1 Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer
Questions Module 2
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2 How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? The Scientific
Method Goals and Tools of Psychology Description Correlation
Experimentation
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Why Do Psychology? 3 How can we differentiate between uniformed
opinions and examined conclusions? The science of psychology helps
make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding
of how people feel, think, and act as they do!
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What About Intuition & Common Sense? Personal interviewers
may rely too much on their gut feelings when meeting with job
applicants. 4 Taxi/ Getty Images Many people believe that intuition
and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human
nature. Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are
not free of error.
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Hindsight Bias and Overconfidence 5 Hindsight Bias is the
I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an
event, many people believe they could have predicted that very
outcome. Anything seems commonplace once explained. Overconfidence:
Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know. Both
hindsight bias and overconfidence lead us to overestimate our
intuition.
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The Scientific Attitude 6 The scientific attitude is composed
of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and
questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when
wrong). Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions
blindly. It examines assumptions, evaluates evidence and assesses
conclusions.
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7 The Scientific Approach Most people have greater difficulty
thinking of psychology and other behavioral sciences as science. In
part this is because many people misunderstand what science is.
Research involving molecules and chromosomes seems more scientific
than research involving emotions, memories, or social interactions,
for example. Whether an area of study is scientific has little to
do with the topics it studies. Rather science is defined in terms
of the approaches used to study the topic.
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8 Can we study EVERYTHING scientifically? Is there life after
death? Are there angels?
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9 Solvable Problems Science only deals with solvable problems.
Researchers can investigate only those questions that are
answerable, given current knowledge and research techniques. In
sum, to be considered scientific: 1.the questions addressed must be
potentially solvable 2.observations must be systematic and
empirical 3.research must be conducted in a manner that is publicly
verifiable Pseudoscience involves evidence that masquerades as
science but that fails to meet one or more of the three criteria
used to define science.
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10 How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions?
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to
construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify
observations.
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Theory 11 A theory is an explanation that integrates principles
and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example: Social
Learning Theory People learn through observing others'
behavior.
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Hypothesis 12 A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often
prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the
theory. For example: One hypothesis from the Social Learning
Theory: People who watch violent films display more aggressive
behavior.
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Research 13 Research would require us to administer surveys or
experiments. For example: Conduct a research study to examine if
there is a relationship between frequency of watching violent films
and aggressive behaviors.
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14 The Scientific Method Operational Definition a statement of
procedures (operations) used to define research variables How you
are going to measure aggression is your operational definition for
aggression. Operational definition for violent films.
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15 Example violent movies and aggression Hypothesis? There is a
relationship between frequency of watching violent films and
aggressive behaviors Operational definition of variables? Exposure
to violent movies: number of times a person watches violent movies
in a week in the last 3 months Aggression: Frequency of behavior
that aims to harm other people.
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16 Research Process (1) Theory: Social learning theory People
learn through observing others' behavior. (2) Hypothesis: People
who watch violent films display more aggressive behavior. (3)
Research and observations: Is there a relation between frequency of
watching violent films and aggressive behaviors
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17 The Scientific Method Replication repeating the essence of a
research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other
participants and circumstances usually with different participants
in different situations Example
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18 Goals of Psychology 1.To describe behavior and mental
processes 2.To predict behavior and mental processes 3.To explain
and understand behavior and mental processes 4.To influence/control
behavior and mental processes
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19 Descriptive Methods 1.To describe human and animal behavior
and mental processes Case study Surveys Observations (naturalistic
or lab) Goals and Tools of Psychology
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Descriptive Methods 20 Case Study A technique in which one
person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral
principles. Example: Is language uniquely human? Susan Kuklin/
Photo Researchers
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Descriptive Methods 21 Case Study Researchers make case studies
to examine rare cases: Example: school shooting Case studies can
suggest hypotheses for further studies. Problems: Cannot make
generalizations. Conclusions can be misleading.
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Survey A technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people (usually done by
questioning a representative, random sample of people) Examples:
Media surveys Ko University student satisfaction survey 22
http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org Descriptive Methods
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Survey Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should
cigarette ads be allowed on television? Q: Should cigarette ads be
forbidden on television? (allowed vs. forbid) 23 Wording
Effects
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Survey If each member of a population has an equal chance of
inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased).
