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RESEARCH DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION

Professor Dr Rashidah Abdul RahmanDeputy Director, Accounting Research InstituteUniversiti Teknologi MARA40450 Shah AlamEmail: shidah@salam.uitm.edu.my

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RESEARCH PROCESS PH

PHASE II: DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN Task Step 4: Determine and evaluate the research design and data source Task Step 5: Determine the sample plan and sample size Task Step 6: Determine the measurement issues and scales

PHASE III: EXECUTION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN Task Step 7: Collect and process data Task Step 8: Analyze data Task Step 9: Transform data structures and information

PHASE IV: COMMUNICATION OF THE RESULTS Task Step 10: Prepare and present final report

PHASE I: DETERMINATION OF THE INFORMATION RESEARCH PROBLEM Task Step 1: Define Research Problems/ Develop Problem Statement/Research Questions Task Step 2: Establish research objectives and determine the value of the information/Significant of the Study Task Step 3: Develop Research Framework/Hypotheses

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Research Design

Research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting a research project.

It is a plan to be followed to answer research objectives, research hypotheses, and/or research questions.

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Determine and Evaluate Research Design

ExploratoryResearch

DescriptiveResearch

CausalResearch

• Test hypotheses about cause- and-effect relationships.

• Gathers preliminary information that will help further define the

problem and suggest hypotheses.

• Describes things as market potential for a product or the

demographics and consumers’ attitudes.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Methods Factors/Characteristics Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods Research Goals/Objectives Discovery and identification Validation of facts,

Of new ideas, thoughts, estimates, relationships, predictions

Type of research Normally exploratory Descriptive and causal

Designs designs

Type of questions Open ended, semistructured, Mostly structured Unstructured, deep probing Type of execution Relatively short time frames Significantly longer

time frames Representativeness Small samples, limited to Large samples,

Sampled respondents representative of target population

Type of analyses Debriefing, subjective, Statistical, descriptive,

content, causal predictions interpretive and relationships

Researcher skills Interpersonal Scientific, statistical Communications, procedure and Observation, interpretive translation skills skills Generalizability of results Very limited, only Good inferences

preliminary insights and about facts, estimates understanding relationships

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What is Qualitative Research?… is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there. This understanding is an end in itself, so that it is not attempting to predict what may happen in the future necessarily, but to understand the nature of the setting – what it means for participants to be in that setting, what their lives are like, what’s going on for them, what their meanings are, what the world looks like in that particular setting – and in the analysis to be able to communicate that faithfully to others who are interested in that setting … the analysis strives for depth of understanding

Patton (1985)

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Qualitative Study – Exploratory Design

Objective is to explore or search through a problem or situation to provide insights and understanding.

Purposes:– Formulate a problem or define a problem more

precisely– Identify alternative courses of action– Develop hypotheses– Isolate key variables and relationships– Establish priorities for research

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Common Qualitative Methodologies

Ethnography -the researcher (anthropologists) looks at the entire group – more specifically a group that shares a common culture – in depth

Phenomenological Study - Attempts to understand people’s perceptions, perspectives and understandings of a particular situation

Grounded Theory - To begin with the data and use them to develop a theory – normally substantive theory

Case Study Content Analysis Basic or Generic Qualitative Study

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Quantitative Research- Descriptive Design

Objective is to describe or establish a relationship of something– Purpose:

• To describe characteristics• To estimate percentage• To determine perceptions• To determine the degree to which variables are

associated.• To make specific predictions

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Quantitative Research – Causal Design

– Objective is to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect relationships by means of experimentation

– Purposes:• Identify variables that are deemed the cause

and variables that constitute the effect of a phenomenon.

• Predict the nature of the relationship between causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

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So which methods to choose…..

