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Broom, D.M. 2011. A history of animal welfare science. Acta Biotheoretica, 2
59, 121-137. DOI: 10.1007/s10441-011-9123-3 3
Ahistoryofanimalwelfarescience.4
5
DonaldM.Broom6
CentreforAnimalWelfareandAnthrozoology,DepartmentofVeterinary7
Medicine,UniversityofCambridge,MadingleyRoad,CambridgeCB30ES,United8
Kingdom9
10
ABSTRACT11
Humanattitudestoanimalshavechangedasnon-humanshavebecomemore12
widelyincorporatedinthecategoryofmoralagentswhodeservesomerespect.13
Parallelsbetweenthefunctioningofhumansandnon-humanshavebeenmade14
forthousandsofyearsbuttheideathattheanimalsthatwekeepcansufferhas15
spreadrecently.Animprovedunderstandingofmotivation,cognitionandthe16
complexityofsocialbehaviourinanimalshasledinthelastthirtyyearstothe17
rapiddevelopmentofanimalwelfarescience.Earlyattemptstodefinewelfare18
referredtoindividualsbeinginharmonywithnaturebutthefirstusable19
definitionincorporatedfeelingsandhealthaspartofattemptstocopewiththe20
environment.Othersconsideredthatwelfareisonlyaboutfeelingsbutitis21
arguedthatasfeelingsaremechanismsthathaveevolvedtheyareapartof22
welfareratherthanallofit.Mostreviewsofwelfarenowstartwithlistingthe23
needsoftheanimal,includingneedstoshowcertainbehaviours.Thisapproach24
hasusedsophisticatedstudiesofwhatisimportanttoanimalsandhasreplaced25
theearliergeneralguidelinesdescribedasfreedoms.Manymeasuresofwelfare26
arenowusedandindicatehowgoodorhowpoorthewelfareis.Naturalnessis27
notapartofthedefinitionofwelfarebutexplainswhysomeneedsexist.In28
recentyears,welfarehasbecomeestablishedasoneofvariouscriteriausedto29
decideonwhetherasystemissustainablebecausemembersofthepublicwill30
notacceptsystemsthatcausepoorwelfare.Thestudyofwelfarehasbecome31
partofthescientificbasisuponwhichimportantpoliticaldecisionsaremade.32
33
INTRODUCTION34
Animalwelfareisatermthatdescribesapotentiallymeasurablequalityofa35
livinganimalataparticulartimeandhenceisascientificconcept.Muchofthe36
discussionaboutanimalwelfareconcernswhathumansdoaboutit,orshoulddo37
aboutit.Suchaquestion,aboutwhatpeopleoughttodo,isanethicalissue.The38
scientificstudyofanimalwelfareshouldbeseparatedfromtheethicsbutno39
applicationofthesciencecanoccurwithoutunderstandingargumentsabout40
ethicalpositions.Thefirstsectionofthispaperwillthereforerefertomoralityin41
relationtoanimaluse.Thiswillbefollowedbydiscussionsofthehistoryofthe42
welfareconceptandofusablewelfareconceptsnowandhowtheyareinter-43
related.Somelinkstoothermoralissuesandsomefutureconcernswillthenbe44
considered.45
46
MORALORIGINSANDEARLYWELFAREHISTORY47
Animalshavealwayshadwelfarebutwhathumansknowofithasbecome48
modifiedovertime,especiallyrecently.Thehumanconceptsofwhatareandare49
notmoralactionshaveprobablychangedlittleovermanymillenniaexceptthat50
thecategoryofindividualswhoareconsideredtodeservetobetreatedina51
moralwayhasbroadenedgreatly(Broom2003).Helpingothersandnot52
harmingothersareeffectivestrategies,especiallyforanimalsthatliveinlong-53
lastingsocialgroups.Hencemoralsystemshaveevolvedinhumansandother54
suchanimals,asexplainedinmoredetailbydeWaal(1996),Ridley(1996),55
Broom(2003).Humanshavelongespousedtheviewthattheyhavedutiesto56
others.Asexplainedinthereferencesquoted,socialanimalssuchashumans57
haveevolvedcharacteristicsthatmakethemresponsivetoothersintheir58
societiesinawaythatpromotesdutifulpreferencesandactions.This59
deontologicalpositionhasarisenineveryhumansocietyandthemechanisms60
involvedhaveparallelsinotheranimalsocieties.Otherevolvedcharacteristics61
increaseabilitiestoassessconsequencesofactionsandtoevaluatecostsand62
benefits,i.e.someutilitariandecisions.63
Insomehumansocieties,forexamplethosewheretheBuddhistorJainreligions64
dominate,therangeoflivingindividualsconsideredtodeserverespecthaslong65
beenwide.However,inmostoftheworld,ideasaboutwhichindividualsshould66
bethesubjectofmoralactions(Singer1994)havechangedwith:(i)improved67
communicationintheworld,(ii)increasingknowledgeofthefunctioningof68
humansandotheranimals.Peoplewilloftenavoidactionsthatcouldharm69
others,evenifonlytheyknowabouttheaction(Gert1988,Broom2006).70
However,theyaremorelikelytorefrainfromcausingharmifthoseintheir71
socialgroupmaycometoknowaboutwhattheyhavedone.Ashumansocieties72
haveexpandedtheircontacts,thegroupthatisinmoralcontactwithan73
individualhaschangedfromthefamilytothetribe,andhassubsequently74
expandedtoincludemuchlargercommunities.The20thcenturycommunication75
explosionhasresultedininformationabouttheactionsofparticularpeople76
becomingknownacrosstheworld.Asaconsequence,ithasbecomeharderfor77
harmfulactionstobeconcealed(Broom2003).Thespreadofknowledgehas78
