1 Introduction to the Environment and Ecosystem · kinds of plants and animals in an environment •It is the variety within and between all species of plants, animals and micro-organisms

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Introduction to the Environment and Ecosystems

GE 203 – Engineering & EnvironmentTopic 1

Department of Civil Engineering College of EngineeringKing Saud University

Objectives of the Present lecture

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• To provide an overview of the course contents and course learning outcomes

• To discuss the ecosystem and interaction between ecosystem components

• To learn about Trophic level, Food chain, Food Web and Ecological pyramids

GE 203 – Engineering & Environment

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Course Description• Impact of engineering and industrial activities on the

environment.

• Basics of ecosystems, environmental balance, typesof pollution, and types, sources, and limits ofpollutants; in addition to fundamentals ofEnvironmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

• Pollution control technologies and examples ofpollution from various engineering and industrialsectors are also covered.

• A group term project.

3GE 203 – Engineering & Environment

Course Learning Objectives (CLOs)Students completing this course successfully will be able to:

1. Understand the basics of the global ecosystem and the natural cycles of its major components.

2. Understand the types of environmental pollution caused by engineering and industrial activities.

3. Realize the importance of sustainable development and maintaining environmental balance.

4. Understand the different types of pollutants, their sources, limits and the various technologies for pollution control.

5. Recognize the importance of EIA prior the development of the projects.

6. Improve their communication skills, including reading, writing, and oral presentations.


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Outcome Assessment

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• 1st Midterm Exams 20%

• 2nd Midterm Exams 20%

• Project (Report + Presentation) 10%

• Final Exam 50%


1st midterm exam on Thursday, 10/10/2019 – (After Maghrib prayer)

2nd midterm exam on Thursday, 14/11/2019 – (After Maghrib prayer)

Text Books

– G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman (2014) Living in theEnvironment, 17th edition, Cengage Learning. (Chapter:3, 6, & 23)

– Jerry A. Nathanson, Richard A. Schneider (2014) BasicEnvironmental Technology: Water Supply, WasteManagement, and Pollution Control, 6th edition,Pearson Education. (Chapter: 5, 11, 12, 13, & 14)


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Environment

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• All the conditions, circumstances, and influences that surround, and affect the development of an organism (or group of organisms)

• Environment includes Natural features and how the organism interact with such features

Natural features includes mountains; Trees; Seas and Oceans; Air; Water; Energy; Land etc.


Environmental Components of the Earth

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1. Atmosphere (air): It is the gaseous envelope of air surrounding the earth to a height of approximately 1000 km– It mainly consists of 21% oxygen, 78%

nitrogen, and 1% other gases, and rotates with the earth, because of gravity

2. Hydrosphere (water): It includes all the water on the surface of the earth.

– Oceans, seas, lakes, glaciers, etc. are part of the Hydrosphere.

– Water vapor, clouds, etc. may be considered part of the atmosphere or the hydrosphere.

The earth’s life-support system consists of four main spherical systems that interact with one another


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(Contd.)

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3. Geosphere (rock, soil and sediment)Crust, mantle and Core together forms Geosphere.

4. Biosphere (living things): It is the portion of Earth and itsatmosphere that can support life. In other words it is that part of theearth where life exists.


The Atmosphere• Atmosphere is a thin spherical envelope of gases

surrounding the earth’s surface.• Its inner layer, the troposphere, contains air that we

breathe, which consists of:– nitrogen (78% of the total volume)– oxygen (21%).– The remaining 1% of the air includes water vapor, carbon

dioxide, methane, etc. all of which are called greenhousegases

• The next layer is called the stratosphere, Its lowerportion holds enough ozone (O3) gas to filter outabout 95% of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV)radiation


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The Hydrosphere• Hydrosphere consists of all of the water on or near the

earth’s surface.

• It is found as water vapor in the atmosphere, liquid water on the surface and underground, and ice.

• The oceans, which cover about 71% of the globe, contain about 97% of the earth’s water.


The geosphere• Geosphere consists of the earth’s intensely hot core, a

thick mantle composed mostly of rock, and a thinouter crust.

• Its upper portion contains nonrenewable fossil fuelsand minerals that we use, as well as renewable soilchemicals (nutrients) that organisms need in order tolive, grow, and reproduce.

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The biosphere• Biosphere consists of the parts of the atmosphere,

hydrosphere, and geosphere where life is found.


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Biodiversity

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• Biological diversity – or biodiversity – is the term given to the variety of life on Earth.

• Biodiversity refers to the existence of many different kinds of plants and animals in an environment

• It is the variety within and between all species of plants, animals and micro-organisms and the ecosystems within which they live and interact.


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Land, air, water, and a variety of plants and animals sustain the earth’s diversity of life and human economies.


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Factors Sustain the Earth’s Life1. The one-way flow of high-

quality energy from the sun, through living things in their feeding interactions.

2. The cycling of nutrients (the atoms, ions, and molecules needed for survival by living organisms) through parts of the biosphere.

3. Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere and helps to enable the movement and cycling of chemicals through air, water, soil, and organisms.


Photosynthesis

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• Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction by which green plants use water, carbon dioxide and light from Sun to make glucose.


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Energy flow from sun to earth and within the earth’s systems

• Sun releases tremendous amounts of energy into thespace, only a very small amount of this energy reaches theearth.

• This energy reaches the earth in the form ofelectromagnetic waves, composed mostly of visible light,ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and heat (infrared radiation).

• Much of this energy is absorbed or reflected back intospace by the earth’s atmosphere and surface.

• The solar energy that reaches the atmosphere lights theearth during daytime, warms the air, evaporates and cycleswater through the biosphere, and generate winds.

• Also, green plant and algae use solar energy to producethe nutrient they need through the photosynthesis process,and in turn, to feed the animal.


Energy flow from sun to earth and within the earth’s systems (Contd.)

• The solar radiation reached the planet’s surface, interacts withthe earth’s land, water, and life and is degraded to lower-qualityinfrared radiation.

• Some of the infrared radiation is reflected back to the loweratmosphere, where it will interact with greenhouse gases (watervapor, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) and Some of it flows backinto space as heat.

• When radiated heat from earth’s surface interact withgreenhouses gases it warm the lower atmosphere and the earth’ssurfaces, which is know as greenhouse effect.

• Without this natural greenhouse effect, the earth would be toocold to support the forms of life we find here today.


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Interaction of solar energy with the atmosphere and earth’s surface


Ecology is the science that focuses on how organisms interact with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy.

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A species is a group of animals or plants that interbreed in nature and produce young animals or plants.


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Living and Nonliving Components of Ecosystem

• The ecosystems are made up of living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components.

• nonliving components are water, air, nutrients, rocks, heat, and solar energy.

• Living components include plants, animals, microbes, and all other organisms.


Producers and Consumers

GE 203 – Engineering & Environment 22

• We can broadly classify the organisms as producers and consumers.

• Producers– Organisms that make glucose during photosynthesis

are called producers, and include plants, and somekind of bacteria etc.

– Producers, are also called autotrophs (self-feeders)because they make the nutrients they need fromcompounds and energy obtained from theirenvironment.

– Producers use most of the energy they make forthemselves.

• Consumers– All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers.

Consumers eat plants or other organisms to obtaintheir energy.

– Consumers are those who do not make their ownfood, but get it from eating plants or other animals.

Algae and aquatic plants

Green plants

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Trophic Level

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• The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.

• Living organisms transfer energy and nutrients from one trophic level to another within an ecosystem.

• Trophic level has five groups: – The producers,– The primary consumers,– The secondary consumers,– The tertiary consumers and– The decomposers.


Trophic Level (Contd.)Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Consumers


• The organisms that consume producers are called ‘Primary Consumers’. They are also called Herbivores.

• Secondary consumers are those animals that eat other animals. These animals are called Carnivores.

• Carnivores that consume other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.

• The hawk that eats a snake is a tertiary consumer.

• Note: Some animals such as bears eat both plants and other animals. They are called as ‘Omnivores’. Examples: human being, bear etc.

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Trophic Level (Contd.)Decomposers


– Decomposers are organisms that break down remainsof dead organisms produced at all the trophic levels.

– These decomposers include worms, bacteria, fungi andsome insects.

– Decomposers eat producers, primary, secondary andtertiary consumers

– Decomposers release nutrients from the wastes orremains of plants and animals and then return thosenutrients to the soil, water, and air for reuse byproducers (bacteria and fungi).

Detritivores and Scavengers


• Detritivores are organisms that obtain energy from organic wastes and dead bodies produced at all the trophic levels. They are the decomposers of the food chain.

• Decomposition of bodies and wastes releases nutrients back into environment to be recycled by other organisms. This helps release trapped energy (in the form of carbon) in dead organisms back to the earth.

• Scavengers: Consumers that eat other consumers that have already died are called ‘Scavengers’

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• In natural ecosystems the wastes and dead bodies of organisms serve as resources for other organisms, as the nutrients that make life possible are continuously recycled

• Without decomposer, the planet would be overwhelmed with plant litter, animal wastes, dead animal bodies, and garbage.

Advantages of Decomposers


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Fungus feeding on a dead tree is a decomposer

Giraffe feeding on the leaves of a tree is an herbivore

Lion feeding on the dead body of a giraffe is

carnivores


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Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration• Consumers, and decomposers use the chemical

energy stored in glucose and other organic compounds to fuel their life processes.

• This energy is released by:– Aerobic respiration which uses oxygen to convert glucose

(or other organic nutrient molecules) back into carbon dioxide and water.

– Anaerobic respiration, or fermentation, which breaks down organic compounds in the absence of oxygen. The end products of this process are compounds such as methane gas (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), etc.


Food Chains and Energy Flow through Ecosystems

• Food chain is a sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food or energy for the next.

• The chemical energy stored as nutrients in the bodies and wastes of organisms flows through ecosystems from one trophic (feeding) level to another.


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• In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on more than one type of organism, and most organisms are eaten or decomposed by more than one type of consumer.

• Organisms in most ecosystems form a complex network of interconnected food chains called a food web.

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Food Web


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• A greatly simplified food web in the southern hemisphere.

• The shaded middle area shows a simple food chain.

• Its participants interact in feeding relationships to form the more complex food web.

Example of a Food Web


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freshwater phytoplankton

Marine Phytoplankton

• Phytoplankton, also known as microalgae, are similar to terrestrial plants in that they contain chlorophyll and require sunlight in order to live and grow.

• Most phytoplankton are buoyant and float in the upper part of the ocean, where sunlight penetrates the water. Phytoplankton also require inorganic nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and sulfur which they convert into proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.


Usable Energy in a Food Chain or Web

• Each trophic level in a food chain or web contains a certain amount of biomass (the dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms).

• In a food chain or web, chemical energy stored in biomass is transferred from one trophic level to another.

• With each transfer, some usable chemical energy is degraded and lost to the environment as low-quality heat.

• As energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs, there is a decrease in the amount of high-quality chemical energy available to organisms at each succeeding feeding level


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This model is a generalized pyramid of energy flow that shows the decrease in usable chemical energy available at each succeeding trophic level in a food chain or web.Why there are fewer tigers in tropical rain forests than there are insects?

food chains and webs rarely have more than four or five trophic levels


Productivity

• The amount of living organic material (biomass) that aparticular ecosystem can support is determined by– how much solar energy its producers can capture and store as

chemical energy.– how rapidly they can do so.

• Primary productivity is the rate at which an ecosystem’sproducers convert solar energy into chemical energy in theform of biomass found in their tissues.

• It is usually measured in (kcal/m2/yr)• To stay alive, grow, and reproduce; producers must use

some of the chemical energy stored in the biomass theymake for their own respiration.

• Net primary productivity (NPP) is the rate at whichproducers use photosynthesis to produce and storechemical energy minus the rate at which they use some ofthis stored chemical energy through aerobic respiration.


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• Only the biomass represented by NPP is available as nutrients for consumers, and they use only a portion of this amount.

• Thus, the planet’s NPP ultimately limits the number of consumers(including humans) that can survive on the earth. This is animportant lesson from nature.

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What are nature’s three most productive and three least productive systems?


Review Question-1


a) The ____ is the ____________ for food chains.

b) The amount of energy always_________ as you move up trophic levels.

c) On land, the amount of biomass ______ as you move up trophic levels.

d) _________ is sequence of feeding relationships describing.

Answersa. Sun; source of energyb. Decreasesc. Decreasesd. Food chain; who-eats-whom

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Review Question-2


a) Consumers _______ make their own food, they must _________ other organisms.

b) Producers use the energy of _____ to make their own food through a process called __________.

c) Detritus is the _________ and ________ of dead organisms.

d) Decomposers are organisms that eat _____ and break down into ______.

Answersa. Cannot; eat or consumeb. sunlight; photosynthesisc. Waste matter; rotting remainsd. Detritus; nutrients

Detritus

Review Question-3


a) Primary consumer is the ____ consumer in a food chain. It eats __________.

b) __________ consumer is the second consumer in a food chain. It eats ___________.

c) ___________ consumer is the third consumer in a food chain. It eats ___________.

d) Quaternary consumer is the ____ consumer in a food chain. It eats ___________

e) Nutrients are substances needed for an organism’s _________ and _______.

Answersa. 1st; producersb. Secondary; Primary consumersc. Tertiary; secondary consumersd. 4th; tertiary consumerse. growth; repair

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Glossary

Environment All external conditions, factors, matter, and energy, living and nonliving, that affect any living organism or other specified system.

Ecology Biological science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their environment; study of the structure and functions of nature.

Ecosystem One or more communities of different species interacting with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up their nonliving environment.


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Hydrologic & Nutrients Cycle





• To provide an overview of– Water Cycle– Carbon Cycle– Nitrogen Cycle– Phosphorous Cycle

• To discuss how human activities are affecting the above cycles.

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What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?

• Matter, in the form of nutrients and water, cycles within and among ecosystems and the biosphere.

• Human activities are altering these cycles.


Nutrients• The most important nutrients the Plants and other

autotrophs (producers) need are carbon, hydrogenand oxygen.

• Other nutrients needed by plants are nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.

• Plants absorb nutrients from soil and water.

Nutrients Cycle within and among Ecosystems

• The elements and compounds that make up nutrientsmove continually through air, water, soil, and livingorganisms within ecosystems, as well as in thebiosphere in cycles called nutrient cycles, orbiogeochemical cycles.

• These cycles include the hydrologic (water), carbon,nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles.

• These cycles driven directly or indirectly by incomingsolar energy and the earth’s gravity


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Importance of Water


• Water is one of themost important substances onearth

• An average man consumesabout 200 to 300 litres of waterevery day

• All plants and animals musthave water to survive

• If there was no water therewould be no life on earth

• Apart from drinking it to survive,people have many other usesfor water

Water or Hydrologic Cycle


• The water cycle describes the existenceand movement of water on, in, andabove the Earth. Earth's water is alwaysin movement and is always changingstates, from liquid to vapour to ice andback again. This water cycle is alsocalled hydrologic cycle.

• The Sun heats water in the oceans;some of it evaporates as vapor into theair. Ice and snow can sublimate directlyinto water vapor.

• Plants and soil also release watervapour into the air. This process is calledtranspiration.

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(Contd.)


• condense into clouds. Cloud particlescollide, grow, and fall out of the sky asprecipitation.

• Some precipitation falls as snow andcan accumulate as ice caps andglaciers.

• The precipitation and melted ice flowover the ground as surface runoff. Somewater infiltrates deep into the groundand become ground water.

