream' of tourists, as has been the case in other Asian coun- tries, is likely to result in short-term laxity and encourage long-term prob- lems. The main challenge is therefore to develop tourism in a sustainable manner, which is a strategy problem. A host of issues, and the present (lack of) expertise seems to make sustain- able tourism development almost a 'mission impossible'.

Because of its limited resources, Vietnam should focus initially on promoting itself as a 'stop-over' des- tination for visitors who are on a re- gional tour. The tourism development master plan for Vietnam proposed that projects which are based on the strongest and unique assets for tour- ism development and projects for which the necessary (foreign) invest- ment can be found in the short term will be designated as priorities.

Four regions were identified be- cause they are most likely to act as potential catalysts for future develop- ment projects. Once these four re- gions have been more fully developed, Vietnam might consider marketing it- self as a single destination.

The emerging policy indicates that the government is shouldering the re- sponsibility for managing sustainable tourism, which will benefit Vietnam most and become a source of pride

and wealth for the coming generations of Vietnamese people.

The achievement of sustainable tourism development will be most dif- ficult in light of the urgent need for Vietnam to earn foreign exchange and because of limited resources and knowledge. The issue of sustainability therefore hinges on the political will of the Vietnamese government and the ability of the tourism sector to learn from other countries in the region which have developed sustainable types of tourism.

Myriam Jansen- Verbeke Center for Tourism Management

Erasmus University Postbus 1738

3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands Frank Go

Department of Hotel and Tourism Management

Hong Kong Polytechnic Hung Horn

Kowloon, Hong Kong

References qenkins, C L 'Tourism in Third World

Reports

development - fact or fiction.'?" Inaugural lecture, University of Strathclyde, 30 April 1992. 2Singh, T V, Theuns, H L and Go, F M (eds) Towards Appropriate Tourism: The Case of Developing Countries Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt am Main (1989) 3Tourism Development Master Plan, Socialist Republic of Vietnam World Tour- ism Organization and UNDP, Madrid (1991) 4McKinnon, A 'Vietnam: constructive in- vasion' Asia Travel Trade 1993 24 (8) 16--17 ~Anon. Memorandum Friends of Hanoi Architectural Heritage International Found- ation Indochina Financial Services, Syd- ney, 1993 (15 February) 6 ~Getz, D 'Models in tourism planning' Tourism Management 1986 7 (1) 21-32 7jansen-Verbeke, M 'Tourism: Quo Vadis?' inaugural lecture, Erasmus Uni- versity, Rotterdam, 17 February 1994 SWorld Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Our Common Future Oxford University Press, Oxford/ New York (1987) '~Cooper, C P and Ozdil, I 'From mass to "responsible" tourism: the Turkish experi- ence' Tourism Management 13 (4) 1992 377-386 H~Mathieson, A and Wall, G Tourism, Eco- nomic, Physical and Social Impacts Long- man, New York (1982) ~Jenkins, C L "Government involvement in tourism in developing countries' Annals of Tourism Research 1982 9 499-521

Lifting the bamboo curtain

Myra Shackley, Professor o f Culture Resource Management at Notting- ham Trent University, reports on 'Reducing the Barriers to International Tourism', Beijing, 9-12 November 1994, a meeting organized jointly by Purdue University, Beijing Institute o f Tourism and Hong Kong Polytechnic.

This meeting, located in Beijing, ex- amined the effect of barriers to travel with particular emphasis on existing and projected tourism within the A s i a - P a c i f i c a rea . As Wi l l i am Theobald, co-organizer, pointed out, travel has always carried some risks; the word itself derives from the Latin travail, meaning dangerous or diffi- cult. Existing barriers to travel include cultural differences, safety, poor sanitation/hygiene in destination areas and poor access to transportation, in- formation or inferior service quality. Despite these tourism continues to grow and, as Steven Halsey of the

World Travel and Tourism Council (Asia) pointed out, by 2005 the Asia- Pacific area will account for 24% of the world's output, accounting for US$1.9 trillion and employing 234 mil- lion people.

The Chinese National Tourism Administration is having to develop strategic plans to cope with the ever- increasing tide of visitors resulting from the lifting of travel restrictions. During 1993 more than 7.01 million visitors came to China, creating for- eign exchange earnings of up to US$4.68 million. This was accompa- nied by an equally dramatic growth in

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