1 Nuclear Chemistry 2 Radioactivity One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of ________

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Nuclear ChemistryNuclear Chemistry

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RadioactivityRadioactivity

• One of the pieces of evidence for the One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work ofparticles came from the work of

________ ________ (1876-1934).(1876-1934). • She discoveredShe discovered ________________, the , the

spontaneous disintegration of some spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.elements into smaller pieces.

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Some nuclei are unstable

Unstable nuclei will naturally release particles and/or energy to become more

stable

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Nuclear Radioactivity

Emission of matter and/or energy from the nucleus of an atom

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Marie Marie SklodowskaSklodowskaand and Pierre CuriePierre Curie

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7Nuclear Reactions vs. Nuclear Reactions vs. Normal Chemical Normal Chemical

ChangesChanges• Nuclear reactions involve the nucleusNuclear reactions involve the nucleus• The nucleus opens, and protons and The nucleus opens, and protons and

neutrons are rearrangedneutrons are rearranged• The opening of the nucleus releases a The opening of the nucleus releases a

tremendous amount of energy that holds tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together – called the nucleus together – called binding binding energyenergy

• ““Normal” Chemical Reactions involve Normal” Chemical Reactions involve electronselectrons, not protons and neutrons, not protons and neutrons

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Henri Henri BecquerelBecquerel

9Penetrating AbilityPenetrating Ability

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Mass DefectMass Defect

• Some of the mass can be converted into Some of the mass can be converted into energyenergy

• Shown by a very famous equation!Shown by a very famous equation!

E=mcE=mc22

EnergyEnergy

MassMass

Speed of lightSpeed of light

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Types of RadiationTypes of Radiation

e01

He42

• Alpha (Alpha (άά) – a positively ) – a positively charged helium isotopecharged helium isotope - - we we usually ignore the charge because it involves usually ignore the charge because it involves electrons, not protons and neutronselectrons, not protons and neutrons

•Beta (Beta (ββ) – an electron) – an electron

•Gamma (Gamma (γγ) – pure energy; ) – pure energy; called a ray rather than a called a ray rather than a particleparticle

00

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Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. Material was developed by combining Janusa’s material with the lecture outline provided with Ebbing, D. D.; Gammon, S. D. General ChemistryGeneral Chemistry, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline., 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY, 2005. Majority of figures/tables are from the Ebbing lecture outline.

Alpha particles (α)• They are known to consist of They are known to consist of helium-4 nucleihelium-4 nuclei (nuclei (nuclei

with two protons and two neutrons)with two protons and two neutrons)

• Positive chargePositive charge

• Slow moving Slow moving

• Stopped by small barriers as thin as few pages of Stopped by small barriers as thin as few pages of paperpaper

• Symbolized in the following ways:Symbolized in the following ways:

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Beta particles ()They are known to consist of They are known to consist of high speed electrons high speed electrons emitted from the nucleusemitted from the nucleus

Negative chargeNegative charge

Higher speed particles therefore, more penetrating than Higher speed particles therefore, more penetrating than alpha particlesalpha particles

stopped by only more dense materials such as wood, stopped by only more dense materials such as wood, metal, or several layers of clothingmetal, or several layers of clothing

The symbol is basically equivalent to an electronThe symbol is basically equivalent to an electron

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Gamma rays ()• They have been shown to be a form of They have been shown to be a form of

electromagnetic radiation (pure energy)electromagnetic radiation (pure energy)

• is pure energy (no p, n, e)is pure energy (no p, n, e)

• Highly energetic, the most penetrating form of Highly energetic, the most penetrating form of radiation radiation

• barriers of lead, concrete, or more often, a barriers of lead, concrete, or more often, a combination is required for protection.combination is required for protection.

• Symbol is Symbol is

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Other Nuclear ParticlesOther Nuclear Particles

e01

n10• NeutronNeutron

• Positron – a positive Positron – a positive electronelectron

•Proton – usually referred to Proton – usually referred to as hydrogen-1as hydrogen-1

•Any other elemental isotopeAny other elemental isotope

H11

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Balancing Nuclear ReactionsBalancing Nuclear Reactions•In the reactants (starting materials – on the left side of an equation) and products (final products – on the right side of an equation)

Atomic numbers must balanceand

Mass numbers must balance

•Use a particle or isotope to fill in the missing protons and neutrons

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Nuclear ReactionsNuclear Reactions• Alpha emissionAlpha emission

Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4 and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2.

Nucleons (nuclear particles… protons and neutrons) are rearranged but conserved

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Nuclear ReactionsNuclear Reactions• Beta emissionBeta emission

Note that mass number (A) is unchanged and atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.

23Other Types of Nuclear Other Types of Nuclear ReactionsReactions

Positron (Positron (00+1+1): a positive electron): a positive electron

Electron capture: Electron capture: the capture of an electron

207 207

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Learning Check

What radioactive isotope is produced in the following bombardment of boron?

10B + 4He ? + 1n

5 2 0

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Write Nuclear Equations!

Write the nuclear equation for the beta emitter Co-60.

26Artificial Nuclear Artificial Nuclear ReactionsReactions

New elements or new isotopes of known elements New elements or new isotopes of known elements are produced by bombarding an atom with a are produced by bombarding an atom with a subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -- subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -- or even a much heavier particle such as or even a much heavier particle such as 44He and He and 1111B.B.

Reactions using neutrons are called Reactions using neutrons are called

reactions reactions because a because a ray is usually ray is usually emitted.emitted.

Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by reactions. reactions.