• A portion of runoff enters rivers whichultimately join the oceans, where thewater cycle "ends" or "begins" again


Simplified model of the hydrologic cycle, in which water in various physical forms within the biosphere. Major harmful impacts of human activities are shown by the red arrows and boxes

A wetland

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Schematic diagram of the natural hydrologic cycle. The constant circulation of water is powered by energy from the sun and by gravity.

More on Hydrologic/Water cycle

• The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply of water.

• The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and involves three major processes: evaporation, precipitation, and transpiration.

• When precipitation fall on terrestrial ecosystems it:– can become surface runoff that flows into streams.– seeps into the upper layers of soils where it is used by

plants.– some evaporate from top soil to atmosphere. – sinks through soil to underground layers of rock, sand, and

gravel called aquifers, where it is stored as groundwater.


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• A small amount of the earth’s water ends up in theliving components of ecosystems. As producers, plantsabsorb some of this water through their roots, most ofwhich evaporates from plant leaves back into theatmosphere during transpiration.

• Because water dissolves many nutrient compounds, itis a major medium for transporting nutrients within andbetween ecosystems.

• Only about 0.024% of the earth’s vast water supply isavailable to humans and other species as liquidfreshwater

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Contd.


Effect of Human activities on Water Cycle

• Human alter the water cycle in three major ways (see the redarrows and boxes in Figure):– First, humans withdraw large quantities of freshwater from

streams, lakes, and aquifers sometimes at rates faster thannature can replace it.

– Second, humans clear vegetation from land for agriculture,mining, road building, and other activities, and cover much ofthe land with buildings, concrete, and asphalt.

This increases runoff, reduces infiltration that would normallyrecharge groundwater supplies, accelerates topsoil erosion,and increases the risk of flooding.

– Third, humans also increase flooding when we drain and fillwetlands for farming and urban development.

wetlands provide the natural service of flood control,acting like sponges to absorb and hold overflows ofwater from drenching rains or rapidly melting snow.


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13Jeddah floods, 2009


Hydrologic Cycle and Natural Water Purification Processes

• Throughout the hydrologic cycle, many naturalprocesses purify water.– Evaporation and subsequent precipitation act as a

natural distillation process that removes impuritiesdissolved in water.

– Water flowing above ground through streams andlakes is partially purified by chemical and biologicalprocesses (due to natural aeration and decomposerbacteria).

– Water flowing below ground in aquifers is naturallyfiltered by soil.

• The hydrologic cycle can be viewed as a cycle ofnatural renewal of water quality.


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Review Question-1


a) The energy that powers the water cycle come from ______.

b) The process in which water gets warm and changes fromliquid water to water vapor is called _______.

c) ________ is the transition of a substance directly from the solidto the gas phase without passing through the intermediateliquid phase.

Answersa. The Sunc. Evaporationd. Sublimation

Review Question-1 (Contd.)


e) Moisture that falls to the ground from clouds is called ___________.

f) Three major stages of water cycle are ______, _______, and________.

g) Release and evaporation of water from the plant leaves is known as_________.

h) ______ is a body of permeable rocks which contain or transmit ground water.

Answerse. Precipitationf. Evaporation; Condensation; and Precipitationg. Transpirationh. Aquifer

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Importance of Carbon


• Carbon is found in things that are (oronce were) living.

• Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and othermolecules that distinguish living matterfrom inorganic material are allcomposed of carbon atoms bonded toeach other and to atoms of otherelements (H, O, N, S and P)

• Carbon comprises about 19% of theweight of an animal and about 12% ofthe weight of a plant.

• Note: All organic compounds containcarbon, but not every compound containingcarbon is organic. For example, carbondioxide is not organic since its carbon atom isnot joined to other carbon atom or hydrogen.

The Carbon Cycle• Carbon is the basic building block organic compounds necessary

for life.

• Various compounds of carbon circulate through the biosphere,the atmosphere, and parts of the hydrosphere, in the carboncycle.

• The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, whichmakes up 0.039% of the volume of the earth’s atmosphere and isalso dissolved in water.

• Carbon dioxide (along with water vapor in the water cycle) is akey component of the atmosphere’s thermostat.– If the carbon cycle removes too much CO2 from the

atmosphere (Cooler)– if the carbon cycle generates too much CO2 to the

atmosphere (Warmer)


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The Carbon Cycle (Contd.)

• Decomposers release the carbon stored in the bodies of deadorganisms on land back into the air as CO2.

• In water, decomposers release carbon that can be stored asinsoluble carbonates in bottom sediment.

• Marine sediments are the earth’s largest store of carbon.

• Over millions of years, buried deposits of dead plant matter andbacteria are compressed between a layers of sediment, wherehigh pressure and heat convert them to carbon-containing fossilfuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

• We have extracted and burned huge quantities of fossil fuels thattook millions of years to form. This is why, on a human time scale,fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources.


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Simplified model illustrates the circulation of variouschemical forms of carbon in the global carbon cycle, with major harmful impacts of human activities shown by thered arrows.


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Simplified diagram of the carbon cycle. The arrows show the various directions of carbon transfer through the biosphere.

Review Question-2


a) All of the carbon in existence is continually recycled in the Carbon cycle (T/F)______.

b) Carbon cycle begins with photosynthesis in plants (T/F) ______.

c) Plants are primary consumers of Carbon dioxide (T/F)____.

d) Humans are producers of Carbon dioxide (T/F) _________.

e) Carbon dioxide is easily dissolved in water (T/F)_____.

f) The plants use the carbon that comes from air (T/F)____.

g) Carbon get into the soil when plant, animal, or human dies (T/F)____.

Answers a. Trueb. Falsec. Trued. Truee. Truef. Trueg. True

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Importance of Nitrogen


• Nitrogen is important to plants for the production of proteins —the building blocks of life

• Nitrogen is an essential component of DNA, RNA and Proteins

• Herbivores get their nitrogen from eating plants

• Carnivores get their nitrogen from eating animals

DNA(Deoxy-ribonucleic acid) RNA(Ribonucleic acid)

Nitrogen Cycle (N-Cycle)


• Nitrogen in the atmosphere is about 78% but mostly in theform of N2 gas which plants and animals as is cannot use.

• The process of converting nitrogen into compounds thatcan be used by plants and animals is called the NitrogenCycle.

• By traveling through one of the four processes in theNitrogen cycle the atmospheric nitrogen (N2) get changedinto a form that can be used by most living organisms:– Nitrogen Fixation– Nitrogen assimilation– Ammonification– Nitrification– Denitrification

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Nitrogen Fixation


• The conversion of free nitrogen of atmosphere into the biologically acceptable form of nitrogenous compounds is known as Nitrogen Fixation.

• There are following ways to convert N2 into chemically reactive forms:– Special bacteria convert the nitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia

(NH3) which only some plants can use (peas, beans)– In this process, atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen

during lightning or electrical discharges in the clouds and produces different nitrogen oxides:

Nitrogen Assimilation and Ammonification


• Nitrogen Assimilation: In this process,inorganic nitrogen in the form ofnitrates, nitrites, and ammonia isabsorbed by the green plants viatheir roots and then it is convertedinto nitrogenous organic compoundslike Amino acids.– Amino acids are used in the

synthesis of proteins, enzymes,chlorophylls, nucleic acids etc.

• Ammonification is the process ofreleasing ammonia by certainbacteria utilizing organic nitrogen(proteins) available in the deadorganic remains of plants andanimals and excreta of animals.

• Note: Ammonia comes from both nitrogen fixation and ammonification.

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Nitrification and Denitrification


• Nitrification is the process thatconverts ammonia (NH3) intonitrites (NO2) and Nitrates (NO3)which most plants can use.

• Denitrification: Denitrification isthe reduction of nitrates backinto the largely inert nitrogengas (N2). The process isperformed by bacteria in thesoil.

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A simplified model of the circulation of various chemical forms of nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem, with major harmful human impacts shown by the red arrows. GE 203 – Engineering & Environment

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Simplified diagram of the nitrogen cycle. Molecular nitrogen must first be fixed (combined with oxygen) into the form of nitrate nitrogen before it can be used by plants as a nutrient.

Review Question-3


a) Nitrogen that is used by plants is in the form of nitrates (T/F)_______.

b) What do plants do with the nitrogen they absorb? _________________.

c) Animals absorb nitrogen through eating plants (T/F) _________.

d) Animals do not use nitrogen to build proteins (T/F)_____.

e) The breaking down of dead animals by fungi and bacteria releases ______.

f) What is the function of nitrifying bacteria ? _______________________.

g) Where are nitrogen fixing bacteria found? ____________________

Answers a. Trueb. Build proteinsc. Trued. Falsee. Ammoniaf. The conversion of ammonia into nitratesg. In the roots of plants

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Importance of Phosphorous


• It is essential nutrient for plants and animals

• Phosphorous main role in the body is to work with calcium to form strong bone and teeth

• White phosphorous is used in some explosives including rockets.

• Red phosphorous is used in match heads

• Phosphorous is also used in fertilizers

• Phosphorous is essential to DNA and RNA.

Phosphorus Cycle


• Phosphorous exists in the rocks and soil as phosphate salts.

• Rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions (inorganic phosphate) into soils and water.

• Plants absorb inorganic phosphate (phosphate ions) from the soil and water.

• Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals.

• Once in the plant or animal, the phosphate ions (inorganic phosphate) converts into organic phosphate and stored in DNA(Deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA(Ribonucleic acid), and ATP(Adenosine-triphosphate).

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Phosphorus Cycle


• When the plant or animal dies, bacteria break down organic phosphate into inorganic forms of phosphorus and phosphorous then returns to the soils or oceans.

• The soil deposits as sediments to form rocks in million of years.

• Eventually, phosphorus is released again through weathering and the cycle starts over.

More on Phosphorus Cycle• Compounds of phosphorous (P) circulate through water, the

earth’s crust, and living organisms in the phosphorus cycle. Thephosphorus cycle does not include the atmosphere.

• phosphate ions (PO43 –) serve as an important nutrient.

• The major reservoir for phosphorous is phosphate salts containingphosphate ions in terrestrial rock formations and ocean bottomsediments.

• The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to the water, carbon,and nitrogen cycles.

• For both producers and consumers, phosphates are acomponent of biologically important molecules such as nucleicacids.

• Because most soils contain little phosphate, the lack of it oftenlimits plant growth on land unless phosphorus is applied to the soilas a fertilizer.


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A simplified model of the circulation of various chemical forms of phosphorus(mostly phosphates) in the phosphorus cycle, with major harmful human impacts shown by the red arrows. GE 203 – Engineering & Environment

Review Question-4


a) Where does the Phosphorus Cycle start? ______

b) Phosphorous is a highly reactive element (T/F)____.

c) Phosphorous is found everywhere except ______.

d) Phosphorous cycle includes erosion and weathering of rocks (T/F)_.

e) The reservoir for phosphorous exists in ____ form in ___ rather than in the atmosphere.

f) How does the Phosphorus enter plants in the soil? _______.

g) How do humans impact the Phosphorus Cycle?__________.

Answers a. Rocksb. Truec. Atmosphere (or gas state)d. Truee. mineral; rocksf. Water in the soilg. Use fertilizers that are not natural

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Eutrophication• Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as lakes,

estuaries, or slow-moving streams receive excess nutrients(nitrogen and phosphorus) that stimulate excessive growth ofalgae or phytoplankton (algae blooms).

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• This algae bloom reducesdissolved oxygen in the waterand after dying itsdecomposition consume moreoxygen and makes waterhypoxic (water with lowconcentration of dissolvedoxygen).

• Note: Hyperoxic water is thewater with high concentrationof oxygen.


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The human population and its impact



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Population Growth

Year 2014

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Population Growth (Contd.)

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For most of history, the human population grew slowly. But for the past 200 years, the human population has grown rapidly, resulting in the characteristic J-curve of exponential growth

Factors behind Population Increase

Three major factors account for population increase in the past 200 years:

1. Modern agriculture technique allow to grow more food.

2. Death rates drop because of improved sanitation and health care and development of antibiotics and vaccines to help control infectious diseases.

3. Humans adaptability to live in any climate zones and habitats.

• Most of the increase in the world’s population during the last 100 years took place because of a sharp drop in death rates – not a sharp rise in birth rates.

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Population Carrying capacity and Environmental Resistance

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Carrying capacityMaximum population of a

particular species that a given habitat can support

over a given period

Environmental resistance that control the carrying capacity is: shrinkage in resources such as food, water, and space

Population Carrying capacity and Environmental Resistance (Contd.)

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• No population can continue to increase in size indefinitely. Exponential growth occurs when a population has essentially unlimited resources to support its growth.

• Such exponential growth is eventually converted to logistic growth, in which the growth rate decreases as the population becomes larger and faces environmental resistance (right half of the curve).

• Over time, the population size stabilizes at or near the carrying capacity of its environment, which results in a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

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Example: Logistic growth of a sheep population on the island of Tasmania between 1800 and 1925.

7

• This graph tracks the logistic growth of a sheep population on the island of Tasmania between 1800 and 1925.

• After sheep were introduced in 1800, their population grew exponentially. By 1855, they had overshot the land’s carrying capacity. Their numbers then stabilized and fluctuated around a carrying capacity of about 1.6 million sheep.

Major ways by which humans have altered the natural systems

8

The eight major ways in which humans have altered natural systems to meet their growing population’s resource needs (causes of natural capital degradation):

1. Reducing biodiversity.2. Increasing use of net primary productivity.3. Increasing genetic resistance in pest species and disease-

causing bacteria.4. Eliminating many natural predators.5. Introducing harmful species into natural communities.6. Using some renewable resources faster than they can be

replenished.7. Disrupting natural chemical cycling and energy flow.8. Relying mostly on polluting and climate-changing fossil fuels.

5

• The average number of children born to women in a population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that determines population size.

• Population size increases through births (fertility) and immigration, and decreases through deaths (mortality) and emigration.

• Population change =

(Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)

9

Factors Influencing the Size of the Human Population

Fertility Rate• Fertility rate: the number of children born to a woman during

her lifetime.

• Two types of fertility rates affect a country’s population size and growth rate:1. Replacement-level fertility rate

– is the average number of children that couples in a population must bear to replace themselves.

– It is slightly higher than two children per couple: 2.1 in more-developed countries and as high as 2.5 in some less-developed countries.

2. Total fertility rate (TFR)– is the average number of children born to women in a

population during their reproductive years. – This factor plays a key role in determining population size

10

6

Fertility Rate (Contd.)

11

Between 1955 and 2010, the average TFR dropped from 2.8 to 1.7 children per woman in more-developed countries and from 6.2 to 2.7 in less-developed countries.

This graph tracks the total fertility rate for both the more-developed and less-developed regions of the world, 1955 – 2010, with projections to 2050

Indicators of the Overall Health of People

12

• Two useful indicators of the overall health of people in a country or region are:– Life expectancy (the average number of years an individual can

be expected to live) o In 2010, Japan had the world’s longest life expectancy of 83

years. o In the world’s poorest countries, life expectancy is 57 years or

less.– Infant mortality rate (the number of babies out of every 1,000

born who die before their first birthday).o Infant mortality is viewed as one of the best measures of a

society’s quality of life because it reflects a country’s general level of nutrition and health care.

7

Factors affecting Death Rate

13

• Increased food supplies and distribution, better nutrition.

• Medical advances such as immunizations and antibiotics.

• Improved sanitation, and safer water supplies.

