1 Population Ecology Chapter 55 2 Environmental Challenge Ecology: the study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments Abiotic:

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Population EcologyChapter 55

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Environmental Challenge

• Ecology: the study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments

• Abiotic: non-living; wind, temperature, water, sunlight, soil

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• Homeostasis: a steady-state internal environment regardless of external environment

• Beetle is catching water to help live in a dry environment


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• Conformers: bodies adopting the temperature, salinity of their surroundings


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• Morphological capabilities

– Adaptations that minimize energy expenditure

• Thick coats during the winter

• Wolf’s fur 3xs thicker in winter for insulation purposes


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• Behavioral responses– Moving from one habitat to another– Maintain body temperature

• Going into the sun when cold• Going into the shade when hot

– Spadefoot toads• Burrow down in the sand to avoid the

heat


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• Natural selection leads to evolutionary adaptation to environmental conditions– Allen’s rule of reduced surface area:

Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs

– Desert frogs: evolved a greatly reduced rate of water loss through their skin


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Populations

• 3 characteristics of population ecology

– Population range: area

– Pattern of spacing

– changes in size through time

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Populations• Range

– Most species have limited geographic range• Devil’s hole pupfish lives in a single

spring in southern Nevada

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PopulationsIndividuals in populations exhibit different spacing

patterns–Random spacing:individuals do not interact strongly with one another; not common in nature

–Uniform spacing: behavioral interactions, resource competition

–Clumped spacing: uneven distribution of resources;

common in

nature

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Populations• Metapopulations: occur in areas in which suitable habitat is patchily

distributed

• Butterfly

Source-sink metapopulations: some areas are suitable for long-term habitat others are not– Continuous colonization of empty patches– Prevent long-term extinction

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Demography and Dynamics

• Demography: the quantitative study of populations

– How size changes

– Study birth and death rates of a specific age

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Generation times: time between birth of an individual and birth of its offspring

• Life span: correlated with generation time. Short generation time equals fast population growth rate, short life span

• Age structure: numbers of individuals in a different age group

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Life tables show probability of survival and reproduction through a cohort’s life

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Demography and Dynamics• Survivorship: percent of an original

population that survives to a given age

• Survivorship curve: express some aspects of age distribution I. High death rate in

post-reproductive years

I. High death rate in post-reproductive years

II. Constant mortality rate throughout life span

II. Constant mortality rate throughout life span

III. Very high early mortality but the few survivors then live long (stay reproductive)

III. Very high early mortality but the few survivors then live long (stay reproductive)

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Life History• Life history: complete life cycle of

an organism• Trade-offs– Limited resources:• Decrease

survival• increased

reproduction• Reduction

of future reproduction

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Life History

• Individuals that delay reproduction may grow faster and larger, enhancing future reproduction

• Cost of reproduction: add or remove eggs

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Life History

Variation in baby side-blotched lizards

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Life History

• Age at first reproduction correlates with life span

– Long-lived species delay reproduction

• Advantage: juveniles gain experience before high cost of reproduction

– Short-lived species reproduce early

• Time is important, delay may mean no offspring

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Growth and Limits

• Biotic potential: growth when there are no limits on population growth: then:

dN=riN

dt

N = # of individualsr = rate of growthri = intrinsic ratet = timed = rate of change

every pair has 4 offspringevery pair has 4 offspring

every pair has 3 offspringevery pair has 3 offspring

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Growth and Limits• The biotic potential of any population is

exponential, even when the rate of increase remains constant

• The actual number of individuals accelerates rapidly

Time

Gro

wth

Rat

e

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Growth and Limits

• Carrying capacity: symbolized by K, is the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support

• Logistic growth model: applies to populations as they reach K

dN/dt = rN (K-N)/K

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Growth and Limits• If you plot N versus t, you obtain a sigmoidal

growth curve• As N approaches K, the rate of population

growth begins to slow• If N = K the population growth rate is zero• If the population size

exceeds K the population size will decline until it reaches K

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Growth and Limits

Many populations exhibit logistic growth

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Factors that Regulate

Density-dependent: factors that affect the population and depend on population

size

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• Negative feedback:

– population size increases

• reproductive rates decline

• mortality rates increase

• or both

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Positive feedback: Allee effect (Warder Allee). Growth rates increase with population size

At high populations, locusts have different hormonal and physical characteristics and take off as a swarm

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• Density-independent effects: the rate of growth of a population unrelated to the size of the population

• External environment aspects: cold winters, droughts, storms, volcanic eruptions

• Populations display erratic growth patterns because of these events

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• North American snowshoe hare has a 10 year cycle

• Population numbers fall 10-fold to 30-fold in a cycle and 100-fold changes can occur

• Two factors generate this cycle:

– Food plants

– Predators

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Linked population cycles of the snowshoe hare and the Canada lynx

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• Selection will favor individuals that can compete and utilize resources efficiently

• Can lower reproductive rates• K-selected populations: adapted to

thrive when population is near its carrying capacity

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• Populations far below carrying capacity, resources abundant

• Costs of reproduction are low • r - selected populations: selection

favors individuals with the highest reproductive rates

• Most natural populations show life history adaptations that exist along a continuum of r and K - selected traits

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Human Population Growth

• K-selected life history traits– Small brood size– Late reproduction– High degree of parental care

• Human populations have grown exponentially– Last 300 years birth rate has

remained– Death rate has fallen dramatically

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History of human population size


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Population Pyramid: a bar graph displaying the number of people in each

age category


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Earth’s rapidly growing human population constitutes, perhaps, the

greatest challenge to the future of the biosphere

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• Uneven distribution among countries

• Increasing gap between rich and poor

• The world ecosystem is already under stress

• What is K for the human population?

• Thomas Malthus: Essay on the Principle of Population


40Distribution of population growth


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• World population growth rate is declining:– High of 2.0% in 1965-1970– 2005: 1.2%– Still and increase of 78 million people

per year


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• Consumption in the developed world further depletes resources– Wealthiest 20% of the world’s

population accounts for 86% consumption of resources and produces 53% of CO2 emissions

– Poorest countries: 20% is responsible for 1.3% consumption and 3% CO2 emissions


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Ecological Footprint: amount of productive land required to support an individual at the standard of living of a particular population through the course of his/her life


Documents

1 Population Ecology Chapter 55 2 Environmental Challenge Ecology: the study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments Abiotic: