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Introduction to Motor

Development

Chapter 1

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.

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Human Motor DevelopmentProcess through which one passes throughout lifeChanges in our movement ability through the lifespanAcademic field

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Which Definition?“changes in motor behavior which reflect the interaction of the maturing organism and its environment” (Scholarly Directions Committee, 1974)

“changes in movement competencies from infancy to adulthood and involves many aspects of human behavior, both as they affect movement development and as movement development affects them” (Keogh, 1977)

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Which Definition?“the change in motor behavior across the lifespan and the processes which underlie these changes” (Clark & Whitehall, 1989)

“the sequential, continuous age-related process whereby an individual progresses from simple, unorganized, and unskilled movement to the achievement of highly organized, complex motor skills and finally to the adjustment of skills that accompanies aging” (Haywood & Getchell, 2005)

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Motor DevelopmentAcademic Field

“study of changes in human motor behavior over the lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them”

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Working Definition

“Human motor development is an academic field of study; it is also a

human lifelong process involving the progressions and regressions in our movement ability as we pass through

life”

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Importance of Motor Development

To understand the way people normally develop movement skillsHelp individuals improve or perfect movement performance

To understand the way special populations develop movement skillsHelp special populations improve or perfect movement performance

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Why Study Motor Development?

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Domains

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Domains Cognitive domain

Concerns human intellectual developmentAffective domain

Concerned with the social and emotional aspects of human development

Motor domainDevelopment of human movement and factors that affect that development

Physical domainAll types of physical/bodily change

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Development

Changes through which all individuals pass across their lifespans

Domains

Terms:Developmentally appropriateAge appropriateIndividual appropriate

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Development

Refers to changes that occur as one passes through life

Includes both maturation and growth

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Elements of Developmental Change

Qualitative Development change is not “just more of something”

Sequential Certain motor patterns precede others

Cumulative Behaviors are additive

Directional Development has an ultimate goal

Multifactorial No single factor direct change

Individual Rate of change varies for all people

Table 1-2

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Maturation & GrowthMaturation

Qualitative functional changes occurring with age

GrowthQuantitative structural changes occurring with age

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Developmental TermsCephalocaudal

Development from head to tailLearning to walk

Proximodistal Development from the body’s center to peripheryPrenatal growthAcquisition of motor skill

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Developmental Terms

DifferentiationProgression from gross or immature movement to precise, well-controlled, and intentional movement Learning to walk

IntegrationFunctioning of systems together How is this child

demonstratingIntegration?

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Developmental TermsGross movement

Movement controlled by the large muscles or muscle groups

Legs Fine movement

Movement controlled by the small muscles or muscle groups

Hands Terms can be used together

Categorize movementDescribe progression and regression

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Process-Product ControversyProduct approach in the study of human movement

The end result, or outcome, is the focusTask-oriented approach

Process approach in the study of human movement

The emphasis is on the movement itself, with little attention to outcome

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Age Periods Throughout Lifespan Terms in Figure 1-5 are helpful in organizing discussions and communicating statements about an individual at a particular time in life

Figure 1-5

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Stages of Development Age-stages

Phase, time, levels, periodsUnique, hierarchical, or universal behavior at a particular time in life

Controversy over whether the stages of development actually exist

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Models of DevelopmentModels explain movement behavior from birth to deathCratty (1970): explain changes as a function of ageGallahue & Ozmun (2005): hourglass model; stages developed upward with time

Newell’s model based on constraintsInteractive role of an individual’s structure and function, the task, and environmental conditions on human motor development

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Mountain of Motor Development

Figure 1-6

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Mountain of Motor Development

Ascend up the mountainA metaphor of motor development

Progress from the prenatal period, to the base of the mountain, and finally the peak

Must contend with environmental changes

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Mountain of Motor DevelopmentPeriods

Reflexive Prenatal-few weeks after birthInvoluntary response to stimuliSurvival Brain-stem

Preadapted Movement produced from higher brain centersConscious, voluntary

Fundamental Patterns

Build on movement skillsIncludes fundamental locomotor skills, object control, fine motor controlCritical to future motor performance

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Mountain of Motor DevelopmentPeriods

Context-specific

Begin to experience one or more peaks in movement skillsLife experiences, personal likes and dislikes of movements

Skillful Experience and practiceNot achieved by allRequires motivation, opportunity, instruction, practice over yearsIn general, cannot be competent in every skill

Compensation

Associated with injury: with practice and time, may return to previous skill levelAging: inevitable decline; compensate with new skill

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History of the Field1787-1928 Precursor Period

Descriptive observationDarwin’s “Biographical Sketch of an Infant”

Tiedemann watched the motor behavior of his son’s first 2.5 yearsInterested in the function of the mind, but this early research benefited motor development greatly

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History of the Field1928-1946 Maturational Period

Biological processes influence motor developmentProduct-process –oriented informationBayley’s scales

Bayley’s scales are norm-referenced scales that follow motor behavior of the first 3 years of lifeStill used today

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History of the Field1946-1970 Normative/Descriptive Period

Mid-1940s through 1960 ~dormant period1960 ~ Kephart’s Slow Learner in the Classroom

Kephart maintained that certain movement activities enhanced academic performance

Not supported by research, still influences professional practice today

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History of the Field1960s – resurgence in study due to interest in children with disabilitiesPrimary interests also on motor skills, not cognitive abilitiesTests for motor development writtenA lot of study in biomechanical analysis of movement

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History of the Field1970-Present Process-Oriented Period

Study of the processes of motor development

Psychologist return to the study of motor behavior via processing information

Dynamical systems theory (1980)“systems undergoing change are complex, coordinated, and somewhat self-organizing”Examines movement control and coordinationExplains process of development

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Interdisciplinary ApproachToday, better evaluation of movement working with specialists in other fields

BiomechanicsExercise physiology

Working together, experts can more accurately detect subtle movement changes and differences

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Research DesignsResearch Design

Description

Cross-sectional Comparison of two or more persons or groups at one point in time

Longitudinal A study over a long period of time

Time-lag Different cohorts are compared at different times

Sequential-cohort Integrates the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag designs within one study

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Research DesignsResearch Design

PRO

Cross-sectional Administratively efficientQuickly completedAge differences can be observed

Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages

Sequential-Cohort

Accounts for generational (cohort) effect

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Research DesignsResearch Design

CON

Cross-sectional Cannot observe changeCan’t determine accurate age of groupsAge and cohort are confounded

Longitudinal Administratively inefficientAge and time of measurements are confoundedSubjects may be influenced by repeated testingSubjects may drop out

Sequential-Cohort

Administratively inefficientCostlySubjects may drop outDifficult to analyze statistically

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Hypothetical StudySequential~Cohort Design

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Key Terms