If the survey sample is not random, the results may not be
representative. Examples: Media surveys Ko University student
satisfaction survey 24 Random Sampling
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25 Random Sampling Population all the cases in a group, from
which samples may be drawn for a study Random Sample a sample that
(fairly) represents a population because each member has an equal
chance of inclusion Randomly pick from the student list
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Naturalistic Observation 26 Descriptive Methods
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Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations (or in more controlled environments)
without trying to manipulate and control the situation Examples:
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild
Observing preschool childrens social behaviors Recording
self-seating patterns in a multi-racial school lunch room. 27
Descriptive Methods
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28 1.To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes
Case study Surveys Observations (naturalistic/lab) Summary
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29 Goals of Psychology 2. To predict behaviors, thoughts,
feelings, change and so on Mainly by way of assessing the
relationship between two or more variables -Correlational
studies
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30 Definition of Variable Variable Any characteristic or
attribute that varies in amount and kind Examples: Age Weight
Height Self-esteem Reaction time in a learning experiment Stress
level Achievement motivation
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Correlation 31 Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure
of the relationship between two variables. When one trait or
behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Correlation
coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or
negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r =
0.37 + Prediction
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32 Prediction Positive correlation: one variable incerases, the
other one also increases, or vice versa. Example: r = +.22 (age and
intelligence) Negative correlation: one variable decreases, the
other one increases. Example: r = -.85 (self-esteem and depression)
Correlation
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33 Correlation
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34 Q: Which of the following correlation coefficients reflects
the strongest correlation? A) +.10 B) -.64 C) +.35 D) -.10
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35 Correlations do not permit inferring causality
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36 Violence viewing Actualized violence Violence viewing OR
Inferring Causality If we know that two variables are highly
correlated, can we determine the causal relationship between them?
Correlation does not mean causation!
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37 Instability at home Violence viewing Actualized violence A
third variable could cause A and B:
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38 or Another Example
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39 In order to determine causality we must turn to experimental
methods. CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
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40 Goals of Psychology 3. To explain and understand behavior
and mental processes Experimentation Like other sciences,
experimentation is the backbone of psychological research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
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41 Experimentation Experiment an investigator manipulates one
or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on
some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
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42 Experimentation Independent Variable (IV) the experimental
factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being
studied Dependent Variable (DV) the experimental factor that may
change in response to manipulations of the independent
variable
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43 Experimentation Wacth violent films Aggressive behavior
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44 Experimentation Experimental Condition the condition of an
experiment that exposes participants to the treatment (to one
version of the independent variable) Control Condition the
condition of an experiment that does not expose participants to the
treatment serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment
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45 Example: The Bobo Doll Experiment Participants: 72 3- and
6-year- old children. The total of 72 children were split in to 2
groups. One group was put into an aggressive model scenario: the
adult attacked the Bobo doll by hitting it. Another group was used
as a control group and not exposed to any adult model at all.
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46 Example: The Bobo Doll Experiment Measure: The final stage
of the experiment took place in a room in which the child was left
alone for 20 min. with a series of aggressive and non-aggressive
toys to play with. Results: Children exposed to the aggressive
model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than
those who were not exposed to the aggressive model.
48 Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1)
manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate
cause and effect relationships. by random assignment of
participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
Exploring Cause & Effect
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49 Figure 7.1 Watch nothing Watch violent movie Measure
aggressive behaviors Experimental Condition Control Condition Other
variables here can be: socioeconomic background (income)
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50 Experimentation Random Assignment assigning participants to
experimental and control conditions by chance minimizes
pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different
groups
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51 Experimentation Single-Blind Procedure the research
participants are uninformed (blind) about what treatment, if any,
they are receiving. Do antidepressant drugs really work? Placebos
can have significant antidepressant effects To show superior
efficacy to placebo
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52 Experimentation Placebo an inert substance or condition that
may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, to see if
it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active
agent.
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53 Experimentation Double-Blind Procedure both the research
participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about
whether the research participants have received the treatment or a
placebo commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
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54 Another Example Study: One of the factors for prejudice is
lack of knowledge about members of the other group Hypothesis:
Watching a documentary film about the history of the outgroup will
result in change in prejudice (reduce prejudice) IV DV Manipulation
(Experimental stimulus)