alsobeengreatlyfacilitated.79
Thelevelofsophisticationofthefunctioningofindividualshasoftenbeena80
factorindecisionsaboutwhetherornottheyareasubjectofmoralactions.The81
waysinwhichhumanandotheranimalbrainsworkwasamysterytoallpeople82
untilinformationbecameavailablefromrelativelyrecentdevelopmentsin83
neurobiology.Ourlanguagehasnotkeptpacewiththesechangessopeople84
makestatementsabouthavingfeelingsorknowingsomethingintheirheartorin85
theirgutwhenallareinthebrain.Thestudyofbehaviourandofhowthebrain86
controlsit,andofthegreatsimilaritiesinthephysiologyofallpeopleandawide87
rangeofotherspecies,hasbeenrevolutionaryinitsimpactonhumanattitudes88
(Dennett1984).Untilrecentlyitwasreallybelievedbymanypeople,especially89
males,thatwomenhadveryinferiorfunctioningascomparedwithmen,thatit90
wasnotrealistictocomparethecognitiveabilityofpeoplewithbrownorblack91
skintothatofwhitepeopleandthattherewasanenormousgapinabilityand92
functioningbetweenhumansandotherspecies.Awiderangeofstudiesnow93
showtheseviewstobewrong.Thegroupofindividualswhoarerespected,in94
thatharmwouldnotnormallybecausedtothem,hasbeenextendedtohumans95
ofallnationsandracesandtomanyotheranimalspecies.Tosomeextentthisis96
aconsequenceofinformationthatisavailablefromthemedia.Theperson97
watchingatelevisionprogrammeandseeingaparrot,orsquirrel,ordog,orpig,98
orsheep,orravensolvecomplexproblemsmaynotinfuturethinkofthatkindof99
animalasanobject,orasabeingofnoconsequence.Thatpersonmaywell100
becomemuchlesslikelytodirectlyharmtheanimal,ortocondoneharmby101
others.102
Beforetherewasaccuratescientificknowledge,inhumansocietiesforwhich103
therearedetailedrecordstherehavebeendescriptionsofanimalfunctioning104
includingtheirbehaviour,physiologyandpathology.Verymanyparallels105
betweenhumansandotheranimalswereapparenttopeopleandthesewere106
describedbyGreeks,Mayans,Chineseandothers(Sorabji1993).Ideasabout107
non-humananimalsincludedrecognitionofsimilaritiestohumansinrespectof108
whatwouldharmthem,thecomplexityoftheirbodyregulationsystems,the109
existenceoftheiremotionalresponsesandtherangeofabilitiesthatthey110
demonstratedtocontroltheirenvironment(EngelandEngel1990).Therehave111
beenotherswhoplacedemphasisondifferencesbetweenhumansandallother112
species,asexplainedbyHarwood1928.However,theDescartesviewofanimals113
asautomata,withalmostnosimilaritytohumans,hasprobablybeenusedby114
somepeopleduringmuchofhumanhistory.Itwasoftenusedbythoseforwhom115
itwasconvenientasawayofjustifyingsomeformofexploitation.Such116
argumentswerealsousedtojustifyslaveryandothersuppressionofminorities.117
Bentham(1789)statedthatthekeyquestionaboutanimalswasnotcanthey118
reasonbutdotheysuffer?Mostpeoplewhohavelivedwithorlookedcloselyat119
animalshaveassumedthattheycoulddobothtosomeextent.AsDuncan(2006)120
hassaid,uptothe19thcentury,thisviewwasverywidespreadbutlaterthere121
wassomereluctancetoholdtheviewbecauseofdifficultytomeasurethe122
suffering..Itwasbasedonobservationanddeduction,i.e.onascientific123
approach.124
WELFARE:1960sto1980s125
Inthe19thcenturyandthe20thcenturyuptothe1960s,knowledgeabout126
biologicalfunctioningincreasedgreatly.Bytheendofthistime,scientific127
disciplinessuchasethologyandneurosciencestartedtobecomeacceptedwithin128
thescientificcommunity.However,thisdidnotmeanthattheinformationwas129
widelyknown.Unfortunately,inmanycountries,thedivisionbetweenscientists130
andnon-scientistsandthefearofscienceamongthosenarrowlyeducatedin131
non-scientificdisciplinesresultedinignoranceofthesebiologicaldevelopments132
amongstthosewhocametohaveinfluentialpositionsinsomepartsof133
governmentandindustry.134
In1964RuthHarrison’sbook“AnimalMachines”waspublishedandpointedout135
thatthoseinvolvedintheanimalproductionindustrywereoftentreating136
animalslikeinanimatemachinesratherthanlivingindividuals.Asaconsequence137
ofthisbook,in1965theBritishgovernmentsetuptheBrambellCommittee,a138
committeechairedbyProfessorF.RogersBrambell,toreportonthematter.One139
ofitsmemberswasW.H.Thorpe,anethologistinCambridgeUniversity.Thorpe140
emphasisedthatanunderstandingofthebiologyoftheanimalsisimportantand141
explainedthatanimalshaveneedswithabiologicalbasis,includingsomeneeds142
toshowparticularbehaviours,andthatanimalswouldhaveproblemsifthere143
werefrustrationofthoseneeds(Thorpe1965).Thisviewcametobewrittenin144
theBrambellReportasthe“fivefreedoms”.Theconceptoffreedomhassome145
logicalandscientificdifficulties,asexplainedbelow(Broom2003).BillThorpe146
wasmyPh.D.supervisor.Heaskedmein1965tocommentonsomematerial147
usedbytheCommittee.Thiswasataperecordingofhensindifferenthousing148
conditions.Thorpeaskedwhetheritwaspossibletodeduceanythingaboutthe149
