1. Introduction - SIU...Running read: MORPHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS Dees 1 Definitive Nominal Morphological Components of Nafara 1. Introduction As the lexical database of Senoufo-Nafara

Running read: MORPHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS Dees 1

Definitive Nominal Morphological Components of Nafara

1. Introduction

As the lexical database of Senoufo-Nafara has developed, several morphological

elements have surfaced. First, it appears that there are singular and plural markers that attach as

suffixes to nouns, in the language. Each singular suffix appears to correlate with a specific plural

suffix. Adjectives seem to have gender concordance with nouns. Interestingly enough the

singular/plural marker of the noun comes after the adjective, when one is used. A closer

examination of the use of adjectives has revealed a suffix change that occurs when nouns are

made augmentative or diminutive. Furthermore, there also seem to be pejorative markers that

occur, in terms of size, as suffixes. Each suffix pairs with a particular plural suffix. While

semantics seem to play a role in determining nominal morphology in Senoufo-Nafara, this is not

entirely consistent, and there is also evidence that phonology plays a role. This can be seen in

several instances which this essay will highlight.

2. Singular and Plural Classification Markers and Gender

2.1 African languages that demonstrate singular/plural noun markers

English Bantu-

Swahili

(Singular)

Bantu-

Swahili

(Singular)

Root/Stem

Child m+toto wa+toto -toto

Fool m+jinga wa+jinga -jinga

Girl m+sichana wa+sichana -sichana

Shoe ki+atu vi+atu -atu

Cup ki+kombe vi+kombe -kombe

Basket ki+kapu vi+kapu -kapu


It is important to note that Senoufo-Nafara is not the only African language that

exhibits a singular and plural classification marker for nouns. This is also demonstrated in

languages like Maasai and Bantu. In Bantu (Swahili) it can be seen that prefixes, for both

singular and plural classification, attach to stems of nouns. This is demonstrated in the

table below.

It seems that what is occurring here is that both singular and plural markers are expressed as

gender-specific prefixes. In this case the roots must be specified for gender categories. This is

because the singulars are not determinative of which plurals are formed. According to the

following gender categories: [is something missing here? The reference maybe?]

Gender A: stems of Classes 1/2

Gender B: stems of Classes 3/4

Gender C: stems of classes 5/6

Gender D: stems of classes 7/8

Gender E: stems of classes 9/10

-toto and -jinga fall under the gender categorization; Gender A and -atu and -kapu fall under the

gender categorization; Gender D (Carstens, 1991). Maasai exhibits similar phenomena, in that it

also has both singular and plural markers expressed in a gender specific manner.

Gender English Maasai Singular Maasai Plural

F Cat em+burra im+burri

F Nose eŋ+gume iŋ+gumeʃi

F Woman ɛn+dasat ɪn+dasati


F Wild Animal e+ŋwes iŋ-wesi

M Bush Pig ɔr+ŋɛdɛp ɪr+ŋɛdɛpa

M Crow or+bitirr ir+bitirro

M Tongue ɔr+kʊrrʊk ɪr+kurruki

M Lion ar+ŋatun ir+ŋatunjo

(Kirkle, 2013)

2.2 The singular/plural marking in Senoufo-Nafara

Senoufo-Nafara is similar to the afore mentioned African languages in this sense. There

are evident groups of nouns that demonstrate singular and plural patterns.

Singular Suffix Plural Suffix

-g/ŋ -i

-n -gɛl

-u -bɛl

-r —

Singular nouns that end in -g consistently become -i in the plural form, singular nouns

that end in -n become -gel in the plural form, and singular nouns that end in -u become -bel in

the plural form. There is slight variation in the -g->-i morphology. In some cases singular nouns

end in -r and -ŋ and the plural ending is -i when pluralized. In the case of -ŋ it seems as if since

both -g and -ŋ are velar there might exist a form of variation in their use. The -r ending happens

in some cases and appears to be a gender class of its own. It also seems that the -r occurs in non

countable nominals, meaning it has no plural counterpart. It is clear all nouns collected from our


consultant end in -g, -ŋ, -n, -u, or -r. This in itself suggests the idea that singular and plural

markers do in fact exist. The table below provides several examples of the suffixes being used.