• Age structure is the numbers or percentages of males and females in young, middle, and older age groups in that population.

• Population age structure diagram or population Pyramid by plotting a given population’s percentages of males and females in each of three age categories:– Pre-reproductive (ages 0–14), consisting of individuals

normally too young to have children– Reproductive (ages 15–44), consisting of those

normally able to have children– Post-reproductive (ages 45 and older), with individuals

normally too old to have children.

14

Population Age Structure Diagram or Population Pyramid

8

15

This chart represents the generalized population age-structure diagrams for countries with rapid (3 – 1.5%), slow (1.4 – 0.3%), zero (0.2 – 0%), and negative (declining) population growth rates.

Population Pyramid

16

• It is simply a representation of the human structure of a country/continent by age group and gender.

• Factors affecting the shape of the pyramid include: • Rates of births and deaths• Wars• Immigration and migration • Health care• Epidemic diseases, etc...

9

17

Global outlook: These charts illustrate population structure by age and sex in less-developed countries and more-developed countries for 2010.Even if the global replacement level fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman were magically achieved tomorrow, the world’s population would keep growing for at least another 50 years. This continued growth results from a population’s age structure.

Population Pyramid of

Saudi Arabia

18

10

Advantages and Disadvantages of Population Growth

• Advantages– Stronger, happier, Diversified and Considering Society– Industrial, Agricultural and Medical Innovation– Economic Growth

• Disadvantages– Food Shortage– Space shortage– Aging Dependency

19

Advantage: Stronger, happier, Diversified and Considering Society Stronger Society

– Population growth is important because we need a new generation of people who can think big, take care of aged people, and create ways to keep society strong.

Happier Society– As humans, we were designed with the need to enjoy

healthy relationships. We may have the latest mobiles which allow us to communicate with each other, but it's not the same as a warm hug, a beautiful smile or a meaningful face-to-face conversation. This is why we need population growth.

Diversified Society– Population adds diversity to society. Our society is more

enjoyable when we're able to learn about the lives of people in different cultures. However, when certain cultures become extinct, we miss out important life lessons we could get from them.

20

11

Advantage: Industrial, Agricultural and Medical Innovation• Industrial revolution and the world's most remarkable

innovations over the past 300 years are attributable to population growth.

• The world's increase in population is responsible for a greater consciousness of the need for additional resources as well as the innovations to produce food at the pace of population growth.

• With some of our brightest minds dying each day due to natural aging process, it's important that the world has a new generation of people to substitute their places.

• Assembly-line manufacturing itself is an adaptation to an increasing population.

• Conclusion: Population growth is a key factor behind most of the Technological innovations & Scientific Advancements.

21

Advantage: Economic Growth• A growing population can generate economic growth.

• The birth of more people results greater number of parents investing in their youth. Increased purchases in products such as food, clothing, education-related expenses, sporting goods and toys feed the economy.

• Parents with children purchase larger homes with more bedrooms and bathrooms to ensure they have enough rooms for their children.

• Construction of larger homes improve the construction industries economically.

• As the population grows, so does economic spending.

• Conclusion: Population growth is a prime driving force behind Infrastructure development and thus economic growth.

22

12

Disadvantages of Population Growth • Food Shortage

– Unchecked population growth without equal agricultural advancement to meet it leads to food shortages.

• Space shortage– Although the world population is a long way from being

large enough to occupy all of the habitable land on earth, unchecked population growth can inspire overcrowding and civil unrest.

• Aging Dependency– The world's growing population includes a large and

dependent aging segment. – In the United States, the aging population, defined by

people over the age of 65, is expected to comprise almost 20 percent of the population by 2030.

23

How to overcome the Disadvantages of Population Growth

• Controlling the Population Growth– Reducing poverty (through economic development and

education)– Empowering Women– Promoting Family Planning

• Agricultural Development and Management of Food– Proper support for agricultural development is required.– Demand and Supply of food should be properly managed.– Better distribution of food is required to overcome the Food

shortage in some parts of the world.

24

13

How to overcome the Disadvantages of Population Growth (Contd.)

• Investment in the Development of Living Areas – An increase in population growth would necessitate an

investment in the development of less desirable areas on earth, to meet space need demands.

• Care and Allocation of Resources for Aged People– This feeling should be propagated that aged population are

blessing to the society and caring them brings blessing of God and makes a society stronger and healthier. Their experiences of life is valuable to the growth of the society.

– Better policies should be made and resources should be allocated to care them.

25

Human Resource Development• Human capital formation or Human resource development

aims at solving the problems of population growth by giving them proper education and creating the necessary skills in the people to make them a productive resource and providing them gainful employment.

• Note that education is necessary to gain knowledge and skill is necessary to deliver knowledge.

• A riyal invested on education brings a greater increase in national income than riyal spent on dams, roads, factories or other tangible capital goods.

• Skills are needed for the growth of industrial sector.

• The existence of surplus labour is to a considerable extent due to the shortage of critical skills.

• Conclusion: A population with no education, no skill and no character is a garbage and with education, with skills and with character is a treasure.

26

14

Review Question-1

27

Answers a. Carrying capacity b. Environmental resistance c. births (fertility); immigration; deaths (mortality); emigration d. Total fertility rate (TFR)e. Infant mortality

a) ______________is a Maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over a given period.

b) ______________controls the population to go beyond carrying capacity.

c) Population size increases through ________and_______, and decreases through ______________and ______________.

d) _________________is the average number of children born to women in a population during their reproductive years.

e) _____________________indicates a country’s general level of nutrition and health care.

Review Question-2

28

Answers a. Age structure b. Exceedsc. Assembly-line manufacturingd. proper education; necessary skills

a) _______________is the numbers or percentages of males and females in young, middle, and older age groups in that population.

b) Agricultural supply worldwide currently __________the demand of the world population.

c) ____________________itself is an adaptation to an increasing population.

d) Human resource development aims at solving the problems of population growth by giving them _____________and creating the ________________in the people to make them a productive resource and providing them gainful employment.

1

Water Pollutionpart-1- Introduction- Parameters of Water Quality




2

• To discuss sources of water and consumption of water in various sectors of life.

• To discuss Characteristics of drinking water.

• To discuss water pollutants and their sources

2

Potable or Drinking Water

3

• Potable water: Potable water or drinking water is water that is free of chemicals, microorganisms, and other contaminants, and is, therefore, safe to drink (and food preparation).

• Most of the water on Earth, 97.4% to be exact, is salty water found in the oceans.

• Water has such a strong tendency to dissolve other substances (universal solvent).

• Rivers carry dissolved salts to the ocean. Water evaporates from the oceans to fall again as rain and to feed the rivers, but the salts remain in the ocean.

• We cannot drink salt water or use it for crops because of the salt content.• We can remove salt from ocean water, but the process is very expensive• On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of

approximately 3.5%, or 35 parts per thousand (~35 gram/Litre)• The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high temperatures result in

high rates of surface evaporation and there is little fresh inflow from rivers.

4

Facts about water

3

Global Distribution of Earth’s Water• Water surfaces constitute

70% of the earth’s surface • Seas and oceans (saltwater)

forms approximately 97.4% of the earth’s water; i.e. only 2.6% is fresh water (sweet water)

• 78% of the fresh water is in glaciers, groundwater and the atmosphere, and 22% is in rivers, lakes and springs.

• Only small fraction (0.014%) in rivers, lakes and springs is readily available for human use.

5

Water Resources

6

• Surface water (rivers, lakes, springs)

• Groundwater (difficult to obtain)

• Ocean & Seawater (not economic to Desalinize)

• Reclaimed or Treated Wastewater (Generally not treated for drinking and cooking) SOURCE: Data from UNESCO-WWAP, 2003.

4

7

Source of Water & issues Associated with the Source

Source of Water

Issues

Surface water • High flows, easy to contaminate, relatively high suspended solids (total suspended solids, TSS), turbidity, and pathogens.

• In some parts of the world, rivers and streams dry up during the dry season.

Groundwater • Lower flows but natural filtering capacity that removes suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, and pathogens.

• May be high in dissolved solids (total dissolved solids, TDS), including Fe, Mn, Ca, and Mg (hardness). Difficult to clean up after contaminated.

• Renewal times can be very long.

8

Source of Water & issues Associated with the Source (Contd.)

Source of Water

Issues

Seawater • Energy-intensive to desalinate, so costly compared with other sources, and disposal of resulting brine must be considered.

• Desalination can occur by distillation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and ion exchange.

• Of these, multistage distillation and reverse osmosis are the two technologies most commonly used (they account for approximately 87 percent of worldwide desalination capacity).

• There are more reverse osmosis plants in the world; however, they are typically smaller in capacity than distillation plants.

5

9

Source of Water & issues Associated with the Source (Contd.)

Source of Water

Issues

Reclaimed andreused

• Technically feasible. • Currently used for irrigating agricultural crops,

residential and commercial landscaping, groundwater recharge, and potable water through direct and indirect use.

• Includes decentralized use of gray water (wastewater produced from baths and showers, clothes and dishwashers, lavatory sinks, and drinking-water fountains).

• When used for irrigation, nutrients present in reclaimed water can reduce fertilizer usage.

Trends in global water use by sector

10

The Grey band represents the difference between the amount of water extracted and that actually consumed.

6

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be designed requires following data: 1. Water consumption rate (Liters per capita per

day, (Lpcd)2. Population to be served.

Quantity = Per Capita Demand (Lpcd)x Population (Cap.)

11

Water Quantity Estimation

Factors affecting the water consumption rate per person

• Standard of living (car wash, swimming pools, gardening)

• Environmental awareness

• Weather conditions and season of the year

• Availability of water conservation programs

• Metering and pricing

• Social and cultural habits (bathing and showering frequency, ablution, food festivals)

12

7

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Mill

ions

m3 /

day

Water consumption in Saudi Arabia for domestic & industrial uses, all city

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

%30الرياض %24مكة المكرمة

%6المدينة المنورة %4القصيم

%21الشرقية %3عسير %4تبوك %2حائل

%1الحدود الشمالية %2جازان %1نجران %1الباحة %1الجوف

Distribution of water consumption in SA for 2014, in Millions m3/day

الهيئة العامة لإلحصاءالمملكة العربية السعودية

Average water consumption rate in Saudi Arabia = 275 LPCDUSA: 575 LpcdUK: 150 LpcdRwanda: 20 Lpcd

13

Review Question-1

14

a) Our body is made up of about _________water.

b) About ________ water on earth is available to drink.

c) ________ glasses of water one should drink daily for good health

d) One can live about __________days without water.

e) A hundred years ago, earth had________________________.

f) One half of the world's fresh water lies within the borders of ________.

g) Water that is safe to drink is called ________ water.

h) Water that is safe and pleasant to drink is known as ________________.ANSWERS:a. 75%b. 1%c. 6-8 d. 7 dayse. The same amount of water as it is nowf. Canadag. Potableh. palatable

8

• Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water characteristics that makes it unfit for a specific beneficial use.

• The distinction between polluted and unpolluted water depends on: – Type and concentration of impurities– Intended use of water

• Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

• Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water, which can result in damaging natural biological system.

15

Water pollution

Sources of Water Pollution

16

Water pollutants can be classified according to the nature of their origin as: • Point Source• Nonpoint or Dispersed source• Point Source• All dry weather pollutants that enter watercourses through pipes

or channels.

• Point source pollution comes mainly from industrial facilities and municipal wastewater treatment plants.

• Nonpoint or Dispersed source (multiple discharge points)• Storm drainage is considered as nonpoint source pollution.

• Other nonpoint source pollution comes from urban and agricultural runoff, construction sites, and other land disturbances.

9

17

Sources of Water Pollution (Contd.)

• Dispersed source pollutants are more difficult to control than are point source pollutants, which can be collected and removed from the water.

• Dispersed sources cause a significant fraction of the water pollution that may exceed sewage pollution, especially from stormwater runoff in urban as well as rural areas.

18

Sources of Water Pollution (Contd.)

10

Water Pollutants• Generic types of water pollutants:

1. Pathogenic organisms2. Oxygen-demanding substances3. Plant nutrients4. Toxic organics5. Inorganic chemicals6. Sediment7. Radioactive substances8. Heat9. Oil

19

1. Domestic Sewage (Wastewater)• The primary sources of the first three types of pollutants.• Pathogens, or disease-causing microorganisms, are

excreted in the feces of infected persons and may be carried into waters receiving sewage discharges.

• Oxygen-demanding substances: the organic wastes that exert a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as they are decomposed by microbes.

2. Agricultural activities• The major source of water pollution is agriculture

according to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

• Farming is a source of silt, as well as nutrients, pesticides, and organic material.

20

Sources of Water Pollution due to Human Activities

11

3. Industrial activities:• Industry is a huge source of water pollution, it may

produce pollutants that may be extremely harmful to people and the environment.

• This wastewater may contain toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, salts, poisons, oils and in some cases harmful bacteria.

4. Oil spill in oceans:• Oceans are polluted by oil on a daily basis from oil spills,

routine shipping, run-offs and dumping.

21

Sources of Water Pollution due to Human Activities

22

Urban Water Cycle (Induced by human)

12

Parameters of Water Quality1. Physical Water Quality

– Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for domestic use and are usually associated with the appearance of water, its taste and odor.

– Turbidity, Color, Taste & Odor, Total Solids, Suspended Solids, Total Dissolved Solids, Temperature, etc.

2. Chemical Water Quality – The chemical characterization of drinking water includes the

identification of its components and their concentrations.– pH, Alkalinity, Hardness, Chlorides, Fe and Manganese, Sulfates,

Nitrogen compounds, Dissolved oxygen, Biological oxygen demand, Chemical oxygen demand, etc.

3. Microbiological Water Quality– Microorganism: Bacteria, Algae, Protozoa, Viruses– Indicator organism: Coliforms

23

Parameters of Physical Water Quality• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

o include colloids, supra-colloids, and settleable solids.• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

o Dissolved Solids are the solids that can be recovered from water by evaporating the water after filtering the suspended solids

• Total Solids (TS) o Total solids in water and wastewater include suspended solids and

dissolved solids (TS= TSS + TDS).• Color

o Types: True color caused by dissolved solids; Apparent color caused by suspended solids and includes true color.

o Measured by Colorimeter or Spectrophotometer (Units: True Color Unit)

• Turbidityo Turbidity measures the clarity of water containing colloidal material

(cloudy water).o Measured by Turbidimeter (Units: Nephelometric Turbidity Unit, NTU)

24

13

Parameters of Chemical Water Quality

25

• Dissolved Oxygen (DO) o Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is generally considered to be one

of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes.

o The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water body, the better is the water quality.

1 ppm = 1 mg/L

26

• pH (hydrogen ion concentration)o Water (H2O) dissociate slightly to H+ and OH-:

H2O ↔ H+ + OH-

o pH is an intensity factor.- pH = 7: Neutral- pH < 7: Acidic- pH> 7: Alkaline

o pH of most raw water sources: 6.5 - 8.5 o Significance:

- Influences the chemical and biological reactions in water and wastewater treatment plant respectively.

- Corrosion problems (low pH)- Many industrial waters require rigid pH control- Optimum pH required for fish and other aquatic life

Parameters of Chemical Water Quality (Contd.)

14

• Alkalinity– Ability of water to neutralize acids (buffering

capacity of water). – Alkalinity is mostly due to bicarbonates (HCO3

-), of Ca, Mg, and Na.

– Highly alkaline water often has a high pH and generally contains high levels of dissolved solids (harmful for water to be used in boilers and food processing).

– Significance:

- Prevent sudden change of pH in aquatic system- Influences the chemical and biological reactions in

water and wastewater treatment plant respectively.

27


• Hardness– Hardness is a characteristics of water that prevents lathering of

soap and produces scale in hot water pipes and heaters – Hardness is due to the presence of calcium (Ca) and

magnesium (Mg) which are common in groundwater– Significance:

- Scale build-up in boilers and hot water pipe- Excessive soap usage- Spotted dishes, glasses and silverware

28


15

• Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn)– Ground waters that are devoid of dissolved oxygen can

contain appreciable amounts of (Fe2+) & (Mn2+).– Iron in concentrations greater than 0.3 mg/L and manganese in

concentrations greater than 0.05 mg/L are considered substantial.

– Significance: Brown and black stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures A metallic taste of water may be present.

• Trace or Toxic Metals– Trace metals include those metals that are harmful and toxic in

relatively small amounts. – The main source of these metals is the discharges of industrial

wastewater.– Examples of trace metals: arsenic, cadmium, chromium,

mercury, lead, silver and barium.29


• Nitrogen compounds– Inorganic: Ammonia NH3, Nitrite NO2

-, Nitrate NO3-

– Organic: Protein, amino acids– Main Sources: Discharge of domestic, agricultural (fertilizers), industrial

wastewater. Animal wastes and decomposition of dead plants,

animal.– Significance: Drinking of water with high nitrate content (NO3

-) causes Blue-baby disease in infants. Presence of nitrogen compounds along with

phosphorus in water bodies cause eutrophication

30


16

• Organic Matter– Organic compounds are composed mainly of carbon and

hydrogen along with other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

– Organics can be classified on the basis of their origin into: Natural organics (e.g. plants and animal tissues, human feces) Synthetic organics (e.g. plastics, rubber)

– Based on their microbial degradation, organics can be: Biodegradable Non-biodegradable

– Methods of measurement the organic concentration in water: Biochemical Oxygen Demand, BOD Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD

31


• Biochemical Oxygen Demand– BOD is the amount of oxygen required (consumed) by

microorganisms to biologically degrade organic matter in a water sample.

– BOD indicates the amount of organic matter in the water (or organic strength of wastewater).

– BOD is generally measured over a period of five days, and is expressed in mg/L.

• Chemical oxygen demand:– COD is the amount of oxygen required to chemically

oxidize organics in water.– For domestic wastewater, COD > BOD5 because COD

includes both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organics.

32


17

Parameters of Microbiological Water Quality• Disease causing

microorganisms are called pathogens

• Indicator organisms for water quality:– Total Coliform used in

laboratory testing referring to all coliform bacteria from faeces, soils or other origin.

– Faecal Coliform refers to coliform bacteria originating from human or animal faeces.

33

History of water pollution control

34

Waterborne Disease

Organic pollution in receiving water bodies

Pollution by toxic chemicals & heavy metals

Eutrophication (N & P)

Micro-pollutantsRefractory chemicals

Development of water supply & sewerage system

Cleaner technology Decentralized system

WWTP constructed End-of-Pipe technology

Increase in urban population &

poor sanitation

Industrial evolution

Intensive agriculture

High-tech society & modern life style

Background Type of water pollution Technological Measures

Source control

Advanced WWTP Nutrient recovery

18

Water Quality Standards

35

Water quality standards includes maximum allowed contaminants levels (MCLs).

Examples of some national/international standards and institutions are:

• GSO 149:2014, Unbottled drinking water

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• World Health Organization (WHO)

A sample sheet of water quality standard

(GCC Standardization Organization)

Review Question-2

36

a) The worst polluters are big factories that dump dirty water into lakes, rivers, and oceans (T/F)___.

b) What do you call stuff that is sprayed on plants to kill bugs?______.

c) What is the word that means "made dirty or unsafe"?__________.

d) Algae blooms result from __________ type of surface pollution.

e) Surface water with no dissolved oxygen is contaminated by _____.

f) Sediment pollution comes primarily from non-point sources (T/F)___.

Answersa. Trueb. Pesticidesc. Contaminatedd. Nutriente. Organic matterf. True

19

Review Question-2 (Contd.)

37

g) Lead, arsenic, and mercury are hazardous heavy metal pollutant (T/F)___.

h) Most industrial water pollution is non point-source pollution(T/F)_____.

i) What is the source of most nitrogen pollution of surface water?___.

j) Nitrogen pollution of the groundwater is worst where surficial materials are permeable (T/F)______.

k) Thermal pollution results primarily from power generation (T/F)_______.

l) Surface water with essentially no dissolved oxygen is ______.Answersg. Trueh. Falsei. Fertilizersj. Truek. Truel. anaerobic

1

Water PollutionPart-2Types of Water Pollution




2

• To discuss types of water pollution and the available methods for the mitigation of these pollutions.

2

1. Thermal Pollution

2. Soil Erosion and sediment Control

3. Stream Pollution

4. Lake Pollution

5. Groundwater Pollution

6. Ocean Pollution

3

Types of Water Pollution

• Heat is considered to be a water pollutant because of the adverse effect it can have on the oxygen levels and the aquatic life in a river or lake.

• The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called thermal pollution.

• Discharge of warm water is caused mainly for cooling purposes for power plants.

• The warmer temperature decrease the solubility of oxygen and increases the rate of metabolism of fish.

• Some species of fish actually prefer warmer waters.

4

1. Thermal Pollution

3

• Thermal pollution may by controlled by passing the heated water through a cooling pond or a cooling towerafter it leaves the condenser.

• The heat is dissipated into the air, and the water can then be either discharged to the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse as cooling water

5

Control of Thermal Pollution

• In locations where there is not enough room for a cooling pond, one or more cooling towers may be built to prevent thermal pollution.

6

A common type is the natural draft hyperbolic cooling tower, in which

evaporation accounts for most of the heat transfer

Control of Thermal Pollution (Contd.)

4

• The natural movement of soil particles by wind or water from one location to another is called soil erosion.

• Soil erosion has been identified as one of the sources of water pollutants.

• Soil particles suspended in water interfere with the penetration of sunlight.

• This in turn reduces photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants and algae, disrupting the ecological balance of the stream.

• When the water velocity decreases, the suspended particles settle out and are deposited as sediment at the bottom of the stream or lake.

• Sediment suppresses benthic, or bottom-dwelling, organisms and disrupts the reproductive cycles of fish and other life forms.

7

2. Soil Erosion and sediment Control

Benthos

Soil Erosion and sediment Control (Contd.)• There are two types of water-

caused soil erosion: – Sheet erosion is the uniform

removal of soil in thin layers by the forces of raindrops and overland flow.

– Stream erosion is the removal of soils from streambeds and stream banks by the swiftly moving channelized water.

8

5

• Some of the more common Best management practices (BMPs) include the following:– Temporary grass cover on

exposed soils to reduce wind and water erosion.

– Hay bales can be placed around stormwater inlets to intercept sediment.

– A typical hay bale and gravel filter, which prevents sediment from entering a drainage system and then local streams, is usually used in the vicinity of active construction sites.

9

Soil Erosion and sediment Control (Contd.)

Hay Bales

10

Soil Erosion and sediment Control (Contd.)

Channel stabilization

• Some of the more common Best management practices (BMPs) include the following:– Channel stabilization for

streams and drainage ditches.

– Diversion channels reduce the distance of overland sheet flow, thereby reducing soil erosion and sedimentation of nearby streams and lakes.

6

• To a limited extent, streams and rivers have the ability to assimilate or degrade biodegradable wastes. Thus, they can recover from the effects of pollution naturally, without significant or permanent environmental damage.

• The capacity for self-purification depends on:– the strength and volume of pollutants, – the stream discharge or flow rate, – the level of turbulence in the water as it may cascade over

rocks and boulders in the stream channel

• It used to be said that: the solution to pollution is dilution

11

3. Stream Pollution

• The effect of oxygen transfer between the air and the water (reaeration) is important factor for natural purification.

• Fast-flowing, shallow, turbulent streams are reaerated more effectively than slow, deep, twisting streams.

• Modem-day population densities are too high for most streams and rivers to assimilate raw sewage discharges.

• Some degree of treatment is required to remove enough of the BOD from the sewage so that stream can finish the job of the purification.

• A level of treatment called secondary treatment is generally sufficient for this purpose; it is the minimum level of treatment required.

12

Stream Pollution (Contd.)

7

• There are two basic steps involved in the process of waste assimilation in a stream or river:1. Physical processes of dilution and reaeration occur.2. Biological processes occur, in which microorganisms in

the water use dissolved oxygen to metabolize organic pollutants and convert them into harmless substances.

13

Stream Pollution—Dilution

• One input to the system is a stream with a flow rate Qs(volume/time) and pollutant concentration Cs(mass/volume).

• The other input is assumed to be a waste stream with flow rate Qw and pollutant concentration Cw.

• The output is a mixture with flow rate Qm and pollutant concentration Cm

Dilution (Contd.)

𝐂𝐬𝐐𝐬 𝐂𝐰𝐐𝐰 𝐂𝐦𝐐𝐦

𝐐𝐬 𝐐𝐰 𝐐𝐦

14

8

Problem-1A stream flowing at 10.0 m3/s has a tributary feeding into it with a flow 5.0 m3/s. The stream's concentration of chlorides upstream of the junction is 20 mg/L and the tributary chloride concentration is 40 mg/L. Treating chlorides as a conservative substance, and assuming complete mixing of the two streams, find the downstream chloride concentration.

15

Solution

16

C Q C Q C Q

C20 10 40 5 mg/L · m /s

10 5 m /s26.7 mg/L

Q Q Q

CC Q C Q

QC Q C Q

Q Q

9

Problem-2A river has a dry-weather discharge of 100 m3/s and a temperature of 25°C. Compute the maximum discharge of cooling water at 65°C that can be discharged from a power plant into the stream. Assume the legal limit on temperature increase in the stream is 2°C.

17

Solution:The maximum allowable stream temperature is

25+2=27°C

2700 27 Q 2500 65 Q

CC Q C Q

Q Q27

25 100 65 Q100 Q

38 Q 200 Q 5.3 𝑚3/𝑠

• When sewage is discharged into a stream, dissolved oxygen is utilized by microorganisms as they metabolize and decompose organic substances from the wastewater.

18

Stream Pollution—Dissolved Oxygen Profile

The oxygen sag curve shows the effect of organic pollution on the DO levels in a stream or river. After the organics decompose, surface reaeration will restore the original water quality. This is called stream self-purification.

The minimum dissolved oxygen content in the stream occur when the rate of reaeration equals the rate of deoxygenation.

10

• Most streams that are polluted by a point source of biodegradable organic substances can be described and evaluated in terms of four distinct zones.

19

Stream Pollution—Zones of Pollution

• Water in lakes is not moving much and is detained for a relatively long period of time, that mean self-purification will requires more time not like river and stream.

• In lakes, water quality may be more dependent on plant nutrients than on organics from sewage.

• Phosphorus and nitrogen are the most critical plant nutrients.

• When pollutants containing phosphorus and nitrogen compounds accumulate in a lake, rooted aquatic plants and free-floating algae may grow plentifully.

• The algae and aquatic weeds eventually die and settle to the bottom of the lake, where they are decomposed by bacteria and protozoa.

• This exerts an oxygen demand on the water and may deplete the DO in parts of the lake.

20

4. Lake Pollution

11

• The process of nutrient enrichment and gradual accumulation in a lake, as just described, is a natural process. It is called eutrophication and can be thought of as an inevitable an continual aging of the lake.

21

• Four stages in the life of a lake. All lakes go through a natural aging process called eutrophication. Human activity often accelerates this process.

• Cultural (or anthropogenic) eutrophication is the acceleration of the natural aging process due to human activity.

Lake Pollution (Contd.)

• Groundwater is usually of excellent quality. This is primarily because of the natural filtration that occurs in the layers of soil through which the water slowly moves underground.

• An increasing number of contaminated groundwater in certain locations have been reported.

• The contaminants come from many different sources and include a variety of materials, most notably synthetic organic chemicals.

• Of all types of water pollution, this synthetic organic chemicals is perhaps the most insidious because at low concentrations the contaminants rarely impart any noticeable taste or odor to drinking water.

22

5. Groundwater Pollution

12

1. Improper disposal of wastes, such as unlined landfills or industrial sewage lagoons.

2. Accidental spills of hazardous substances, especially from industrial activities.

3. Petroleum products leaking from old underground storage tanks (USTs).

4. Mining and petroleum production, especially from hydraulic fracturing technology.

5. Subsurface sewage disposal systems.6. Agricultural activities.7. Saltwater Intrusion.

23

Sources of Groundwater Contamination

• Diagram showing two sources of ground water pollution from industrial waste disposal a leaky surface impoundment or lagoon and deep well wastewater injection.

• The arrows indicate the direction of flow of the pollutants.

• A bottom liner for the lagoon and thorough geological exploration of the saline aquifer can help prevent the pollution.

24

Sources of Groundwater Contamination (Contd.)

13

• Groundwater can be polluted from on-site sewage disposal systems.

• Wells located downhill from septic absorption fields are susceptible to contamination.

25


Water cycle in hydraulic fracturing. (Courtesy of the U.S. EPA)26

14

• Natural purification of chemically contaminated groundwater can take decades and perhaps centuries, and cleanup efforts are sometimes much too expensive to be practical.

• If an aquifer that supplies drinking water is polluted, it may be necessary to abandon the contaminated well(s) and drill new ones some distance away.

• The best way to control groundwater pollution is to prevent it from occurring in the first place.

• Laws related to solid and hazardous waste disposal significantly reduce new contamination.

27


• Ocean water is naturally saline (salty), containing about 3.5% dissolved solids (35 grams per liter, or 35,000 mg/L).

• Despite the ocean provide a tremendous reservoir for dilution of pollution, the ocean volume is not infinite, and its capacity to assimilate pollution in estuaries and other sensitive coastal zones between ocean and land is finite and limited

• In some coastal areas, excessive chemical nutrients from sewage and dispersed agricultural runoff can cause seasonal formations of hypoxic areas, in which DO levels drop so low.

• Problems related to degradation of the ocean waters are global in scope.

28

6. Ocean Pollution

15

1. Diffusion of sewage in Seawater.– Treated sewage effluent from cities and towns is

discharged directly into the ocean in many coastal areas.

2. Ocean dumping of sludge– Used in the past but now is banned

3. Oil spills– Accidental discharges of oil into ocean and bay waters

can cause serious ecological damage to marine system.

4. Floating plastic rubbish– Use of biodegradable plastics, as well as an emphasis

on waste recycling and waste minimization can help to mitigate this problem.

29

Sources of ocean pollution

Plastic debris has been found by oceanographers to accumulate primarily in five regions

30

16

Review Question-1

31

a) The degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature is called________ .

b) _____________is the removal of soils from streambeds and stream banks by the swiftly moving channelized water.

c) A simple solution to stream pollution is _____________.

d) Millions of tiny and large pieces of plastics accumulate at _______.

e) Algae blooms result from __________ type of Lake pollution.

f) Surface water with no dissolved oxygen is contaminated by _____.

Answersa. Thermal Pollutionb. Stream erosion c. Dilutiond. Gyrese. Nutrientsf. Organic matter

1

Water PollutionPart-3Water Pollution Control




2

• To discuss water quality standard and its types.

• To learn how to treat surface and ground waters to make them fit for drinking purposes.

• To learn the stages involved in the waste water treatment plant.

• To give an overview of oil spill problem.

2

• Standards were established to limit the amount of pollutants discharged into streams, lakes, and coastal waters

• Water quality standards are limits on the amount of physical, chemical, or microbiological impurities allowed in water that is intended for a particular use.

3

Water Quality Standard

• There are three different types of water quality standards: 1. Stream

standards– classification of

surface waters on the basis of their beneficial use.

2. Effluent standards

3. Drinking water standards

4

Types of Water Quality Standards

Three different types of water quality standards are enforced by the regulatory agencies to protect

public health and environment.

3

5

Saudi Arabian Drinking Water Standards (bottled water)

(Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affair, 1426)

6

• Water Treatment Plant

• Wastewater Treatment Plant

• Oil Spill treatment methods

• Produced Water Treatment

Water Treatment Plant and Water Pollution Control

Raw water generally require treatment before consumption and wastewater need to be treated before the disposal.

4

Flow diagram of a typical Surface Water treatment plant

7

Coagulant chemicals

added

Flocculation basin

Sedimentation basin

Coa

gula

tion

ba

sin Sand filtration

Disinfection

High-lift pump

Potable water to

distribution system

SludgeDirty

backwash water

To disposal

• Screens keep debris and large objects out of the plant• Low-pressure pumps lift the water to the coagulation tank• Coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation, and sand filtration

remove turbidly, suspended solids, some of dissolved solids, and clarify the water (Clarifications)

• Disinfection destroys pathogenic organisms• High-pressure pumps deliver potable water to the consumers

Raw water From river

or lake

Intake screen

Low-lift pumps

Coagulation, Flocculation, Filtration and Disinfection

8

• Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate thesuspended solids portion from the water.

• Naturally occurring silt particles suspended in water possessnegative charges, and are thus prevented from coming togetherto form large particles that could more readily be settled out.

• The removal of these particles by settling requires first that theircharges be neutralized and second that the particles beencouraged to collide with each other.

5

Coagulation, Flocculation, Filtration and Disinfection

9

• The charge neutralization is called coagulation, and the building oflarger flocs from smaller particles is called flocculation.

• Alum is often used as a coagulant in water treatment. Alum is thecommon name for Aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3, which forms aprecipitated solid, Al(OH)3, when it comes into contact with water.It is a white, gelatinous sticky material that easily traps particles inthe water.

• Filtration is the removal of particles by sieving through a granularmedia.

• Disinfection is the addition of chemicals (usually chlorine,chloramines, or ozone) or the application of UV radiation to reducethe number of pathogenic organisms to levels that will not causedisease.

Pollution of Stream Lines

10

Effluent 2 (Q2, C2)

Stream Line(e.g. river)

Effluent 1 (Q1, C1)

Effluent 3 (Q3, C3)

Outflow (Q, C)

Q1, Q2, Q3, Q : Flow rate (m3/h or L/h)C1, C2, C3, C : TDS concentration (mg/L)

iQQQQQ 321

:discharge ofpoint at the Outflow

i

ii

Q

CQ

Q

CQCQCQC

CQCQCQQC

332211

332211

:discharge ofpoint at the TDS

6

11

A wastewater treatment plant is discharging to a river. If thewater flow rates are given in table, Compute the TDSconcentration at the end point, assuming a completemixing.

River (before mixing point)

Wastewater Treatment Plant (24 h/day)

Flow rate (m3/h) 20,000 3,100

TDS (mg/L) 360 420

Problem-1

Q1= 20,000 m3/h

C1= 360 mg/L

Q2= 3,100 m3/h

C2= 420 mg/L

Q C

11

12

Q = Q1+Q2 = 20,000 m3/h + 3,100 m3/h = 23,100 m3/h

Q1C1+Q2C2 = 20000 * 360 + 3100 * 420 = 8,502,000

C = [ Q1C1+Q2C2 ] / [ Q1+Q2 ] = 8,502,000 / 23,100

C = 368 mg/l

Q1= 20,000 m3/h

C1= 360 mg/L

Q2= 3,100 m3/h

C2= 420 mg/L

Q C

Solution

12

7

Equalization tank

13

• If a factory is discharging its wastewater duringcertain hours every day, the factory can reduce theflow rate by using an equalization tank.

• The new flow rate could be calculated as follows:

hours rkingfactory worate flow Originaldaily discharged volumeTotal

24

hours rkingfactory worate flow Original

24

daily discharged volumeTotal rate flow Equalized

14

Problem-2

1) Within and out of working hours of factory2) Using the equalization tank in factory


Wastewater Treatment Plant

Factory

Flow rate (m3/h) 20,000 3,100 800

Working hours daily

24 6

COD (mg/L) 14 70 420

TDS (mg/L) 360 420 2,600

A factory and WWT plant discharges in to a river. Based on the below table; determine TDS after junction

14

8

15

1.1) Within working hours of factoryTDS=[ 20,000 * 360 + 3100 * 420 + 800 * 2600 ]/

[ 20,000 + 3,100 + 800] = 442.8 mg/L


Wastewater Treatment Plant

Factory

Flow rate (m3/h) 20,000 3,100 800Working hours daily 24 6COD (mg/L) 14 70 420TDS (mg/L) 360 420 2,600

Solution

1.2) Out of working hours of factoryTDS= [ 20,000 * 360 + 3,100 * 420 ]/

[ 20,000 + 3100 ] = 368.1 mg/L

2) Using equalization tankTDS = [ 20,000*360 + 3100*420 + 800*2600*6/24 ] /

[ 20000 + 3100 + 200 ] = 387.2 mg/L 15

Flow diagram of a typical Groundwatertreatment plant

16

• Aeration removes gases and convert soluble iron and manganese to insoluble precipitate

• Membrane filtration, like reverse osmosis, removes dissolved solids

Gro

und

wat

er

From

wel

l

Coagulant chemicals

added

Flocculation basin

Sedimentation basin

Coa

gula

tion

ba

sin Sand filtration

Disinfection

High-lift pump

Potable water to distribution

system

SludgeDirty

backwash water

To disposal

Brine water

Membrane filtration

High-lift pumps

Aeration

9

Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis• Osmosis: a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to

pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.

• Reverse Osmosis: a process by which a solvent passes through a porous membrane in the direction opposite to that for natural osmosis when subjected to a hydrostatic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure.

17

Reverse Osmosis (RO) units

18

10

Review Question

19

a) Why are iron and manganese undesirable in water

– They can cause undesirable color in water (T/F)

– They can stain clothes and plumbing fixtures (T/F)

– They can promote the growth of iron bacteria, which can cause tastes and odor (T/F)

b) Coagulation-flocculation gather together fine, light particles to form larger particles (floc) to aid the _________________processes.

c) A corrosive water deteriorates metal pipes (T/F)

d) The purpose of water treatment plant is to produce _______________drinking water.

e) The main purpose of a water treatment plant's intake structure is to draw in water while preventing leaves and other debris from clogging or damaging pumps (T/F)

f) The purpose of filtration is to filter out ________________.

g) The use of pre-chlorination often ______ chlorine requirements for post-chlorination.

ANSWERS:a. True, True, True; b. sedimentation and filtration; c. True; d. safe and pleasant; e. True; f. suspended particles; g. reduces

Municipal Wastewater Treatment(Sewage treatment or domestic wastewater

treatment)

20

• Sewage treatment or domestic wastewater treatment isthe process of removing contaminants from wastewaterand household sewage, both runoff (effluents) anddomestic.

• It includes physical, chemical, and biological processesto remove physical, chemical and biologicalcontaminants.

• Its objective is to produce a waste stream (or treatedeffluent) and a solid waste or sludge suitable fordischarge or reuse back into the environment.

• It is generally desired that a wastewater treatment plantproduces an effluent with suspended solids level below20 mg/L and BOD below 20 mg/L.

11

21

Degrees of Treatment• Wastewater treatment plants may use preliminary, primary,

secondary, and/or tertiary treatments.• Primary wastewater treatment is sedimentation (mechanical

treatment) to remove settleable suspended solids from wastewater.• Secondary wastewater treatment is typically biological oxidation

(biological treatment) to remove dissolved and fine suspendedorganic matter (i.e. BOD) from wastewater.

• Advanced wastewater treatment or tertiary treatment is any othertreatment needed.

Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plant

22

• The purpose of Biological Treatment is to oxidize or remove organic matter (BOD), and in some cases nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) by using microorganisms (MOs).

Organics + MOs + O2 CO2 + H2O + new cells + energy

12

An Aerial view of Wastewater Treatment Plant

23

Concentration of major constituents found in average-strength wastewater

24

13

25

Oil Spill• An oil spill is the release of a

liquid petroleum hydrocarboninto the environment due tohuman activity, and is a form ofpollution.

• The term often refers to marineoil spills, where oil is released intothe ocean or coastal waters.

• The oil may be a variety ofmaterials, including crude oil,refined petroleum products(such as gasoline or diesel fuel)or by-products.

• Spills take months or even yearsto clean up.

Deepwater Horizon oil spill(An Accidental Oil Spill)

26

• The Deepwater Horizon was a semi-submersible, mobile, floating, dynamicallypositioned drilling rig that could operate inwaters up to 3,000 m deep.

• Built by South Korean company HyundaiHeavy Industries and owned byTransocean, the rig operated under theMarshallese flag of convenience, and waschartered to BP (British Petroleum) fromMarch 2008 to September 2013.

• It was drilling a deep exploratory well, 5,600m below sea level, in approximately 1,600m of water.

• The well is situated in the Gulf of Mexico, inthe United States' exclusive economic zone.

14

Contd.

27

• On the night of 20 April 2010, high-pressure methane gas from the wellexpanded into the drilling riser and roseinto the drilling rig, where it ignited andexploded, engulfing the platform.

• The Deepwater Horizon sank on themorning of 22 April 2010.

• The oil leak was discovered on theafternoon of 22 April when a large oil slickbegan to spread at the former rig site.

• The oil flowed for 87 days. The flow ratewas about 62,000 barrels per day (9,900m3/d) making it the world’s largestaccidental spill.

• According to the satellite images, the spilldirectly impacted 68,000 square miles(180,000 km2) of ocean.

Environmental Effects

28

• Damage to Fisheries– Oil spills present the potential for enormous

harm to deep ocean and coastal fishing and fisheries.

– Harms include: fish mass mortality and contamination, poisoning ocean organic substrate and shutting down fishing enterprises.

• Damage to Wildlife– Wildlife other than fish and sea creatures;

including mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds that live in or near the ocean, are also poisoned by oil waste.

• Damage to Recreation– Coastal areas are usually thickly populated

and attract many recreational activities; for example fishing, boating, diving, swimming, natural parks and beaches, …etc.

15

Popular Techniques for Cleaning up an Oil Spill

29

• The techniques used to cleanup an oil spill depend on oilcharacteristics and the typeof environment involved; forexample, open ocean,coastal, or wetland.

• Like a home repair job, eachoil spill has unique aspectsthat call for carefulconsideration when decidingwhich tool to use.

Booms

30

• Floating booms aremechanical barriers thatextend above and belowthe surface of the water tostop the flow of oil.

• Boom is used to contain oil,to collect oil, as a barricadeto exclude oil from a certainarea; to absorb oil; and todeflect oil.

16

Skimming

31

• Skimming is a process that removes oil from the sea surface before it reaches sensitive areas along a coastline.

• This is achieved by the use of various mechanical devices such as pumps, vacuum systems etc. These devices attract oil to their surfaces before transferring it to a collection tank, often on a boat.

• Much like a vacuum picks up dirt from a carpet, a skimmer has to come in direct contact with the oil in order to remove it from the surface and, even then, it will still pick up some water.

• The efficiency of a skimmer depends upon the sea and weather conditions.

Sorbents

32

• Sorbent booms and barriers are used to absorb a moving oil slick.

• They only work well when a slick is thin, because once their surfaces are saturated, they cannot absorb anymore. Sorbent boom to the left, hard boom to the

right

17

In-situ Burning

33

• In situ burning is the process of burning spilled oil where it is onthe ocean (known as "in situ," which is Latin for "on site").

• Through controlled burning of the oil, oil slick can beremoved.

• In-situ burning can approximately remove around 100-gallons/day/square foot of surface area under excellentweather conditions.

• Similar to skimming, two boats will often tow a fire-retardantcollection boom to concentrate enough oil to burn.

• Ideal conditions for in situ burning are daylight with mild oroffshore winds and flat seas.

Bioremediation

34

• Oil, like many natural substances, will biodegrade over a period of time into simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, water and biomass.

• Bioremediation is the term used to describe a range of processes, which can be used to accelerate natural biodegradation.

• Bioremediation is the use of either naturally occurring or deliberately introduced microorganisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean a polluted site.

18

Manual Clean up

35

• The other best way toclean up oil once it hashit the shore is by manualclean up.

• Since oil has chances ofspreading and gettingmixed with the soil orsand on the shore, thebest method to containoil spread is by manualmethods.

Produced Water

36

• Produced water is a term used inthe oil industry todescribe water that is produced asa by product along with the oil andgas.

• Oil wells have more producedwater than gas wells

• Waterflooding (or water injection) isa technique that often used toincrease the production of oil wells.

• The water composition rangeswidely from well to well and evenover the life of the same well.

36

19

Produced Water (Contd.)• Much produced water is brine, and

most formations result in total dissolvedsolids too high for beneficial reuse.

• All produced water contains oil and suspended solids.

• Produced water is considered an industrial waste.

• Historically, produced water was disposed of in large evaporation ponds.

• However, this has become an increasingly unacceptable disposal method from both environmental and social perspectives.

37

1

Air Pollution and ControlPart 1




2

• To provide an overview of earth’s atmosphere • To study variation of temperature in different layers

of earth’s atmosphere• To explain six major sources of Air pollution

2

Introduction•Air is necessary for the survival of all higher forms of life

on earth. On the average, a person needs at least 13 kg of air every day to live, but only about 1.4 kg of water and 0.7 kg of food.• Scientific studies have demonstrated that over the long

term, the standard of health for people living and working in urban areas is lower than that for populations in rural areas, where air pollution is much less severe.• There is much scientific evidence of a distinct

relationship between generally dirty air and a higher incidence of respiratory diseases, including lung cancer. • There is also compelling evidence that air pollution has

a significant and lasting worldwide (global) impact on the Earth's climate.

3

Atmospheric Layers

Atmospheric layers is

divided into 5 layers, based on increase or decrease of temperature with altitude.

4

Exosphere

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

3

Layer 1: Troposphere

5

• Troposphere is the layer where we live in.• It is the closest layer to earth’s surface. It is also the thinnest

layer. • All the earth’s weather happens in this layer.• The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy

from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude.

• The troposphere, contains about 80 % of the total air mass(or atmosphere)

• Dry air in the troposphere is a mixture of:78 % Nitrogen by volume21 % Oxygen by volume1 % Other gases: argon(about 0.9 %), carbon dioxide,

methane, and water vapor.

Gaseous Composition of the Troposphere

6

• It is in this relatively thin layer of air that oxygen-dependent life issustained, clouds are formed, weather patterns develop, andmost air pollution problems occur.

• The density of air (about 1.23 kg/m3 at sea level) decreasessignificantly with an increase in altitude.

• The depth of Troposphere layer is about on average 12 km.• Troposphere is deeper in the tropics, up to 20 km, and shallower

near the polar regions, approximately 7 km.• The relative amount or concentrations of gases in air can be

expressed in terms of parts per million (ppm) and in terms ofpercentage.

• For example, since 1 % = 10,000 ppm, an oxygen level of 21 % inair can also be expressed as 210,000 ppm.

• The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere,now close to 0.04%, may be more conveniently expressed as 400ppm.

4

Layer 2: Stratosphere

7

• The stratosphere extends to about 51 km.• About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is

contained in the stratosphere.• In stratosphere ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8

parts per million (ppm).• It is mainly located in the lower portion of the

stratosphere from about 15 to 35 km, though thethickness varies seasonally and geographically.

• Ozone absorbs ultraviolet light from the Sun.

• More light is absorbed at higheraltitudes compared to the lowerstratosphere, so the temperatureincreases with height whichrestricts turbulence and mixing.

Air Pollution

8

•Air pollution may be simply defined as the presence of certain substances in the air in high enough concentrations and for long enough durations to cause undesirable effects.–"Certain substances" may be

any gas, liquid, or solid.–Those substances causing

pollution are called pollutants.•Worldwide, air pollution is

responsible for large numbers of deaths and respiratory disease.

Atmospheric pollution occurs because the release of air pollutants takes place at a rate much faster than they can be accommodated by the environment and removed from the atmosphere without causing serious harm.

5

Effects of Weather •Air pollutants are mixed, dispersed, and diluted within

the troposphere by movement of air masses, bothhorizontally and vertically.•Air movements and therefore air quality are very

dependent on local and regional weather conditions.• Knowledge of horizontal and vertical circulation

patterns of air is of importance with regard to:–site selection for new industrial plants.–design of tall stacks or chimneys.

9

Horizontal Dispersion of Pollutants• Horizontal dispersion or spreading of air pollutants

depends on wind speed and direction.• Because soil and rock warm up and cool faster than

water, winds near shorelines are directed toward thewater at night and inland during the day.• In an urban area, where steel, concrete, and masonry

absorb and hold heat, a heat island cover the city atnight, with a self-contained circulation pattern fromwhich pollutants cannot readily escape.

Sea breeze and land breeze wind circulation pattern10

6

Wind Rose Diagram

11

• The wind rose indicates the frequency with which the wind blows from a given direction (N - North, S - South, E -East, W - West).

• For example, a wedge directed straight up (N) and extending 4 rings means that the wind blows from the North 4% of the time.

Riyadh Wind Rose Plot for five years

Wind Rose Diagram Type II

12

Shows direction, duration and intensity (wind speed)• Radial lines – Wind direction• Each wedge – Wind velocity• Inside circle – Percentage of

time wind blows in that direction.

Riyadh Wind Rose Plot for five years

7

Vertical Dispersion of Pollutants

• Vertical mixing of air and dispersion of pollutantsdepends on the kind of atmospheric stabilityprevailing at any given time.• The atmosphere is considered to be stable when there

is little or no vertical movement of air masses andtherefore little or no mixing and dispersion of pollutantsin the vertical direction.•An unstable atmosphere, on the other hand, is one in

which the air moves naturally in a vertical direction,increasing mixing and dispersion of the pollutants.•With regard to local or regional air quality, a condition

of atmospheric instability is preferable to a stablecondition.

13

Vertical Dispersion of Pollutants (Contd.)

•Air stability depends on the rate of change of airtemperature with altitude, called the temperaturegradient.• The rate at which air temperature drops with increasing

altitude in the troposphere is called the environmentallapse rate.• The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the lapse rate of a dry

mass of air which expands and cools as it rises. This rateis typically -10 °C per 1 km (or -1 °C per 100 m).•Dry adiabatic lapse rate is independent of the

prevailing atmospheric temperature gradient at anygiven time.

14

8

Vertical Dispersion of Pollutants (Contd.)• When the environmental lapse

rate exceeds the adiabaticlapse rate, the atmosphere isunstable and vertical mixing ofair masses will occur

• A lapse rate characterized byan increase in air temperaturewith increasing altitude, called atemperature inversion, results inan extremely stable condition.–This prevents the upward

mixing of pollutants and amajor cause of severe airpollution episodes.

15


16

Illustration of unstable atmospheric conditions, when the environmental lapse rate (e.g., –2° per 100 m) exceeds the adiabatic lapse rate. In this example, buoyant forces keep the air parcels moving in a vertical direction.

9


17

When a temperature inversion begins above the ground because of local weather conditions, it acts as ceiling that prevents further vertical mixing and traps pollutants below it

18

• Trapping of pollutants below the inversion, allowing them to build up.

• If the sky is very hazy, or is sunsets are very red, there is likely an inversion somewhere in the lower atmosphere.

• This happens more frequently in high pressure zones, where the gradual sinking of air in the high pressure dome typically causes an inversion to form at the base of a sinking layer of air.

Tem

pera

ture

Inve

rsio

n

10

Sources of Air Pollutants•Natural: Those pollutants which

are introduced by volcanoes, fires, oceans, soils, plants and microbes etc.•Anthropogenic: Those

pollutants which are caused by human activities. For example, by combustion-type engines, by construction and destruction of structures, by chemical processing, mining and agriculture etc.

19

Primary and Secondary Pollutants

20

• Those pollutants that are directly introduced into air by human activities are Primary Pollutants.• The sources of primary air

pollutants are either mobile (e.g., automobiles) or stationary (e.g., coal-fired electric power generating stations).–Example: Sulfur dioxide

released directly from burning fossil fuel.

11

Primary and Secondary Pollutants

21

• Secondary pollutants are produced when primary pollutants react with other pollutants or water vapor to make a new substance.–Example: Sulfur dioxide mixes

with water in atmosphere and causes acidic rain.

–ozone is produced by hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen (both of which may be produced by car emissions) and sunlight

Six Common Pollutants causing Air Pollution

22

1. Ground-level Ozone 2. Particulate matter (Particle

pollution) 3. Carbon monoxide 4. Sulfur oxides (e.g. SO2)5. Nitrogen oxides (e.g. NO2)6. Lead• These pollutants can harm human-health and the environment

12

1. Ground-level Ozone

23

• Ground-level ozone (O3) is a colourless and highly irritating gas that forms just above the earth's surface.

• It is a "secondary" pollutant because it is produced when two primary pollutants, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), react in sunlight and stagnant air.

• Most of NOx and VOCs come from combustion of fuels (e.g. gasoline or petrol).

• Ground-level ozone is the primary constituent of smog.

• Smog is a kind of visible air pollution, originally named for the mixture of smoke and fog in the air.

• Smog is composed of ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, smoke or particulates among others

Ozone: Good and Bad

24

• Ozone has the same chemical structure whether it occurs miles above the earth or at ground-level and can be "good" or "bad," depending on its location in the atmosphere.

• “Good” ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere approximately 10 to 30 miles above the earth's surface and forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful rays.

• In the earth's lower atmosphere, ground-level ozone is considered “Bad.” This ozone can damage lung tissue and plants.

13

2. Particulate Matter

25

• Particulate matter (PM) are also known as particle pollution.• Particulates are extremely small fragments of solid or liquid

droplets suspended in air. • Major sources of particulates include industrial materials

handling processes, coal- and oil-burning power plants, residential heating systems, and highway vehicles.

• Particulates that penetrate deep into the lungs are harmful, and certain particulates can be toxic or carcinogenic (cause cancer)

• consider that the average human hair is about 65 µm in diameter

• PM smaller than 1 µm tend to remain suspended in the atmosphere indefinitely, whereas those larger than 1 µm can eventually settle out.

Particulate Matter (Contd.)

26

• The particulate materials of most concern with regard to adverse effects on human health are equal to or less than 10 µm in size and are referred to as PM10• Fine particles, those with

diameters equal to or smaller than 2.5 µm (PM2.5) are of special concern because they are more likely to penetrate deep into the lungs when inhaled.

14

3. Carbon Monoxide

27

• Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorlessand odorless gas that is formed when carbon in fuel is not burned completely.

• Vehicular exhaust is a major source (about 56 percent of all) of CO emissions.

• Higher levels of CO generally occur in areas with heavy traffic congestion.

• Indoor CO sources are commonly woodstoves, gas stoves, cigarette smoke, unvented gas and kerosene space heaters.

4. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

28

• NO2 forms quickly from emissions fromcars, trucks and buses, power plants,and off-road equipment.

• NO2 is one of a group of highlyreactive gasses known as "oxides ofnitrogen," or "nitrogen oxides (NOx)."

• Other nitrogen oxides include nitrousacid (HNO2) and nitric acid (HNO3).

• In addition to contributing to theformation of ground-level ozone, andfine particle pollution, NO2 is linkedwith a number of adverse effects onthe respiratory system.

• NOx reacts with ammonia, moisture,and other compounds to form smallparticles.

15

5. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

29

• Belongs to the family of sulfur oxide gases (SOx). These gases dissolve easily in water.

• SOx gases are formed when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil, or metals are extracted from ore.

• SO2 may cause Respiratory illness, particularly in children and the elderly.

• In the longer-term exposures to high levels of SO2 gas and particles aggravate existing heart and lung diseases.

• Sulfate particles are the major cause of reduced visibility in many parts of the world.

6. Lead (Pb)

30

• The major sources of lead emissions havehistorically been motor vehicles (such as cars andtrucks) and industrial sources.

• Today, the highest levels of lead in air are usuallyfound near lead smelters.

• Other stationary sources are waste incinerators,utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers.

• Lead is a systemic poison, causes anemia(reduction in haemoglobin), affects kidneyfunction, and damages brain.

• As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts to removelead from gasoline, emissions of lead from thetransportation sector dramatically declined by 95percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels oflead in the air decreased by 94 percent between1980 and 1999.

16

Hazardous Air Pollutants

•Air pollutants associated with certain specific sources, and that pose an immediate threat to human health, are called air toxics or hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) examples are:–Asbestos–Benzene–Beryllium–Mercury–Vinyl chloride–Radionuclides (radioactive air pollutants)

31

Gases Concentration Measurement

•Concentration of air gaseous pollutants in air are mostly expressed in volumetric terms

1 volume of gaseous pollutant10 volume of air

𝟏 𝐩𝐩𝐦 by volume

• Sometimes concentrations are expressed as mass per unit volume, such as µg/m3 or mg/m3. • The relationship between ppm and mg/m3 depends

on the pressure, temperature, and molecular weight (MW) of the pollutant.• The ideal gas law helps us establish that relationship

32

17

Conversion between ppm and mg/m3

In general, the conversion from ppm to mg/m3 is given by:

𝐦𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝐩𝐩𝐦 𝐌𝐖𝟐𝟐. 𝟒

𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝐊

𝐓 𝐊𝐏 𝐚𝐭𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦

Where:MW = molecular weight of the compound (g/mol)T = absolute temperature (K) = °C + 273.15P = absolute pressure (atm) = mmHg/760

𝐦𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝐩𝐩𝐦 𝐌𝐖𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟏𝟒

𝐚𝐭 𝟎 ℃ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦

33

Example-1: The Air Quality Standard for carbon monoxide is 9.0 ppm. Express this standard as a percent by volume and in mg/m3 at 1 atm and 25 °C.

Solution:• Within a million volumes of this air there are 9.0 volumes of

CO, no matter what the temperature or pressure (advantage of the ppm units)

% CO9

10100 % 0.0009 %

• To find the concentration in mg/m3, we need the molecular weight of CO, which is = 12 +16 = 28

𝐦𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝐩𝐩𝐦 𝐌𝐖𝟐𝟐. 𝟒

𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝐊

𝐓 𝐊𝐏 𝐚𝐭𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦

𝐦𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝟗 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟒

𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦

CO 10.3 mg/m34

18

Example-2: Suppose the exhaust gas from anautomobile contains 0.75% by volume of sulfur dioxides(SO2). Express this concentration in mg/m3 at 29 °C and1.0 atm pressure.

Solution:

35

Homework

1

Air Pollution and ControlPart 2




2

• To provide an overview of air quality measurements and air quality standards.• To explain how to find Air Quality Index (AQI)• To study major sources of indoor air pollution• To learn how to control the Air pollutants

2

Air Quality Measurement

3

• Number of methods are used to measure air quality, including mobile instrumentation and permanent monitoring stations

• These monitoring stations measure the presence of contaminants in the air, such as –Particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10)–Carbon monoxide (CO)–Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) –Sulphur dioxide (SO2)–Ozone (O3)–Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

• Air Pollutants Control Devices are commonly used by industry to remove pollutants from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

Air Quality Standards

4

• Emissions standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment.

• Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles.

• But they can also regulate emissions from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel generators.

3

Primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

5

Effects of Ambient Air Pollution•Air pollution is known to have many adverse effects,

including those on:–Human health–Building facades and other exposed materials –Vegetation and agricultural crops –Animals and aquatic habitat–The climate of Earth as a whole

•Generally, air pollution is most harmful to the elderlyand to the baby.

6

4

Effects of Ambient Air Pollution (Contd.)

7

• Major health effects are categorized as being either:–Acute

short-lasting, but severe, and may even result in death–Chronic

long-term effects usually include respiratory illnesses such as asthma and perhaps lung cancer

–Temporaryeffects include intermittent periods of eye or throat irritation, coughing, chest pain, …

• Typical effects of sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and ozone include eye and throat irritation, coughing, and chest pain.

• A threshold level for a given pollutant is a minimum level below which there will be no health effects.

Worldwide Air Quality Issues•Air pollution problems are not necessarily confined to

a local or regional scale. Atmospheric circulation can transport certain pollutants far away from their point of origin, expanding air pollution to continental or global scales.•Worldwide air quality issues:

–Acid rain–Global warming –Ozone layer depletion

8

5

Acid Rain

9

• A rain which is unusually acidic i.e. rain whose pH is low is called acidic rain.

• Acid rain is mostly caused by emissions of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids, which fall to earth as rain, fog, snow, or dry particles.

• Some may be carried by the wind for hundreds of miles.

• Acid rain, for example, occurs largely on a regional and a continental scale. It has killed fish and plant life in thousands of lakes in Europe, China, Canada, and the northeast United States.

• It also causes deterioration of metals, concrete, painted surfaces, and other exposed objects.

Impacts of Acid Rains

10

• Plant and Water Damage– Acid rain damages forests and

crops, changes the makeup of soil, and makes lakes and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish.

– Continued exposure over a long time, changes the natural variety of plants and animals in an ecosystem.

• Aesthetic Damage– Acid rain accelerates the

decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable monuments, statues, and sculptures.

6

Global Warming

11

• Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere.

• Global warming is believed by most scientists to be caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted as a result of human activities.

• Global warming may lead to rise in sea levels due to melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, as well as adversely affecting ecosystems in some parts of the world

• The average temperature of the Earth has risen between 0.4 and 0.8 °C over the past 100 years.

• Scientists have recently predicted that average global temperatures could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the year 2100.

Global Warming (Contd.)

12

• The amount of incoming energy from the sun is in equilibrium with the energy radiated and reflected back into space.

• The atmosphere acts as a "blanket" that regulates average temperatures at the Earth's surface.

• The "thicker" the blanket (i.e., the more "greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere), the warmer is the temperature in the lower atmosphere and Earth's surface.

7

Infrared Radiation (Heat Radiation)

13

• Infrared (IR) radiation is just as important to the Earth's weather and climate as sunlight is.

• This is because, for all of the sunlight that the Earth absorbs, an equal amount of IR radiation must travel from the Earth back to outer space.

• If this was not the case, there would be global warming or global cooling.

Ozone Layer Depletion• Stratospheric ozone is important because it blocks

harmful UV rays from the sun.• But those ozone levels have been dropping, largely

due to the presence of non biodegradable organic chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) from aerosol cans, refrigerants, and industrial solvents. •CFC production and use is now banned in many

counties.

14

8

Air Quality Index• The AQI is an index for reporting daily outdoor air quality. • It tells how clean or polluted our air is, and what associated

health effects might be a concern for us.• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses 5 Major air

pollutants to define AQI.Ground level ozone Particulate matterCO SO2

NO2

15

• The AQI is divided into six categories. Each category corresponds to a different level of health concern.

• The higher the AQI value is, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health danger.

Air Quality Index (AQI) :Category and Range

16

Category AQI 8-hr O3(ppm)

1-hr O3(ppm)

24-hr PM2.5(µg/m3)

24-hr PM10(µg/m3)

8-hr CO(ppm)

24-hr SO2(ppm)

Good 0 – 50 0.000 – 0.064 –– 0 – 15.4 0 – 54 0 – 4.4 0.000 – 0.034

Moderate 51 - 100 0.065 – 0.084 –– 15.5 – 40.4 55 – 154 4.5 – 9.4 0.035 – 0.144

Unhealthy for sensitive 101 - 150 0.085 – 0.104 0.125 – 0.164 40.5 – 65.4 155 – 254 9.5 – 12.4 0.145 – 0.224

Unhealthy 151 - 200 0.105 – 0.124 0.165 – 0.204 65.5 – 150.4 255 – 354 12.5 – 15.4 0.225 – 0.304

Very unhealthy 201 - 300 0.125 – 0.374 0.205 – 0.404 150.5 – 250.4 355 – 424 15.5 – 30.4 0.305 – 0.604

hazardous 301 - 400 Use 1-hr 0.405 – 0.504 250.5 – 350.4 425 – 504 30.5 – 40.4 0.605 – 0.804

hazardous 401 - 500 Use 1-hr 0.505 – 0.604 350.5 – 500.4 505 – 604 40.5 – 50.4 0.805 – 1.004

• AQI value ranges from 0 to 500. • An AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to the national air quality

standard for the pollutant, which is the level EPA has set to protect public health.

• AQI values below 100 are generally thought of as satisfactory. • When AQI values are above 100, air quality is considered to be

unhealthy-at first for certain sensitive groups of people, then for everyone as AQI values get higher.

9

Problem-1

17

What AQI descriptor (good, moderate, etc.) should be reported for air quality on the following day?

Pollutant Concentration

O3, 1-hr (ppm) 0.15

CO, 8-hr (ppm) 12

PM2.5, 24-hr (µg/m3) 130

PM10, 24-hr (µg/m3) 180

SO2, 24-hr (ppm) 0.12

Solution:From AQI table:AQI 151-200 triggered by PM2.5, Unhealthy

Indoor Air Quality• Indoor air quality (IAQ) is important because people

generally spend most of their time indoors.• Indoor air contaminants include:

–combustion products (especially tobacco smoke) –radon–asbestos –formaldehyde–lead–biological substances

• Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), which contains more than 40 carcinogenic compounds, causes thousands of lung cancer deaths each year in nonsmoking adults

18

10

Indoor Air Quality (Contd.)•Asbestos, a mineral fiber used as insulation and as a

fire retardant in buildings. It has been banned from Saudi Arabia. – It can cause lung cancer if very small airborne asbestos

fibers are inhaled.

• Formaldehyde, a colorless gas that comes from certain building materials and household products.–can cause eye and throat irritation (and maybe cancer)

• Radon, a naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, can enter buildings through porous soil and rock fissures at basement walls and floors. – It can be a cause of lung cancer if inhaled for long

periods

19

Radon (Contd.)

20

• Radon is a colourless, odourless,tasteless radioactive gas.

• Radon comes from the naturalbreakdown of uranium in soil, rockand water. It is the second leadingcause of lung cancer in the UnitedStates.

• Radon can enter homes andbuildings through cracks in floors,walls or foundations. Radon gas thatseeps out of soils can decay insidethe buildings

• Radon can also be in watersupplies, especially well water.

• Testing is the only way to know ifindoor areas have elevated radonlevels.

Simplified Uranium decay series, with half-lives and emissions.

11

Indoor Air Quality• Proper infiltration and ventilation (air exchange) is

necessary to minimize levels of indoor air pollutants. • Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is a component of the LEED

green building certification credits related to indoor environmental quality.

21

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

22

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12

Air Pollution Control•Air pollution control strategies include:

–Complete source shutdown–Source location (or air zoning)–Fuel substitution–Process changes–Enforcement of emission standards for specific

sources• Several types of air cleaning devices can trap air

pollutants before they are emitted into the atmosphere.

23

Control of Particulate Matter• Particulate matter control equipment includes:

–Gravity settlers –Cyclones–Electrostatic precipitators–Fabric filters–Wet scrubbers

• The selection of control equipment depends on the range of particulate sizes, flow rates, temperatures of the carrier gas, costs, and other factors.•One of the most efficient of these devices for

removing suspended particulates is the fabric filter (or baghouse)

24

13

Particulate matter control equipment (Contd.)

25

Cyclones

• Dust separates due to centrifugal action. -Good for large particle sizes.

• Dust collection efficiency between 90% to 95%.

26

Baghouse (Fabric filters)• Uses cloth as filters. • During operation, dust and

other particles too large to pass through the bags accumulate on the bags' surfaces and form a layer known as a dust cake (which thickens and slows the rate that gas can enter the bags).

• A rod, driven by a motor, shakes the bag in a horizontal direction to remove the dust cake. Normal operation of the baghouse temporarily ceases during this time.


14

27

Wet scrubbersWet scrubbers remove dust particles by capturing them in liquid droplets. The droplets are then collected.


28

Electrostatic precipitators• An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or

electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.

• Electrostatic precipitators can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream.

• This device is used in cement plants.


15

Gaseous air pollutants • Gaseous air pollutants can be

controlled using either absorption or adsorption processes.

• Absorption involves the transfer of a gaseous pollutant into a contacting liquid.

• Adsorption involves attracting and trapping gas molecules onto the surface of a solid (e.g., activated carbon)

• Wet scrubbers can be used for gas absorption, as well as packed scrubber towers.

29

Activated carbon can be used to adsorb certain gaseous air pollutants

Catalytic converters

30

Emissions from the internal combustion engine, which is a major mobile source of air pollutants, are controlled by positive crankcase ventilation systems and catalytic converters.

Gaseous air pollutants (Contd.)

1

Solid Waste Management




2

• To provide an overview of solid wastes especially municipality solid wastes (MSW)

• To study methods available for disposal and treatments of MSWs

• To give an overview of Landfills• To provide an overview of Hazardous

Wastes

2

Solid Waste

• Waste is a human-derived word.• Materials are considered a

waste when owners and society believe they no longer have value.

• Any non-liquid material that is thrown away or discarded as useless and unwanted is considered to be solid waste

• Solid waste can host rodents and insects, which may act as vectors of infectious diseases such as typhoid, plague, and dysentery.

Biodegradable waste

Recyclable waste3

Effect of Improper Solid Waste Disposal• There is connection between improper solid

waste disposal and public health.

• Improper disposal of solid waste can cause serious environmental or ecological damage.– Air pollution can result from inadequate solid

waste incineration– Soil contamination– Surface water and groundwater pollution,

can be caused by the disposal of solid waste in improperly built landfills.

4

3

Sources of Solid Wastes• Municipal solid waste (MSW)

– The term municipal solid waste is generally used to describe most of the nonhazardous solid waste from a city, town, or village that requires routine or a periodic collection and transport to a processing or disposal site.

• Industrial solid waste– Wastes arising form industrial activities– Some of industrial waste is classified as hazardous

waste

• Agricultural solid waste• Mining solid waste

5

Sources of Solid Waste and Typical percentage that makes up Municipal Solids Waste

6

4

Contd.

7

Overview of the Solid Waste Management System

• Solid waste management requires an understanding of waste generation, storage, collection, transport, processing, and disposal.

Solid Waste Management

8

5

1. Follow the pollution prevention hierarchy, which prefers source reduction and recycling over treatment and disposal.

2. Protect public health.

3. Protect the environment (including biodiversity) and view the waste material as a resource.

4. Address social concerns (equity, environmental justice, aesthetics, risk, public preferences, recycling & renewable energy).

5. Minimize economic, social, and environmental costs.

Objectives of Proper Management of Solid Wastes

pollution prevention hierarchy

Proper management of solid wastes has five main objectives:

9

• Garbage contains putrescible or highly decomposable food waste, such as vegetable and meat scraps.

• Rubbish contains mostly dry, non-putrescible material, such as glass, rubber, metal cans, and lowly decomposable or combustible material, such as paper, textiles, or wood objects.

• Trash includes bulky waste materials that generally require special handling and is therefore not collected on a routine basis. An old couch, mattress, television, or refrigerator and even a large uprooted tree stump are examples of trash items.

Municipal Solid waste

RefuseGarbage

RubbishTrash

Types of Municipal Solid Waste

10

6

Quantities of MSW

• Information regarding the weight, volume, andthe composition of the MSW is important for theproper planning, design, and operating ofcollection and disposal facilities.

• In Saudi Arabia, about 15 million tons ofMSW/year.

• (1.5-1.8) kg are generated per person every day.

The actual number will vary for each communitydepending on:

1. The time of year2. The location3. Commercial and industrial activities

11

Composition of Solid Wates (USA)

MSW components in the United States (percent by weight), before recycling (2010).

12

7

• Recycling rate ranges from 10-15% (low rate).

• Recycling activities are mostly manual and labor intensive.

• Composting is also gaining increased interest in Saudi Arabia due to the high organic content of MSW (around 40%).

*http://www.ecomena.org/tag/msw-in-saudi-arabia/

In Saudi Arabia:*

13

1- Source reduction (waste prevention) includes:- reuse of products on-site- packaging to reduce their quantity- on-site composting of garden trimmings

2- Recycling- off-site recovery and processing for reuse- off-site composting

3- Energy recovery

4- Treatment

5- Disposal- incineration- landfills

MSW Management Strategy (3 main components)

14

8

• Solid waste Collection includes:o Temporary storage and containerizationo Transfer to a collection vehicleso Transport to a processing facility or disposal site

• About 2/3 of the total cost for MSW management is needed for waste collection it is labor intensive

• If source separation is applied, the recyclable material (e.g. Plastic, Paper, … etc.) can be collected separately from non-recyclable garbage and rubbish.

• Transfer stations solid wastes from individual collection trucks are consolidated into larger truck, economical way to transport the solid waste over the long-haul distance to the processing and disposal site.

Solid Waste Collection

15

Compost and Composting

16

• Compost: a combination of decomposed plant and animal materials and other organic materials that are recycled into a rich black soil.

Composting: Natural process of decay to change organic wastes (i.e., grass clippings, food scraps, and leaves) into a valuable, humus-like material known as compost.

9

• The purpose of MSW processing is to:– Reduce the total volume and weight that needs final

disposal, – Improve its handling characteristics, and – Recover natural resources and energy for reuse.

• The commonly used processes for MSW includes:– Sorting and separating– Shredding – Pulverizing – Baling – Composting– Incineration

Solid Waste Processing

17

High pressure compaction units can be used for making rectangular bales or block of solids waste


• Shredding (cutting and tearing) or pulverizing (crushing and grinding) can achieve size reduction of solid waste.

• Baling involves compaction of the waste into the form of rectangular blocks, which are wrapped with steel wire to retain their shape during handling

Solid Waste Processing (Contd.)

18

10

• Composting is a biological process that allows the organicportion of MSW to decompose under controlled conditions,transforming the waste into a potentially beneficial materialcalled compost (humus)

• compost can enrich and improve soil properties foragricultural use.



19

• Recycling involves separating out and reusing thecomponents of the MSW stream that have someeconomic value, including metals, paper, glass, andplastic (Aluminum has the highest recycling value).

• Separation can be done at the source or at acentralized waste processing plant.

Labels on paper products with Mobius arrows


20

11

Type of Plastics Found in Commercial Products with Resin Code Used to Aid Recovery

21

Incineration(MSW Combustion with Energy Recovery)

22

• Incineration: Complete combustionusing excess oxygen

• MSW combustion typically reducesthe volume of wastes by 90%.

• MSW combustion produces fluegases with high temperature, andthe thermal energy can be used toraise steam to drive a turbo-generator to produce electricity.

• While older waste incinerationplants emitted high levels ofpollutants, new technologies havesignificantly reduced this concern.

12

Sanitary Landfill• Ultimately, a portion of the MSW stream is

disposed of in a sanitary landfill, which is acarefully planned and engineered facility.

• The key characteristics that distinguishlandfills from old-fashioned "dumps" are asfollows:– Waste is placed in a suitably selected and

prepared site in a carefully prescribedmanner.

– Waste material is spread out in layers andcompacted with appropriate heavymachinery.

– Waste is covered each day with a layer ofcompacted soil

• In addition, all landfills are deigned toprevent groundwater pollution by theleachate (polluted liquid) seeping outfrom the bottom of the landfill.

23

Landfill is generally the most economical alternative for MSW disposal, although It has become increasingly difficult to find suitable sites for new landfills.

Sanitary Landfill (Contd.)

24

13

The basic building block of a sanitary landfill is a compacted cell of solid waste, which is separated from other cells by a layer of

compacted soil

Sanitary Landfill (Contd.)

25

26

Landfill transformed to Parks

14

Riyadh landfill

27

Sanitary Landfill site selection• The most important factors in landfill site selection are:

1. Volume capacity2. Accessibility3. Hydrogeological condition

• Accessibility refers to the ease with which collection or transport vehicles can reach the disposal area without causing a public nuisance or hazard.

• Local geology and hydrology (hydrogeology) have a direct influence on the possibility of water pollution

• Modern landfills are also called containment landfills because they are constructed with bottom liners. The liners confine the leachate and prevent it from mixing with groundwater.

28

15

Problem-1(Service years for landfill)

A city has 600,000 inhabitants. The daily MSW production rate is approximately 2 kg/capita/ day. Estimate the following requirements under the given conditions:

If the landfill area is approximately 0.5 km x 1.0 km and its average depth is 10.0 m, estimate the number of years (365 days/year) that the landfill will serve.

Assume the wastes layers in the landfill will be compacted to a density of 400 kg/m3

29

SolutionCapacity of the landfill =

500 m x 1000 m x 10 m x 400 kg/m3 = 2 x 109 kg

Daily MSW production rate of the city =

600,000 capita x 2 kg/capita/day = 1.2 x 106 kg/day

Number of years that the landfill will serve =

2 10 kg1.2 10 kg/day

1666.7 days 1666.7 days1 year365 days

4.57 years

30

16

Hazardous Wastes• MSW is not generally considered to be

hazardous, but certain types of commercialor industrial wastes are characterized ashazardous waste that can causeimmediate and direct harm to people orthe environment if disposed of improperly.

• Hazardous Waste is defined as a solid wastethat may cause or significantly contributeto an increase in mortality or an increase inserious irreversible or incapacitatingreversible illness; or pose a substantialpotential hazard to human health or theenvironment when it is improperly treated,stored, transported, or dispose of.

• This hazardous waste typically requirestransport, processing, and disposalmethods that are different from thoserequired for nonhazardous MSW.

31

Methods to Classify a Solid Waste as Hazardous

32

17

Common Hazardous Products Found in Households

It is important that these materials be disposed of safely and kept out of the municipal waste stream.