welfareofthebirdsfromthesoundsthattheymade.Althoughsomededuction150
mightnowbemade(Zimmermanetal2003),thesetapesdidnotallowanyat151
thattime.However,theBrambellReporthashadgreatinfluenceinmany152
countries.153
Inthe1960s,theemphasisofdiscussionswasonwhatpeopleshoulddo,i.e.on154
animalprotectionratherthanonanimalwelfare.Inthe1970sandearly1980s,155
thetermanimalwelfarewasusedbutnotdefinedandnotconsideredscientific156
bymostscientists.157
Adevelopmentofmajorimportancetotheemergingconceptofanimalwelfare158
wasresearchbyethologistsandpsychologistsonmotivationsystems.The159
writingsofNealMiller,RobertHinde,DavidMcFarlandandothersinthe1950s160
to1980shelpedethologiststounderstandcontrolsystemsandhowanimals161
cametotakedecisions(Miller1959,Hinde1970,McFarlandandSibly1975).A162
reviewofBroom(1981),abookentitled“BiologyofBehaviour”,pointedoutthat163
theanimalsdescribedinitwerepresentedassophisticateddecision-makersin164
almostallaspectsofwhattheydid.Thisviewcontrastedgreatlywiththethen165
widespreadbutsubsequentlydiscreditedviewofanimalsasautomatadrivenby166
“instinct”.KeyresearchbyIanDuncanandDavidWood-Gush(Duncanand167
Wood-Gush1971,1972),explainedthemotivationofanimalswhoseneedswere168
notmetsotheanimalswerefrustrated.TheseauthorsandBarryHughes169
explainedthebiologicalbasisofneeds(HughesandDuncan1988,Toatesand170
Jensen1991).Alsoatthistime,therewasworkontheevolutionofbehaviour171
includingsociobiology(Wilson1975),manyofwhoseproponentsconsidered172
motivationtobeoflittleinterestanddomesticanimalsasquiteunsuitable173
subjectsforbiologicalresearch.Someofthosewhoworkedonmotivationat174
thattimechangedtoappliedethologystudiesandparticularlytoanimalwelfare,175
e.g.Broom,M.Dawkins,Duncan,D.Fraser,Ladewig,Matthews,Vestergaardand176
Wiepkema.Atthesametime,thescientificuseofthetermstresswasbeing177
questioned.ItsusebyHansSelyewasclearlyambiguousand,asJ.Mason178
pointedout(Mason1968,DantzerandMormède1979),tosomedegree179
erroneousinthattheHPAandSAMphysiologicalmechanismswerepresentedas180
generaltoallsituationswhentheyarenot.Somepeopleusedthetermstressto181
meanHPAaxisactivitywhilstothersuseditforanystimulation.Broom182
suggested(1983,seealsoBroomandJohnson1993)thatitshouldbelimitedto183
adverseorpotentiallyadverseeffectswithfitnessreductionasthecriterion.This184
viewwassupportedbyDantzer,vonHolst(D),Moberg,MormèdeandToatesbut185
wasignoredbymedicalandmostphysiologicalresearchers.186
Anotherviewchallengedinthe1970sand1980swastheideathatdomestic187
animalswerecompletelymodifiedbymanandthereforescarcelybiologicaland188
notcomparablewiththeirwildequivalents.GlenMcBridestudiedapopulation189
offeralchickensonanislandoffAustralia(McBrideetal1969).DavidWood-190
Gushstudiedanotherdomesticfowlpopulationand,laterwithAlexStolba,a191
groupofsowskeptinfieldswithtrees(Wood-GushandStolba).PerJensen,192
encouragedbyIngvarEkesbo,carriedoutadetailedstudyofmoderndomestic193
pigsinwoodlandconditions.(Jensen1986)Theconclusionfromallofthiswork194
wasthatthebehaviourofthesefarmanimalbreedswasscarcelydistinguishable195
inmanyrespectsfromthatoftheirwildancestors.Anotherview,subsequently196
foundtobelargelyincorrect,wasthatofHemmer(1983)thatdomesticanimals197
havelessbrain-powerandmuchlesscomplexbehaviourthantheirwild198
ancestors.Awiderangeofexperimentalstudiesonlearninghaveshown,for199
example,thatsheepandcowsrecognisemanyindividualsandsheephaveunits200
intheirbrainswhichmakethispossible(KendrickandBaldwin1987,Kendrick201
etal1995,2001),youngcattlecanshowanexcitementresponsewhentheylearn202
something(HagenandBroom(2004),andpigscanuseinformationfrommirrors203
afterafewhoursofexperiencewithamirror(Broometal2009).Themajorway204
inwhichdomesticanimalshavebeenchangedbyhumanselectionisthatthey205
arenowverydifferentfromtheirancestorsinthattheycanhavesometolerance206
ofhumanproximityandanabilitytobreedinrestricted,suboptimalsituations207
(Price2002).208
Atthistime,mostoftheanimalwelfareresearcherswereinzoologyoranimal209
productiondepartmentsinuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Althoughnot210
oftenawareofthewiderangeofwelfaretopics,manyveterinarianswereaiming211
tobenefittheanimalsandimproveanimalwelfarebytryingtocureorprevent212
animaldisease.Someoftheseusedtheirclinicalknowledgetoensurethatthe213
healthofanimalswasproperlyconsideredinevaluationofwelfarewhilstothers214
carriedoutexperimentalwork.Veterinarianswhocontributedtomoregeneral215
aspectsofanimalwelfarescienceincludedAndrewFraser,IngvarEkesbo,Henrik216
Simonsen,RobertDantzer,RogerEwbank,BarryHughesandJohnWebster.217
AndrewFraserwasoneofthefoundersoftheSocietyforVeterinaryEthology218
(latertheInternationalSocietyforAppliedEthology),whichisthemajor219
scientificsocietyforanimalwelfarescience.Hewasalsoeditorofthejournal220
thencalled“AppliedAnimalEthology”andnowcalled“AppliedAnimal221
BehaviourScience”whichisthemostimportantjournalforscientificpaperson222
animalwelfare.Thejournal“AnimalWelfare”hasalsobeenofmajorimportance223
inmorerecentyears.224
Muchofthediscussionabouttheuseofanimals,untilrelativelyrecently,centred225
onwhetherornottheyshouldbekilled.Philosophersandthepublicwereoften226
concernedwiththeethicsofkillinganimalsforhumanfood,humanclothing,227
scientificresearchorasunwantedpets(Regan1990,Fraser2008).Thisisan228
importantethicalquestionbutitisnotananimalwelfareissue.Theanimal229
welfareissueiswhathappensbeforedeath,includinghowtheyaretreated230
duringlastpartoftheirlives,oftenthepre-slaughterperiodandthenthemethod231
bywhichtheyarekilled.However,asHaynes(2008)pointsout,thereisadanger232
inthispositionifitresultsintheethicalquestionofwhetherornotitis233
acceptabletokillandanimalbeingignoredorinadequatelyconsidered.234
235
236
THEHISTORYOFTHEANIMALWELFARECONCEPT237
Inthe1980s,itwasacceptedbymostbiologistsandveterinariansthatanimals238
andtheirresponsesystemsaresubjecttochallengesfromtheirenvironment.239
Thesechallengesincludepathogens,tissuedamage,attackorthreatofattackby240
aconspecificorpredator,othersocialcompetition,thecomplexityofinformation241
processinginasituationwhereanindividualreceivesexcessivestimulation,a242
lackofkeystimulisuchasateatforayoungmammalorthoseassociatedwith243
socialcontactforasocialanimalandalackofoverallstimulation.Ingeneral,an244
inabilitytocontrolinteractionswiththeirenvironmentcausesproblemsfor245
humansandotheranimals(Mason1968,1971,Weiss1971,.TheBrambell246
Committeedidnotdefinewelfareintheirreportbut,followingsomegenerally247
acceptedviewsofthefunctioningofanimalsandalsothewritingsofLorca,Barry248
Hughes(1981)proposedthatthetermanimalwelfaremeantthattheanimalwas249
inharmonywithnature,orwithitsenvironment.Thisisabiologicallyrelevant250
statementandaprecursoroflaterviewsbutitisnotausabledefinition.Beingin251
harmonyisasinglestatesoitdoesnotallowscientificmeasurement.Thekey252
questionishowmuchtheindividualisinharmony.Thetermwelfarewasbeing253
usedmoreandmoreinscience,inlawsandindiscussionabouttheeffectsofthe254
treatmentoflaboratory,farmandcompanionanimals.Hencetherewasaclear255
needforascientificdefinition.256
Broom(1986)presentedthisdefinitionofwelfare.“Thewelfareofanindividual257
isitsstateasregardsitsattemptstocopewithitsenvironment.”Inaseriesof258
publications(Broom1988,1991a,b,BroomandJohnson1993),anumberof259
pointsrelatingtothisdefinition,includingthosebelow,wereemphasised.260
Copingmeanshavingcontrolofmentalandbodilystability(BroomandJohnson261
1993).Welfarecanbemeasuredscientificallyandvariesoverarangefromvery262
goodtoverypoor.Welfarewillbepoorifthereisdifficultyincopingorfailureto263
cope.Therearevariouscopingstrategieswithbehavioural,physiological,264
immunologicalandothercomponentsthatarecoordinatedfromthebrain.265
Feelings,suchaspain,fearandthevariousformsofpleasure,maybepartofa266
copingstrategyandfeelingsareakeypartofwelfare.Thesystemmayoperate267
successfullysothatcopingisachievedormaybeunsuccessfulinthatthe268
individualisharmed.Oneormorecopingstrategiesmaybeusedtoattemptto269
copewithaparticularchallengesoawiderangeofmeasuresofwelfaremaybe270
neededtoassesswelfare.Copingwithpathologyisnecessaryifwelfareistobe271
goodsohealthisanimportantpartofwelfare.272
Akeypointofagreementamongstanimalwelfarescientistsintheearly1990s273
andlaterhasbeenthatanimalwelfareismeasurableandhenceisascientific274
concept(seereviewoftheideasofDuncan,Dawkins,Broomandothersby275
Fraser2008).However,Broom’sdefinitionhasbeenreferredtobysomeasa276
functionaldefinitionandcontrastedwiththefeelings-relateddefinitionsofIan277
Duncan(seealsoBroom2008).Duncanarguedthatwelfareiswhollyabout278
feelings(DuncanandPetherick1991,Duncan1993).Thisviewwassharedby279
someotherpeoplebutacommonerpositionwasthatofMarianDawkins(1980,280
1990)whostatedthatthefeelingsoftheindividualarethecentralissuein281
welfarebutotheraspectssuchasthehealthofthatindividualarealsoimportant.282
Atthesametime,thosewithamedicalorveterinarybackgroundsometimes283
presentedtheviewthathealthisall,oralmostall,ofwelfare.AllofBroom’s284
papersandbooksdiscussingthewelfaredefinitionreferredtofeelingsbutasa285
partofwelfare.Theargumentsfortheevolutionoffeelingsaspartofanimal286
functioningareexplainedbyCabanac(1979),Broom(1991b,1998,Broomand287
Fraser2007)andPanksepp(1998).Eveninrecenttimes,themyththatBroom’s288