Suffix English Singular Plural Root/Stem

-u/bɛl Child/Baby pi+u pi+bɛl pi-

-u/bɛl Female/Woman tʃɔ+u tʃɔ+bɛl tʃɔ-

-u/bɛl Well kɔl+u kɔl+bɛl kɔl-

-u/bɛl Frog busɔ̃+u busɔ̃+bɛl busɔ̃-

-u/bɛl Rat karnɔ+u karnɔ+bɛl karnɔ-

-u/bɛl Spider be+u be+bɛl be-

-u/bɛl Chicken go+u go+bɛl go-

-u/bɛl Male/Man na+u na+bɛl na-

-u/bɛl Cat deka+u deka+bɛl deka-

-u/bɛl Dog pã+u pã+bɛl pã-

-u/bɛl Uncle ʃile+u ʃile+bɛl ʃile-

-n/gɛl Eye napi+n napi+gɛl napi-

-n/gɛl Bull napa+n napa+gɛl napa-

-n/gɛl Finger kaba+n kaba+gɛl kaba-

-n/gɛl Forest kapo+n kapo+gɛl kapo-

-n/gɛl Girl pipi+n pipi+gɛl pipi-

-n/gɛl Rabbit pie+n pie+gɛl pie-

-n/gɛl Mango lɔ+n lɔ+gɛl lɔ-


-g/i Arm kɔ+g kɔ+i kɔ-

-g/i Tree tʃɪ+g tʃi+i tʃɪ-

-g/i Rain za+g za+i za-

-g/i Smoke wər+g wər+i wər-

-g/i Foot tɔ+g tɔ+i tɔ-

-g/i Snake wɔ+g wɔ+i wɔ-

-g/i Bag bɔɸa+g bɔɸa+i bɔɸa-

-g/i Door kɔr+g kɔr+i kɔr-

-ŋ/i Name me+ŋ me+i me-

-ŋ/i Head ɲu+ŋ ɲu+i ɲu-

-ŋ/i Mouth ɲɔ+ŋ ɲɔ+i ɲɔ-

-ŋ/i House sɔ̃+ŋ sɔ+i sɔ-

-r Stomach la+r — la-

-r Discharge from

nose

ɸɨna+r — ɸɨna-

-r Mud ɸa+r — ɸa-

-r Land ta+r — ta-

From this we can draw the conclusion that there are at least three classes of gender endings

containing both singular and plural markers. Given that we have, so far, obtained a modest

amount of nouns, future research may reveal more gender classes.


Gender Singular Plural

Gender A

endings

-g/ŋ -i

Gender B

endings

-n -gɛl

Gender C

endings

-u -bɛl

Gender D

endings

-r —

2.3 The -r suffix/gender class D

As mentioned before there are signs of a gender class D marked with the suffix -r. The

words that fall under this category do not have a definite plural. When asked what the plural for

such words were, our consultant responded saying there were none, but if she had to supply one

it would be -i. Several words were elicited from the consultant, but the most we have collected

thus far is four words. With not enough information/lexical database the concept of the use of -r

suffix is somewhat inconclusive, but I hypothesize that it is in fact a gender class of its as will be

demonstrated in section 3.

3. Adjectives and Their Relationship to Nouns

Most adjectives appear to have gender concordance with nouns. This is demonstrated in

the use of the adjectives ‘good,’ ‘bad,’ ‘happy,’ and ‘sad.’ The table below highlights the use of

all four adjectives with several nouns (see section N on phonological rules affecting the output

forms)

English Noun (Singular

In Nafara)

Singular+adjecti

ve

Plural+adjective Final Product


Good mango(s) lɔ+n lɔ+tʃɛn+n;

lɔ+dʒɛn+n

lɔ+tʃɛn+gɛl;

lɔ+dʒɛn+gɛl

lɔtʃɛŋgɛl;

lɔdʒɛŋgɛl

Bad mango(s) lɔ+n lɔ+dole+n lɔ+dole+gɛl lɔdolegɛl

Good eye(s) napi+n napi+tʃɛn+n napi+tʃɛn+gɛl napitʃɛŋgɛl

Bad eye(s) napi+n napi+tole+n napi+tole+gɛl napitolegɛl

Good mother(s) naɸɔ+u naɸɔ+tʃa+u naɸɔ+tʃan+bɛl naɸɔtʃabɛl

Happy mother(s) naɸɔ+u naɸɔ+ɸuden+u naɸɔ+ɸuden+bɛ

l

naɸɔɸudenbɛl

Sad mother(s) naɸɔ+u naɸɔ+ɸube+u naɸɔ+ɸube+bɛl naɸɔɸubebɛl

Good land ta+r ta+tʃɛn+r — —

Bad land ta+r ta+dole+r — —

Good house(s) sa+g sa+tʃɛn+g* sa+tʃɛn+i satʃɛi

Here the gender class suffix (both singular and plural) follows the adjective. For example, ‘good’

following the word for mango is -tʃɛn or -dʒɛn, (the word for mango is lɔn). Then, if we look at

the word good for mother it appears as tʃau, because the word for mother is naɸɔu. The process

of noun suffixes attaching to adjectives when they are describing a noun that has that marker

provides evidence for at least four gender classes.