33

Globally Harmonized System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals

GHS Pictograms and Hazard

Classes

34

18

Transport “Pictograms”

Contd.

35

1



Noise Pollution and Control


2

• To provide an overview of Noise sources and noise Pollution.

• To revise basics of sounds and vibration theory.

• To discuss principles behind Noise reduction and noise control.

2

Sounds and Noise• Sound is a pressure variation(wave) that

travels through air and is detected by thehuman ear.

• Noise is unwanted and potentially harmfulsound.

• Noise is perhaps one of the most undesirableby-products of a modern mechanizedlifestyle.

• Noise is a pollution problem that affectshuman health and well-being and that cancontribute to a general deterioration ofenvironmental quality.

• It takes energy to produce all sound, so, in amanner of speaking, noise is a form of wasteenergy.

• Not all sound is noise. What may beacceptable to one person may be noise toanother.

3

• Noise from highway traffic, constructionactivities, and other sources in thecommunity is of special concern toenvironmental engineers.

• Noise can have impacts ranging fromtemporary public or personal nuisanceto permanent hearing loss in individuals.

• Excessive noise pollution (undesirableand unwanted sound) can have harmfuleffects, ranging from:– physical damage to the ear;– temporary or permanent hearing loss;– physiological effects of raising blood

pressure and pulse rates;– causing stress; Irritability and anxiety

Sounds and Noise (Contd.)

4

3

Basics of Sounds• Sound energy is produced by

mechanical vibrations of a soundsource.

• We can’t measure acousticenergy very well, but we canmeasure sound pressure well.

• Sound pressure is a surrogate foracoustic energy.

• The vibrations are transmitted orcarried away from the source inthe form of sound waves.

• Sound waves can be transmittedthrough solids, liquids, or gases,but they cannot be transmitted ina vacuum, where there is nomedium or material to transmitthe vibrations.

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Basics of Sounds (Contd.)• The physical characteristics of

sound waves are wavelength,frequency, and amplitude.– Wavelength is the distance

between air pressure peaks(or valleys)

– Frequency or pitch is thenumber of wavelengthsthat passes a fixed point in 1sec.

– Amplitude of the soundwave is the height of the airpressure peaks (i.e., abovethe average air pressure)measured in decibels (dB).

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4

Basics of Sounds (Contd.)• A single wavelength is called a

cycle, and the frequency isexpressed in terms of cycles persecond (cps).

• The term "hertz" (Hz) is often usedfor frequency, where 1 Hz = 1 cps.

• The relationship among the threecharacteristics is

v = λ X f

• where v is the speed of sound inm/s, λ is wavelength in m percycle, and f is the frequency in Hz(or cps).

• The speed of a sound wave v inair is about 340 m/s.

7

Problem-1What is the wavelength of a sound traveling through the steel rails of a railroad track if the frequency of the sound caused by a moving train is 500 Hz?

(Assume that sound travels at a speed of 5000 m/s in steel).

8

Solution:wave length λ = v/f = 5000/500 = 10 m.

5

Basics of Sounds (Contd.)• Human perception of sound includes its

loudness (amplitude) and pitch(frequency).

• Loudness is related to the amplitude ofthe wave as well as other factors.

• Pitch is a function of the frequency of thewave that produces it.

• The human ear can detect sounds in thefrequency range of about 20 to 20,000 Hz

• The average atmospheric pressure isabout 1 bar, and an average person cantypically detect a sound with amplitude assmall as 0.0002 µbar.

• The human ear can perceive soundpressures as high as 10,000 µbar beforeear damage occurs.

• The audibility of a sound depends on bothfrequency and amplitude.

9

Sound Pressure Level (SPL)• A decibel is essentially a ratio of two pressures;

logarithms are used to convert the range of the ratiosinto more manageable and convenient numbers.

• The magnitude of volume or a sound expressed indecibels is called a sound pressure level (SPL). An SPLis defined mathematically as

𝐒𝐏𝐋 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐏

𝐏𝐨

SPL= sound pressure level, dBP = RMS sound pressure, µbar (RMS = Root Mean Square)Po = reference pressure (0.0002 µbar, is the hearing threshold or lowest audible sound pressure)

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6

Contd.

• Decibel scale is used for noise measurement, and sound pressure levels (SPLs) are expressed in terms of decibels (dB).

• An SPL = 0 dB is the lowest audible sound, and an SPL of 140 dB just exceeds the human threshold of pain.

The decibel (dB) scale is used to measure noise levels 11

Problem-2An ambulance siren causes a sound pressure of 200 µbar. What is the SPL of the siren?

Solution

SPL 20 log.

= 20 x log (106)

= 20 x 6 = 120 dB

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7

A-weighted decibels (dBA)• In the A-weighted system, the decibel values of sounds at

low frequencies are reduced, compared withunweighted decibels, in which no correction is made foraudio frequency.

• Two sound levels of equal dB level but of differentfrequencies have different dBA levels; the lowerfrequency sound has the lower dBA level

13

• This correction is made because the human ear is less sensitive at low and high audio frequencies, especially below 500 Hz, and above 6 kHz audio frequencies.

14

Typical handheld sound level meter (typically supplied

with built-in frequency filter, the A filter)

The A-weighting filter• The A-weighting filter, filters out

the low-frequency and very high-frequency sounds, where the human ear is less efficient and measures the sound level in A-weighted decibels, or dBA.

• Using dBA level helps to match the meter readings with the sensitivity of the ear and with average person’s judgment of the relative loudness of various sound.

• The ‘A’ weighting filter covers the full frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

8

Noise Standards: Criteria level

15

OSHA = Occupational Safety & Health Administration

There are two factors determines how hazardous noise is:

• Intensity (loudness) measured in dBA

• Time of exposure measured in hours and minutes

OSHA’s “Table G-16” Showing Permissible Noise Exposures

Combined Noise• In many instances it is necessary to predict what the

combined sound pressure level will be when two or morenearby noise Sources act at the same time.

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Figure 14-4 (from textbook): Addition of decibels values when combining two or more sound level

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Problem – 3 (Combined Noise)Four identical dozers are available for excavation of soilat a construction site. Each dozer has an SPL of 90 dBwhen operating alone. What is the SPL when the fourdozers are operating at the same time?

Assume that the dozers are operating together in aconfined area and the effect of distance from thenoise source is not significant.

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Solution • Consider what occurs when only two of the machines

are operating. The numerical difference between the two SPL values is 90 - 90 = 0.

• Entering the curve in Figure 14-4 with a difference of 0, read a corresponding 3 dB value on the vertical axis.

• Therefore, the two dozers operating simultaneously will generate an SPL of 90 + 3 = 93 dB.

• With a third dozer operating, add another 90 dB to the previous level of 93 dB for two dozers.

• The difference between the two SPL values is now 93 -90 = 3 dB.

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10

Solution (Contd.)

• Entering the chart with a 3 dB difference, find that it is necessary to add an additional 1.7 dB to the 93 dB to obtain the combined SPL Thus, 93 + 1.7 = 94.7 dB from three dozers operating simultaneously.

• Remember that the SPL increment is always added to the larger of the two SPL values being combined.

• Finally, with a fourth dozer, combine the 94.7 dB with 90 dB. The difference is 4.7 dB, and the required increment from the chart is 1.3 dB.

• This results in 94.7 + 1.3 = 96 dB being generated by the four machines.

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Noise Control• Noise can be controlled in four fundamental ways:

– protect the recipient– increase the path length – block the path– reduce the noise at the source

• Earplugs or earmuffs protect recipients by as much as 40 dBA.

• One of the best, but often overlooked, methods ofnoise source reduction is regular and thoroughmaintenance of operating machinery.

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11

Noise Control (Contd.)• Sound levels also drop significantly with

increasing distances from the noise sources, so increasing path lengths between sources and recipients offers a passive means of control.

• If path length from a point source is doubled, for example, the intensity of the noise reaching the recipient is one fourth of the original intensity.

• Sound levels from line sources (e.g., highways) decrease 3 dBA for each doubling of the distance from the source.

• In industrial plants, noise reduction can be achieved by enclosing machinery in acoustic absorbing materials and by using absorbent mounts and pads.

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Noise Control (Contd.)• Reducing noise levels from construction sites include

Barriers to block noise and restriction of hours of construction activity

• Proper highway planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise.

• Lower speeds, depressed roadways, and construction of vertical wall barrier are methods used to control of traffic noise.

• Most of automobile traffic noise comes from the movement of the vehicle tires on the pavement and wind resistant.

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12

Noise Control (Contd.)• The path of traffic noise can also be blocked by the

construction of vertical walls or barriers along the highway.

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Relationship between the sound level and distance from a line source

• The relationship between the sound level anddistance from a line source (e.g. highways) can bewritten as follows:

𝐒𝐋𝐁 𝐒𝐋𝐀 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐃𝐁

𝐃𝐀

• SLA = sound level at distance DA from the source• SLB = sound level at distance DB from the source

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13

Problem-4

The sound level measured at a 4-m distance from the centerline of a busy highway is 85 dBA. (a)What is the sound level at a distance of 12 m from

the road centerline? (b)At what distance from the road centerline is the

sound level reduced to 79 dBA?

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Solutiona)SL SL 10 log

SL 85 10 log124

𝟖𝟎 𝐝𝐁𝐀

b) SL SL 10 log

79 85 10 log

log𝐷4

79 8510

0.6

𝐷4

10 . 3.98

DB = 4 x 3.98 = 16 m26

1



Environmental Impact Assessment


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• To define Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) and highlight its use andmisuse.

• To explain the EIA process.

2

Environmental Impact Assessment • Environmental impact assessment

(EIA) is the process of determiningand evaluating the effects that aproposed action would have on theenvironment before the decision istaken on whether or not to proceedwith it.

• Environmental impact statement(EIS) is the most common namegiven to the printed report whichdocuments the results of the EIAprocess for consideration bydecision makers. (Several names arealso used, including environmentalimpact report and environmentalreview).

3

Use and Misuse of EIA • A basic objective of an environmental study is to

anticipate any potential impacts, adverse orbeneficial, of a proposed construction project on theenvironment.

• This is done so that measures can be taken to minimizeor eliminate the harmful impacts when the project isimplemented.

• It is supposed to be objective and unbiased, and it ismeant to neither promote nor block theimplementation of a proposed project.

• Unfortunately, EIS reports are sometimes manipulatedby developers to promote a construction project, orthey are misused by special interest groups to stop aproject completely.

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3

History of EIA

5

• Environmental impact assessmentscommenced in the 1960s, as part of increasingenvironmental awareness.

• In the United States, environmental impactassessments obtained formal status in 1969,with enactment of the National EnvironmentalPolicy Act.

Role of EIAs

6

• EIAs have two roles:– Legal– Educational

• Legal Role– The legal role is to ensure that

development projects have aminimal impact on theenvironment in their entire'lifecycle'.

• Educational Role– The educational role is to

educate everyone involved—professionals and users included,of the potential environmentalimpacts of anything we do.

4

The EIA Process

7

The main steps in an EIA process are as follows:

1. Screening

2. Scoping

3. Examination of alternatives

4. Impact analysis

5. Mitigation and impact management

6. Evaluation of Significance

7. Preparation of EIS or Report

8. Review of EIS

9. Decision Making

10. Follow up

The EIA process1. Screening—to determine whether or not a proposal

should be subject to EIA and, if so, at what level ofdetail.

2. Scoping— to identify the issues and impacts that arelikely to be important and to establish terms ofreference for EIA.

– Term of reference assessment methodologies to beemployed

3. Examination of alternatives— to establish thepreferred or most environmentally sound option forachieving the objectives of a proposal.

4. Impact analysis— to identify and predict the likelyenvironmental, social and other related effects of theproposal.

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5

The EIA process (Contd.)5. Mitigation and impact management – to establish

the measures that are necessary to avoid, minimizeor offset predicted adverse impacts and, whereappropriate, to incorporate these into anenvironmental management plan or system.

6. Evaluation of significance – to determine theimportance or acceptability of residual impacts thatcannot be mitigated.

7. Preparation of environmental impact statement (EIS)or report – to document the impacts of the proposal,the significance of effects, and the concerns of theinterested public and the communities affected bythe proposal.

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The EIA process (Contd.)8. Review of the EIS – to determine whether the report

meets its terms of reference, provides a satisfactoryassessment of the proposal(s) and contains theinformation required for decision-making.

9. Decision-making – to approve or reject the proposaland to establish the terms and conditions for itsimplementation.

10.Follow up – to ensure compliance with the terms andconditions of approval; to monitor the impacts ofdevelopment and the effectiveness of mitigationmeasures.

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6

Generalized EIA Process Flowchart

11

النظام العام للبيئة والالئحة التنفيذية

صاد وحماية البيسة العامة لألر

الرئائة

Screening

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7

Scoping• The environmental impact assessment shall identify,

describe and assess in an appropriate manner the direct and indirect significant effects of a project on the following factors:a) Population and human health.b) Biodiversity.c) Land, soil, water, air and climate.d) Material assets, cultural heritage and the landscape.e) The interaction between the factors referred to in

points (a) to (d).

• Terms of Reference (ToR): the proposed approaches for the definition of the environmental baseline, and the proposed methodologies for impact identification and evaluation, etc.

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Assessment of Environmental Impacts• Many procedures for conducting an environmental

assessment have been developed over the years.– Checklist method, all potential environmental

impacts for the various project alternatives arelisted, and the anticipated magnitude of eachimpact is described qualitatively.

– Matrix methods, an attempt is made to quantify orgrade the relative impacts of the projectalternatives and to provide a numerical basis forcomparison and evaluation.

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8

Example of Impact and Mitigation measures during operation of Fertilizer plant

15

Example of Impact and Mitigation measures during operation of for Fertilizer plant

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9

The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)The writing of an EIS is preceded by two steps:

1. Step one – An environmental inventory must beconducted for the site and vicinity of the proposedproject. This inventory includes a thoroughdescription of the existing physical environment andserves as the basis for evaluating the possibleimpacts of the project.

2. Step two – involves a systematic and comprehensiveenvironmental assessment. This assessment, a crucialpart of the EIS process, identifies and analyzes thepotential adverse environmental consequences ofthe project.

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The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

Generally, the following topics or sections are included in a final draft of the EIS:

1. Description of the existing environment2. Description of the proposed project3. Environmental assessment4. Unavoidable adverse environmental impacts5. Secondary or indirect impacts6. Methods for reducing adverse impacts7. Alternatives to the proposed project8. Irreversible commitments of energy and resources9. Consideration of public input and review

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10

Items covered when describing the Existing Environment

• Geology, soils, and topography

• Water resources

• Vegetation and wildlife

• Air quality and noise

• Transportation

• Public utilities

• Population, land use, and socioeconomics

• Historical or unique cultural features

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Environmental Audits• An environmental audit is an evaluation of an

industrial facility's waste generation and wastemanagement practices, as well as an assessment ofthe facility's compliance with environmental laws atthe local, state, and federal levels.

• Environmental auditing is a management tool thatenhances the overall environmental performance ofmanufacturing facilities.

• Example of this tools: ISO 14000 family—Environmentalmanagement

• It is generally a requirement for property transfers andreduction of legal liabilities due to improper orinadequate waste management operations.

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Documents

1 Introduction to the Environment and Ecosystem · kinds of plants and animals in an environment •It is the variety within and between all species of plants, animals and micro-organisms