definitionisfunctional,ratherthanencompassingsufferingandotherfeelings,289
hasbeenperpetuated(e.g.DwyerandLawrence2008).Theideathatfeelingsare290
completelydifferentfromotherbiologicalmechanismswhenindividualsare291
tryingtocopewiththeirenvironmentisnotbiologicallysound.Whencopingis292
successfulandproblemsareabsentorminor,welfareisgood.Goodwelfareis293
generallyassociatedwithfeelingsofpleasureorcontentment.294
Likebadfeelings,suchaspainorfear,goodfeelingsareabiologicalmechanism295
andthismechanismhasevolved(Cabanac1992,KeelingandJensen2002).A296
feelingisabrainconstruct,involvingatleastperceptualawareness,whichis297
associatedwithaliferegulatingsystem,isrecognisablebytheindividualwhenit298
recursandmaychangebehaviouroractasareinforcerinlearning(Broom299
1998)..Sufferingoccurswhenoneormorenegativefeelingscontinueformore300
thanafewseconds(Broom1998).Thereareproblemswithadefinitionof301
welfarethatonlyreferstofeelings.Feelingsarejustonepartofananimal’s302
repertoireofcopingmechanisms.Althoughthebrainconditionwhichresultsina303
feelingmayhavefirstarisenaccidentally,mostfeelingsnowoccurringarea304
resultofnaturalselectionandareadaptive.Althoughfeelingsareanimportant305
partofwelfare,welfareinvolvesmorethanfeelings,forexample:anindividual306
withabrokenlegbutasleep,anaddictwhohasjusttakenheroin,anindividual307
greatlyaffectedbydiseasebutunawareofit,aninjuredindividualwhosepain308
systemdoesnotfunction(Broom1991b,1998).309
Afewveterinarianswereinvolvedinanimalwelfareresearchinthe1980s,as310
mentionedabove,andthepaperonassessingpainanddistressinlaboratory311
animalsbyMortonandGriffiths(1985)hadsubstantialinfluence.However,at312
thistimemostveterinariansdidnotconsideranimalwelfareasascientific313
disciplinethatshouldbetaughttoveterinarystudentsandthatwasrelevantto314
thoseinpractice.Manythoughtthatonlyveterinariansknewaboutanimal315
welfareandthatalmostallofwelfarewastreatmentoforpreventionofdisease.316
Animalbehaviourandbrainfunctionwerethoughttobeofminorimportanceto317
veterinarywork.Theseviewshadcloseparallelswiththemedicalprofessionin318
whichthosewhostudiedbehaviouralormentalproblemswereoftenconsidered319
peripheraltothemajortasksofhumanmedicine.Vets,medicsandscientists320
wereunwillingtorefertoanimalfeelings(Panksepp2005).Researchbiologists321
inuniversitiesdidnotthinkofthestudyofanimalwelfareasascience.They322
oftenvieweditasanimpedimenttoresearchandwereonlygrudginglyawareof323
theconceptofthe3Rs,reduce,replaceandrefinepresentedbyRusselland324
Burch(1959).Despitethefactthatmanyimportantbiologicalsystemshavethe325
functionofattemptingtocopewithdifficultiesinlife,thestudyofwelfarehas326
notbeengreatlyvaluedinthescientificworldandwelfarescientistsarenot327
thoughtofassignificantcontributorstoscience.328
329
USABLEANIMALWELFARECONCEPTSANDHOWTHEYAREINTER-RELATED330
331
Adaptation332
Itmaybehelpfultorelatethewelfareterminologytotheconceptofadaptation.333
Howwellcanourdomesticanimalsadapttotheconditionsthatweimposeupon334
them?Canwildanimalsadapttoourimpactonthem?Whenreferringto335
individualanimals,adaptationistheuseofregulatorysystems,withtheir336
behaviouralandphysiologicalcomponents,tohelpanindividualtocopewithits337
environmentalconditions(Broom2006a).Animalscanadaptbetteriftheir338
needsaremet.Whatarethelimitstoadaptation?Theideathattherearelimits339
hasbeenwidelyacceptedinbiology(Mount1979,Moberg1985)butresistedby340
someinvolvedinanimalproduction.Anindividualattemptingtocopemayfailto341
doso.Forexample,itmaybedifficultorimpossibletocopewith:extreme342
externaltemperature,pathogenmultiplication,orhighpredationriskordifficult343
socialconditions.Bodystatemaybedisplacedtooutsidethetolerablerangeand344
deathmayfollow.Anindividualmayadapttoanenvironmentalsituationwith345
difficulty,inwhichcasethewelfareispoor.Forexample,ifanindividualis346
adapting,orhasadapted,butisinpainordepressed.Copingusuallymeansthat347
allmentalandbodilysystemshavefunctionedsothattheenvironmentalimpact348
isnullified.Hence“tocope”ismorethan“toadapt”.Adaptationdoesnot349
necessarilymeangoodwelfare.350
351
Stress352
Formostpeople,stressimpliestheeffectsofachallengetotheindividualthat353
disruptshomeostasisresultinginadverseeffects.Itisnotjustastimuluswhich354
activatesenergyreleasingcontrolmechanisms.Stimuliwhoseeffectsare355
beneficialwouldnotbecalledstressorsbymostpeople.Also,formostpeople,356
situationswhichactivatethehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcorticalaxis,but357
whoseeffectsareusefultotheindividual,wouldnotbecalledstressors.A358
definitionofstressthatisinlinewiththegeneralpublicusageofthewordis359
“Stressisanenvironmentaleffectonanindividualwhichovertaxescontrol360