27Artificial Nuclear Artificial Nuclear ReactionsReactions

Example of a Example of a reaction reaction is production is production

of radioactive of radioactive 3131P for use in studies of P P for use in studies of P

uptake in the body.uptake in the body.

31311515P + P + 11

00n ---> n ---> 32321515P + P +

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Transuranium ElementsTransuranium Elements

Elements beyond 92 Elements beyond 92 (transuranium)(transuranium) made made

starting with an starting with an reaction reaction

2382389292U + U + 11

00n ---> n ---> 2392399292U + U +

2392399292U U ---> ---> 239239

9393Np + Np + 00-1-1

2392399393Np Np ---> ---> 239239

9494Pu + Pu + 00-1-1

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Nuclear FissionNuclear Fission

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Nuclear FissionNuclear FissionFission is the splitting of atomsFission is the splitting of atoms

These are usually very large, so that they are not as stableThese are usually very large, so that they are not as stable

Fission chain has three general steps:Fission chain has three general steps:

1.1. Initiation.Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the Reaction of a single atom starts the

chain (e.g., chain (e.g., 235235U + neutron)U + neutron)

2.2. PropagationPropagation. . 236236U fission releases neutrons that U fission releases neutrons that

initiate other fissionsinitiate other fissions

3. 3. ___________ ___________ . .

31Stability Stability of of NucleiNuclei

• Out of > 300 stable isotopes:

EvenEven OddOdd

OddOdd

EvenEven

ZZNN

157157 5252

5050 55

31311515PP

191999FF

2211H, H, 66

33Li, Li, 101055B, B, 1414

77N, N, 1801807373TaTa

32Band of Stability Band of Stability and Radioactive and Radioactive DecayDecay

33Representation of a fission process.

34Nuclear Fission & Nuclear Fission & POWERPOWER

• Currently about 103 Currently about 103

nuclear power plants in nuclear power plants in

the U.S. and about 435 the U.S. and about 435

worldwide.worldwide.

• 17% of the world’s 17% of the world’s

energy comes from energy comes from

nuclear.nuclear.

35Figure 19.6: Diagram of a nuclear power plant.

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Nuclear Fusion

Fusion small nuclei combine

2H + 3H 4He + 1n +

1 1 2 0

Occurs in the sun and other stars

Energy

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Nuclear Fusion

Fusion

• Excessive heat can not be contained

• Attempts at “cold” fusion have FAILED.

• “Hot” fusion is difficult to contain

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Half-LifeHalf-Life

•HALF-LIFEHALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for is the time that it takes for 1/2 a sample to decompose.1/2 a sample to decompose.

• The rate of a nuclear transformation The rate of a nuclear transformation depends only on the “reactant” depends only on the “reactant” concentration.concentration.

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Half-LifeHalf-Life

Decay of 20.0 mg of Decay of 20.0 mg of 1515O. What remains after 3 half-lives? O. What remains after 3 half-lives? After 5 half-lives?After 5 half-lives?

40Kinetics of Radioactive Kinetics of Radioactive DecayDecay

For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance

decomposes.

For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days

If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234

After 3.6 days > 25 gramsAfter 3.6 days > 25 grams

After 7.2 days > 12.5 gramsAfter 7.2 days > 12.5 grams

After 10.8 days > 6.25 gramsAfter 10.8 days > 6.25 grams

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Learning Check!

The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 39 hours?

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Geiger Counter

• Used to detect radioactive substances

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Radiocarbon DatingRadiocarbon DatingRadioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere Radioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere

by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in cosmic by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in cosmic radiationradiation

1414N + N + 11oon ---> n ---> 1414C + C + 11HH

The C-14 is oxidized to COThe C-14 is oxidized to CO22, which circulates through , which circulates through

the biosphere.the biosphere.

When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished.When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished.

But the C-14 continues to decay with tBut the C-14 continues to decay with t1/21/2 = 5730 years. = 5730 years.

Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.

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Chemotherapy

Isotopes of cobalt Isotopes of cobalt and radiumand radium

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PET Scans to detect cancer in organsPET Scans to detect cancer in organs

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Thyroid TestsThyroid Tests Iodine-131Iodine-131

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Technetium-99Technetium-99

Brain tumor detection and treatmentsBrain tumor detection and treatments

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Bone Density Tests Bone Density Tests (Gd-153)(Gd-153)

Food Food irradiationirradiation

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Plutonium (Pu)Plutonium (Pu)

Uranium (U)Uranium (U)

Nuclear FuelsNuclear Fuels

For power plants or nuclear weaponsFor power plants or nuclear weapons

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HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

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• Decreased white blood cell count

• Lesions

• Nausea and diarrhea

• Birth defects

• Hair loss

• Bleeding

• Death

HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

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Effects of RadiationEffects of Radiation

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55This is the hand of a physician who was This is the hand of a physician who was

exposed to repeated small doses of x-ray exposed to repeated small doses of x-ray radiation for 15 years. The skin cancer radiation for 15 years. The skin cancer

appeared several years after his work with appeared several years after his work with x-rays had ceased. Cancer incidence x-rays had ceased. Cancer incidence

depends on radiation dose. depends on radiation dose. From Meissner, William A. and Warren, From Meissner, William A. and Warren,

Shields: Neoplasms, In Anderson W.A.D. editor; Pathology, edition 6, St. Louis, 1971, The C.V. Mosby CoShields: Neoplasms, In Anderson W.A.D. editor; Pathology, edition 6, St. Louis, 1971, The C.V. Mosby Co

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Caution: Caution: Next slide is the baby one Next slide is the baby one

very graphicvery graphic

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Documents

1 Nuclear Chemistry 2 Radioactivity One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of ________