Depends on the purpose of the study Depends on the information sought Depends on resources available Depends on the time available to conduct

the study

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IF YOU HAVE A POWERFUL IMAGINATIVE MIND AND YOU LOVE

TO CONSTRUCT SOMETHING UNIQUE OUT A MAZE OF

THOUSAND THINGS

ETHNOGRAPHICAL STUDY

CASE STUDY

HISTORICAL STUDY

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

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IF YOU ARE GOOD WITH NUMBERS AND YOU LIKE

TO SEE EVENTS AND THINGS IN TERMS OF

NUMBERS

CONSIDER DOING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH THATUSES FANTASTIC STATISTICAL ANALYSES

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NEXT QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED

HOW SHOULD THE VARIABLES BE MEASURED?

WHAT TYPE OF DATA?PRIMARY? SECONDARY?

HOW SHOULD THE DATABE GATHERED? OBSERVATION?INTERVIEW? DOCUMENTATION?

HOW SHOULD THE QUESTIONS BEFORMULATED?

WHO SHOULD BE THESAMPLE? SELECTIONPROCESS? HOW MANY?

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SAMPLING ISSUES

WHAT SAMPLE SIZE? TYPES OF SAMPLE SELECTIONS:

– SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING– STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING– CLUSTER SAMPLING– CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

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Sampling Alternatives

Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques NonProbability Sampling

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

 

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling

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Probability Sampling– When elements in the population have a

known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample

– The sample can be confidently generalised to the population

Non-Probability Sampling– When time or factors rather generalisability

become critical– The sample cannot be confidently generalised

to the population

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Simple Random Sampling– Every element in the population has a known and

equal chance of being selected as a subject

Systematic Sampling– Involves drawing every nth element in the population

starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n

Stratified Random Sampling– Population is first divided into meaningful segments;

thereafter subjects are drawn

Cluster Sampling– Groups that have heterogeneous members are first

identified; then some are chosen at random

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Factors to consider when selecting sample size

The variability in the population.– This refers to the proportionate distribution of the characteristics

that are being studied. The required level of confidence.

– If a higher level of confidence is required in the result of the research, then the larger the sample size is necessary.

The required limits of accuracy.– Generally, the larger the sample size, the more accurate the

results are likely to be as a predictor of population values. Allowance for non-response

– It is to be expected that non-response will occur in any the survey. Therefore, it is best to make allowance for the non-response by increasing the sample size by the estimated amount of non-response.

Practical factors– It is important for a researcher to consider the resource constraints. Time

and money are important factors to consider when selecting the appropriate sample size.

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NEXT QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED

HOW SHOULD THE VARIABLES BE MEASURED?

WHAT TYPE OF DATA?PRIMARY? SECONDARY?

HOW SHOULD THE DATABE GATHERED? SURVEY? OBSERVATION?INTERVIEW? DOCUMENTATION?

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Data Collection Survey method

– Questionnaire Interviewing

– Interview Guide Focus Group

– Moderator’s Outline Observation

– Observation Checklist Triangulation Secondary data

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SUR

VEY

USES MEASURING INSTRUMENT CALLED QUESTIONNAIRE

YOU CAN BUY, BORROW OR DESIGNTHE QUESTIONNAIRE

QUESTIONNAIRE HAS CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

QUESTIONS ARE GROUPED ACCORDINGTO CONCEPTS/IDEAS RELATED TO IT

MEASUREMENTS USED ARE RELIABLE

ITEMS TO BE DISPERSED TO AVOID BIAS

CHECK IF THIS IS THE BEST WAY TOOBTAIN THE DATA NEEDED

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SUR

VEY

BE SURE OF THE SAMPLE OF THE STUDY & SAMPLING PROCEDURES

INCLUDE A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS

INCLUDE STAMPED, SELF-ADDRESSENVELOPE

QUESTIONS ARE GROUPED ACCORDINGTO CONCEPTS/IDEAS RELATED TO IT

PILOT-TEST YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE

ENSURE PROFESSIONAL LAYOUT

REVIEW YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE

DEVELOP MASTER LIST/DIRECTORY

SEND FOLLOW UP & THANK YOU LETTERS

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Data collectionmethods

Interview

Questionnaires

Observation

3General“getup”

2Principles

of measurement

1Principlesof wording

Content andPurpose ofquestion

Wording And

Language

Type andForm of

questionsSequencing

Classification dataor

Personal information Questionnaireadministration

Testinggoodness of

data

Categorization

Coding

Scalesand

scaling

Reliability andvalidity

Instructions for completion

Introduction to respondents

Length of questionnaire

Appearance and questionnaire

PRINCIPLES OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

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INTE

RVI

EWPREPARE AN INTERVIEW CHECKLIST

BE PREPARED WITH YOUR SKILL IN SHORTHAND WRITING OR YOU NEED TO WRITE FAST

ASK PERMISSION TO TAPE THE CONVERSATION

IDENTIFY PATTERNS WHEN INTERPRETING YOUR DATA

YOU NEED TO TRANSCRIBE THE INTERVIEW

BE PREPARED TO WRITE DRAFT AFTER DRAFTOR REWRITING

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In-Depth Interviewing

Types of Interview questions?

Highly Structured

Semistructured

Unstructured

Wording of questions predetermined

Order of question predetermined

Oral form of a survey

Mix of more-and less-structured questions

Open-ended questions

Flexible, exploratory

More like a conversation

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Example: studying the role of mentoring in the career development of a lecturer

Highly Structured

Semistructured

Unstructured

Begin by giving each respondent a definition of mentoringAsk the person to identify someone who is a mentor

Ask each lecturer to describe his or her understanding of mentoringAsk each lecturer to think of someone who is a mentor

Ask the respondent to share how he or she got to be a mentorAsk question about the influences or factors that have helped to shape the respondent’s career

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Types of QuestionsExample: Directors Training Program

Type of Question Example

Hypothetical Question: asks what the respondent might do or what it might be like in a particular question: usually begins with “what if” or “suppose”

Devil’s Advocate Question: challenges the respondent to consider an opposing view

Ideal Position Question: asks the respondent to describe an ideal situation

Interpretive Question: advances tentative interpretation of what the respondent has been saying and asks for a reaction

“Suppose it is your first day in this directors’ training program. What would it be like?”

“Some people would say that training program doesn’t do any good to the directors, especially those who have been on the board for a long time. What would you say to that?”

“What do you think the ideal training program would be like”

“Would you say that attending directors’ training programs would enhance your role and responsibilities as director?

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Questions to Avoid

Type of Question ExampleMultiple Questions

Leading Questions

Yes-or-No Question

How do you feel about the instructors and the classes?

What emotional problems have you had since losing your job?

Do you like the program?

Has returning to school been difficult?

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The Interview Guide – a list of questions you intend to ask

At the beginning of the interview, clarify the following:– The investigator’s motives and intentions and the inquiry’s

purpose– The protection of respondents through the use of pseudonyms (if

necessary)– Deciding who has the final say over the study’s content– Payment (if any)– Logistics with regard to time, place and number of interviews to

be scheduled– Seeking permission to record the interview

Interviewer and Respondent Interaction– The personality and skill of the interviewer

• Being respectful, nonjudgmental and non-threatening– The attitudes and orientation of the interviewer

• Look interested and sympathetic

Other things to consider during an interview

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Focus Group Interview

Interaction among a small group of people, between 6-12 with common identifiable characteristics

Handle by a moderator who uses a discussion guide to stimulate discussions among the group members

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SEC

ON

DA

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ATA ANNUAL REPORTS

GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS

MAGAZINES/ARTIFACTS

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TRIA

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ULA

TIO

N A

PPR

OA

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IS WHERE YOU COMBINE MORE THAN ONE RESEARCH APPROACH FOR YOUR STUDY

TRIANGULATION IS NOW VERY MUCH ENCOURAGED FOR YOUR PhD RESEARCH

YOU MAY NEED TO ANALYSE CONTENTS OF REPORTS, BOOKS, STATEMENTS

YOU MAY NEED TO COMBINE QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DATA

YOUR CHOSEN METHODOLOGY COULD BEA SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THEBODY OF KNOWLEDGE

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END OF PHASE II

PROCEED WITH PHASE III:EXECUTION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN

THANK YOU