systemsandresultsinadverseconsequences,eventuallyreducedfitness”(Broom361
andJohnson1993,followingBroom1983).Thereisnogoodstress.Duringthe362
developmentofindividuals,stimulithatresultfromsomewhatdifficult363
situationscanbeusefulexperiencebutthesearebestnotreferredtoasbeing364
stressful..Wheneverthereisstress,welfarewillbepoorbutwelfarecouldbe365
temporarilypoorwithoutanylon=lastingadverseeffectsowithoutstress.366
367
368
369
Needsorfreedoms?370
Motivationalsystemshaveevolved.Theyenableindividualstoascribepriorities371
tocertainactions,aswellastodeterminethetimingofactions(Broom1981).372
Thisfacilitatesadaptation.Aneedisarequirement,whichispartofthebasic373
biologyofananimal,toobtainaparticularresourceorrespondtoaparticular374
environmentalorbodilystimulus(BroomandJohnson1993).Theneeditselfis375
inthebrain.Itallowseffectivefunctioningoftheanimal.Itmaybefulfilledby376
physiologyorbehaviourbuttheneedisnotphysiologicalorbehavioural.There377
areneedsforresources,suchasfood,waterorheatbuttherearealsoneedsto378
carryoutactionswhosefunctionistoattainanobjective(HughesandDuncan379
1988,ToatesandJensen1991).Forexample:apigrootinginsoilor380
manipulatingmaterialsuchasstrawortwigs,orahendust-bathingtokeep381
feathersingoodcondition,orahenorasowbuildinganestwhenabouttogive382
birthorlayanegg.Theideaofprovidingfor“thefivefreedoms”,firstsuggested383
intheBrambellReportin1965butnotquiteinlinewithThorpe’sconceptof384
needs,isnowreplacedbythemorescientificconceptofneeds.Thelistof385
freedomsjustprovidesageneralguidelinefornon-specialists.Animalshave386
manyneedsandthesehavebeeninvestigatedformanyspecies.Thisisthe387
startingpointforreviewsofthewelfareofaspecies.Alistofneedshasbeenthe388
startingpointforCouncilofEuroperecommendationsandE.U.scientificreports389
onanimalwelfareforover20years.Thefreedomsarenotpreciseenoughtobe390
usedasabasisforwelfareassessment.Thisisnowanout-datedapproachthat391
maystillbeusefulasapreliminaryguidelinebutshouldnotbeusedifscientific392
evidenceaboutneedsisavailable.The12factorspresentedbytheWelfare393
Qualityprogrammeareabetterguidethanthefivefreedomsbutalistofthe394
needsoftheparticularanimalsunderconsideration,basedonpublished395
scientificevidence,ismoreuseful.396
Howdowefindoutfromanimalswhattheyneed?Whatispreferred?397
Howhardwilltheindividualworkforaresource?Anexampleisworkwithrats398
thataregivenachoiceoffloors.Onemeasureiswhichfloortheychoosebut399
moreinformationisobtainediftheratshavetoworkinordertogettothefloor400
oftheirchoice.Aratcanreadilylearntoliftaweighteddoorandtheamount401
liftedgivesanindicationofitsstrengthofpreferencefortheresource.402
Terminologyusedinmotivationalstrengthestimationincludesthefollowing403
(Kirkdenetal2003).Aresourceisacommodityoranopportunitytoperforman404
activity.Thedemandisameasuredamountofactionwhichenablesresourceto405
beobtained.Thepriceistheamountofthatactionrequiredforaunitof406
resource.Incomeistheamountoftimeorothervariablelimitingthataction.407
Thepriceelasticityofdemandistheproportionalrateatwhichconsumptionor408
demandchangeswithprice.Theconsumersurplusisameasureofthelargest409
amountwhichasubjectispreparedtospendonagivenquantityoftheresource.410
Itcorrespondstoanareabeneathaninversedemandcurve.Aexampleoftheuse411
ofthismethodologyistheworkofMasonetal(2001).Thekeyquestionwasto412
ascertainthestrengthofpreferenceofmink,apartiallyaquaticspecies,for413
variousresourcesincludingwaterinwhichtheycouldswim.Theminkwere414
trainedtoperformoperantstoreach:anextranest,variousobjects,araised415
platform,atunnel,anemptycageandawaterpooltoswimin.Theswimming416
waterwasgivenveryhighprioritybythemink.417
418
Obligationsorrights?419
Howshouldwedescribewhatshouldorshouldnotbedonetootherindividuals?420
Mostpeoplewouldsaythatweallhaveobligationsnottoharmothers.Fromthe421
otherperspective,itmightbesaidthateachotherindividualhasarightnottobe422
harmedbyus.However,assertionsofrightsandfreedomscancauseproblems423
(Broom2003).Weshoulddescribetheobligationsoftheactorratherthanthe424
rightsofthesubject.Ifwekeeporotherwiseinteractwithanimalswethenhave425
obligationsinrelationtotheirwelfare.426
WELFAREPROBLEMS,ASSESSMENTANDDECISIONS427
Effectsonanimalwelfarewhichcanbedescribedincludethoseof:428
disease,429
injury,430
starvation,431
beneficialstimulation,432
socialinteractions-positiveornegative,433
otherformsofsuccessinactions,434
housingconditions-positiveornegative,435
deliberateoraccidentalilltreatment,436
humanhandling-positiveornegative,437
transport,438
laboratoryprocedures,439
variousmutilations,440
veterinarytreatment-positiveornegative,441
geneticchangebyconventionalorotherbreeding.442
443
WelfareindicatorsaredescribedbyBroomandFraser(2007).Thereare444
differencesbetweenwelfareindicatorsforshort-termandlong-termproblems.445
Short-termmeasureslikeheart-rateandplasmacortisolconcentrationare446
appropriateforassessingwelfareduringhandlingortransportbutnotduring447
long-termhousing.Somemeasuresofbehaviour,immunesystemfunctionand448
diseasestatearemoreappropriateforlong-termproblems.Welfareoverlonger449
periodsissometimesreferredtoasqualityoflife.Thistermismuchusedby450
cliniciansbutitmeanswelfareoveraperiodofmorethanafewdays(Broom451
2007b).452
Overanytime-scale,measuresofintensityofeffectonwelfarehavetoberelated453
tothedurationofthestate.Whenwelfareisevaluated,therelationshipbetween454
itsintensity(thewordseverityissometimesusedwheretheeffectisnegative)455
anddurationshouldbetakenintoaccount.Fig1wasinitiallydrawntoexemplify456
poorwelfareduringkillingmethods(Broom2001b)buttheprincipleisthesame457
forpositiveeffects..458
LegendFig.1Themeasuredintensityofgoodorpoorwelfareisplottedagainst459
timefortwoexamples.(a)mightbeananimalbeingkilledbyamethodinvolving460
prolongedpainandotherpoorwelfare,(b)mightbeananimalkilledbya461
methodthathasamuchmorerapideffect(AfterBroom2001b).462
463
AxislabelledIntensityofEffect(notseverity)464
WherethereisanadverseimpactinFig.1,theareaundertheintensityagainst465
timecurveisthemagnitudeofpoorwelfare.Wheretheimpactispositive,466
magnitudeofgoodwelfareistheareaunderthecurve.467
468
NATURALNESSANDWELFARE469
Wheredoesnaturalnessfitwiththeconceptofwelfare?Fraser(1999)pointed470
outthatwhenmembersofthepublictalkaboutanimalwelfare,theirideas471
includethefunctioningoftheanimals,thefeelingsoftheanimalsandthe472
naturalnessoftheenvironment.Thefeelings,referredtobyFraserandothers,fit473
comfortablyintoBroom’sdefinitionofwelfareastheyareanimportant474
componentofcopingmechanismsandofbiologicalfunctioning.Rollin(1990,475
1995),Fraseretal(1997)andFraser(2008)haveadvocatedthat“animals476
shouldbeabletoleadreasonablynaturallives”andhavereferredtothe477
importanceofunderstandinganimalneeds.However,theydidnotsaythat478
naturalnesscontributestoadefinitionoftheconceptofwelfareorshouldbepart479
ofwelfareassessment.Thestateofanindividualtryingtocopewithits480
environmentwillnecessarilydependuponitsbiologicalfunctioning,orput481
anotherway,onitsnature.Naturalconditionshaveaffectedtheneedsofthe482
animalandtheevolutionofcopingmechanismsinthespecies.Thestateofan483
individualtryingtocopewithitsenvironmentwilldependuponitsbiological484
functioning.Naturalconditionshaveaffectedtheneedsoftheanimalandthe485
evolutionofcopingmechanismsinthespecies.Theenvironmentprovided486
shouldfulfiltheneedsoftheanimalbutdoesnothavetobethesameasthe487
environmentinthewild.488
489
LINKSBETWEENANIMALWELFAREANDOTHERMORALISSUES490
Inrecentyears,publicpressureinrelationtocodesofpractice,lawsandthe491
enforcementoflawshaveincreasedinallcountriesconcerning:humanhealth,492
animalwelfareandtheimpactontheenvironment.InEurope,oneofthebig493
pressuresforlawsetc.intheseareashasbeentheviewthatitisuncivilisedto494
allowpeopletobecomesick,animalstobetreatedbadlyortheenvironmentto495
bedamaged.Asystemorprocedureissustainableifitisacceptablenowandifits496
effectswillbeacceptableinfuture,inparticularinrelationtoresource497
availability,consequencesoffunctioningandmoralityofaction.Animalwelfare498
isoneofthecriteriausedbythepublicwhendecidingwhetheraprocedureor499
systemisacceptablesoitisanecessaryconsiderationforsustainability(Broom500
2001a,2002,2010).Forconsumersandproducersofanimalproducts,the501
conceptofqualityhasbroadened.Goodqualitynowmeansgoodintasteandalso502
sustainable,especially:acceptableinrelationtohumanhealth,animalwelfare503
andenvironmentalimpact.TheFrench‘LabelRouge’schemehasledthewayin504
this(Ouedraogo1998).TheproportionofFrenchconsumerswhobuyonlyon505
priceisthoughttohavedroppedto25%.506
507
Thetermwelfare,althoughnotapplicabletoinanimateobjectsorplants,is508
relevanttoallanimalsbecausetheyhaveanabilitytodetectandrespondrapidly509
totheimpactsonthemoftheirenvironment,usuallyviathefunctioningoftheir510
nervoussystem.Whilsttheresponsesofmorecomplexanimalsarecontrolledby511
oftencomplexprocessesintheirbrains,thoseofsimpleranimalsarealsopartof512
attemptstocopewiththeenvironment.Wecanassessandconsiderthewelfare513
ofanyanimal.Separatequestionarewhichanimalsshouldbeprotectedandto514
whatdegreeshouldtheybeprotected?Formostpeople,animalswithawareness515
arethoughttobeworthyofmoreprotection.Asentientbeingisonethathas516
someability:toevaluatetheactionsofothersinrelationtoitselfandthird517
parties,toremembersomeofitsownactionsandtheirconsequences,toassess518
risk,tohavesomefeelingsandtohavesomedegreeofawareness(Broom2006c,519
2007a).Peoplehavelongappreciatedthesentienceofvariousdomesticand520
otheranimalsandhaveoftenthoughtofthemasanexampletofolloworafriend521
whowouldhelp,ratherthanjustasaresourceobject.However,arabbitis522
vieweddifferentlyaccordingtowhetheritis:afamilypet,alaboratoryanimal,523
ananimalkeptformeatproduction,orawildanimalthateatsyourcrops.Thisis524
notscientificallysound.Arabbitisarabbitandeachonefeelspainorhas525
cognitivefunction.526
527
Healthreferstowhatishappeninginbodysystems,includingthoseinthebrain,528
whichcombatpathogens,tissuedamageorphysiologicaldisorder.Healthisthe529
stateofanindividualasregardsitsattemptstocopewithpathology(Broom530
2000,2006b-).Withdiseasechallenge,aswellaswithotherchallenges,difficult531
orinadequateadaptationresultsinpoorwelfare.Healthisanimportantpartof532
welfare.Examplesincludeosteoarthritisincatsanddogsandsoleulcerincows.533
534
535
RECENTANDFUTUREANIMALWELFARECONCERNS536
Thereremainsomeareasofconfusionamongstthepublicandamongstscientists537
whodonotspecialiseinthearea,inrelationtowhatanimalwelfareis.In538
contrast,thereisasubstantialdegreeofagreementamongwelfarescientists.539
Points(i)to(vi)belowareareaswheretheremaybesomeconfusion.(i)For540
somepeopletheconceptsofprotectionofanimalsandanimalwelfareare541
confused.However,thefirstisahumanactionandthesecondisacharacteristic542
ofananimal.(ii)Theethicalissuesaboutwhetherornotanimalsshouldbekilled543
forhumanbenefitaresometimesperceivedtooverlapwiththeconceptof544
welfarebuttheydonot.Thetermeuthanasiaisoftenmisusedasitshouldbe545
limitedtomeaningthatananimaliskilledforitsownbenefit.(iii)Theconceptof546
healthasakeypartofwelfareratherthanaseparatetopicismisunderstoodby547
many,includingmedicalandveterinaryspecialistswhomaynotbefamiliarwith548
themeaningofwelfare.(iv)Theevolutionofanimalsintheirnatural549
environmenthasledtothemhavingcertainneedsthatmustbemetforwelfare550
tobegood,andgoodconditionsforanimalswillallowthemtofunctionina551
naturalway,i.e.anormalbiologicalway.However,asdiscussedabove,552
naturalnessisnotacomponentofthedefinitionofwelfare.(v)Thedignityofan553
individualisahumanconceptthatmaybeappliedtonon-humananimalsbut554
thereisnoevidencethatotherspecieshavesuchaconcept.Itmaybeusedasan555
argumentfortreatinganimalswellbutitisnothingtodowithwelfare.(vi)The556
integrityofananimal,inthesenseofitswholeness,hassomebiologicalbasis557
andissometimesusedtocriticiseremovalof,orchangein,anypartofananimal558
includingitsgenotype.Theuseofsuchargumentsmayreducethelikelihoodof559
poorwelfarebuttheconceptitselfisnotconnectedtowelfare.Someofthese560
areasofconfusionwillbecomelesscommonasknowledgeofwelfareandits561
scientificstudybecomesmorewidespread.562
Therewillcontinuetobeareasofdiscussionamongstanimalwelfarescientists.563
Forsome,allcopingsystemsshouldbeconsideredwhenassessingwelfare.For564
others,onlythoseinvolvingfeelingsshouldbeconsidered.Theimportanceof565
tryingtoassessfeelingswillcontinuetobecommongroundforwelfare566
scientists(Dawkins1993,Panksepp1998,Mendletal2004,Pauletal2005,567
Broom2010)butbettermethodologiesforallaspectsofwelfareassessmentwill568
bedeveloped.Onerecentandsignificantdevelopmentinanimalwelfarescience569
hasbeenthesubstantialincreaseinattemptstoassessgoodwelfareina570
scientificway.Thishasbecomefeasiblebecauseofincreasedacceptanceofthe571
validityofmeasuringpositivefeelingsinanimals.StudieslikethoseofBoissyet572
al(2007)andMendletal(2009)areincreasingourunderstandingofanimal573
welfareandpointingtonewmethodsinthefuture.574
Anotherdevelopmentinrelationtowelfareconceptsandapplicationsisthe575
measurementofwelfareonfarmorotherplaceswhereanimalsareused.576
Welfareoutcomeindicatorsthatcanbeusedbyveterinaryinspectors,farmers577
andothershavenowbeenworkedoutwithconsiderableprecision(Welfare578
Quality2009a,b,c).Itislikelythatfurtherprogresswillbemadewithmeasures579
ofpainandotheraspectsofwelfareforusebyanimalwelfarescientists.580
Assessmentsarenowbeingmadeoftheriskofpoorwelfareandtheprobability581
ofbenefitstowelfare(SmuldersandAlgers2009).582
Thenumbersofanimalwelfarescientistsisincreasingrapidly.Thesubjectis583
nowbeingtaughtinallEuropeancountriesandthenumberofuniversitycourses584
onanimalwelfareinBrazilhasincreasedfromonetoover60in15years.The585
diversityofanimalwelfarescienceisincreasingandtheexpansionislikelyto586
continue.ThedecisionbytheAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociationto587
promotetheteachingofthesubjectinallAmericanveterinaryschoolswillhavea588
substantialeffect.589
590
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