4. Augmentatives, Diminutives, and Pejoratives in Senoufo-Nafara

4.1 Adjectives that have their own gender class

While it appears most adjectives inflect with suffixes determined by the gender of the

noun they describe, there are several adjectives that seem to have their own gender classification.

These adjectives include ‘big’, ‘small’, and their insulting counter parts (‘too skinny/sickly’ and

‘too big/fat’) These four adjectives attach to the noun and then change the noun’s singular and

plural suffix. These adjectives can be described as augmentative, diminutive, and pejoratives.


4.2 The examples of augmentatives, diminutives, and pejoratives can be seen in the table below:

Big Small Skinny Big (Fat) Skinny

(Sickly)

-kbog

(singular)

-bin

(singular)

-tʃarun

(singular)

-g

(singular)

-n

(singular)

-kboi

(plural)

-bigɛl

(plural)

-tʃargɛl

(plural)

-i (plural) -gɛl

(plural)

-kboli

(plural)

-tʃaru

(singular)

—- — —

— -tʃarbɛl

(plural)

— — —

4.3 The augmentative, meaning large, -kbɔg and its plural counterpart -kbɔi

Some variation is also present in the expression of ‘big’ in the plural. In most cases -pboi

is used as the plural form, but for ‘big women’ and ‘big girls’ -pboli is used:

‘big woman’ tʃapbɔg (singular) ‘big women’ tʃapbɔli (plural)

‘big girls’ pipipbɔg (singular) ‘big girls’ pipipbɔli (plural)

In all instances -kbog seems to be used for the singular. The singular and plural forms are

demonstrated in the table below:

4.4 The diminutives, meaning small, -bin/-tʃaru and their plural counterparts -bigɛl/-tʃarbɛl

Current data only exhibits small being marked as -bin in two instance, ‘small man’ and

and ‘small woman:’

na+bi+n and na+bi+gɛl


tʃa+bi+n and tʃa+bi+gɛl

In many other cases of -bin or -pin being used as a suffixes indicating the noun stem as being the

‘child of.’ This is demonstrated in the table below:

English Singular Plural

boy na(man)+bi+n na(man)+bi+gɛ

l

kitten deka(cat)+bi+n deka(cat)+bi+g

ɛl

puppy pã(dog)+pi+n pã(dog)+pi+gɛl

girl pi+pi+n pi+pi+gɛl

In other instances it is marked with -tʃaru:

English Nafara

(Sing/Plural)


girl pipi+n/pipi+gɛl small girl pipi+tʃar+u pipi+tʃar+bɛl

finger kaba+n/kaba+gɛl small finger kaba+tʃar+u kaba+tʃar+bɛl

baby pi+u/ pi+bɛl small baby pi+tʃar+u pi+tʃar+bɛl

uncle ʃile+u/ʃile+bɛl small uncle ʃile+tʃar+u ʃile+tʃar+bɛl

arm kɔ+g/kɔ+i small arm kɔ+tʃar+u kɔ+tʃar+bɛl

leg tɔ+g/tɔ+i small leg tɔ+tʃar+u tɔ+tʃar+bɛl

land ta+r small land ta+tʃar+u ta+tʃar+bɛl

stomach la+r small stomach la+tʃar+u la+tʃar+bɛl


4.5 The diminutive, meaning skinny, -tʃarun and it plural counterpart -tʃargɛl.

Describing someone as small can take two different forms, one which describes them as

short and one which describes them as small. They are very similar as demonstrated be the

examples in the table below:

English Nafara

(Sing/Plural)


girl pipi+n/pipi+gɛl skinny girl pipi+tʃar+n pipi+tʃar+gɛl

finger kaba+n/kaba+gɛl skinny finger kaba+tʃar+n kaba+tʃar+gɛl

baby pi+u/ pi+bɛl skinny baby pi+tʃar+n pi+tʃar+gɛl

uncle ʃile+u/ʃile+bɛl skinny uncle ʃile+tʃar+n ʃile+tʃar+gɛl

arm kɔ+g/kɔ+i skinny arm kɔ+tʃar+n kɔ+tʃar+gɛl

leg tɔ+g/tɔ+i skinny leg tɔ+tʃar+n tɔ+tʃar+gɛl

English Nafara

(Singular/Plural)


boy nabi+n/nabi+gɛl big boy nabi+kbɔ+g nabi+kbɔ+i

finger kaba+n/kaba+gɛl big finger kaba+kbɔ+g kaba+kbɔ+i

baby pi+u/ pi+bɛl big baby pi+kbɔ+g pi+kbɔ+i

uncle ʃile+u/ʃile+bɛl big uncle ʃile+kbɔ+g ʃile+kbɔ+i

arm kɔ+g/kɔ+i big arm kɔ+kbɔ+g kɔ+kbɔ+i

leg tɔ+g/tɔ+i big leg tɔ+kbɔ+g tɔ+kbɔ+i

land ta+r big land ta+kbɔ+g ta+kbɔ+i

stomach la+r big stomach la+kbɔ+g la+kbɔ+i


4.6 The pejorative, meaning big (fat), -g and its plural counter part -i.

Similar to the gender A marker, the pejorative meaning big (fat) exists as a singular suffix

-g and a plural suffix -i. According to the language consultant using these suffixes implies a rude

meaning behind calling someone or something big (i.e big and fat). Examples of the suffix being

used are below:

English (Sing/Plural) English Singular Plural

girl pipi+n/pipi+gɛl big (fat) girl pipi+g pipi+i

finger kaba+n/kaba+gɛl big (fat) finger kaba+g kaba+i

baby pi+u/ pi+bɛl big (fat) baby pi+g pi+i

uncle ʃile+u/ʃile+bɛl big (fat) uncle ʃile+g ʃile+i

arm kɔ+g/kɔ+i big (fat) arm kɔ+g** kɔ+i**

leg tɔ+g/tɔ+i big (fat) leg tɔ+g** tɔ+i**

**Cannot be made augmentative by this strategy.

4.7 The pejorative, meaning skinny (sickly), -n and its plural counterpart -gɛl

Similar to the gender B marker, the pejorative meaning skinny (sickly) exists as a

singular suffix -n and a plural suffix -gɛl. According to the language consultant using these

suffixes implied a rude meaning behind calling someone or something skinny (i.e sickly and

weak). Examples of the suffix being used are below:

English (Sing/Plural) English Singular Plural

girl pipi+n/pipi+gɛl skinny (sickly)

girl

pipi+n** pipi+gɛl**


finger kaba+n/kaba+gɛl skinny (sickly)

finger

kaba+n** kaba+gɛl**

baby pi+u/ pi+bɛl skinny (sickly)

baby

pi+n pi+gɛl

uncle ʃile+u/ʃile+bɛl skinny (sickly)

uncle

ʃile+n ʃile+gɛl

arm kɔ+g/kɔ+i skinny (sickly)

arm

kɔ+n kɔ+gɛl

leg tɔ+g/tɔ+i skinny (sickly)

leg

tɔ+n tɔ+gɛl

**Cannot be made augmentative by this strategy.

4.8 Gender and relation to size

Research demonstrates that size related meanings for noun classifications are among

some of the possible semantic values of gender systems. With this being said it is also

recognized that between sex, animacy, shape, and size, size is the least likely to occur as an

independent classification (Garbo, 2013). This would lead to the belief there there are quite

possibly sex, animacy, and/or size classifications as well. However, Allan (1977) suggested that

classifiers that manifest size alone do occur in African languages. From this, it can be concluded

that there is a possibility that there are no classifications in terms of sex, animacy, and/or shape,

but there very well could be too. Currently the data on this topic is too opaque to determine

whether there are classifications for these areas. The following is a map of the English words

encompassed within the Nafara gender classes, in table form:

Gender A Gender B Gender C

baby girl father

mouth tongue mother

arm tooth female/woman


back nose male/man

stomach finger person

foot calf heart

blood animal cat

bone bull dog

cow rabbit elephant

horse bird goat

pig tail lion

snake boy mouse

bag rope rat

house star chicken

door — frog

ash — crab

day — fish

moon — spider

mountain — boat

rain — bat

— — book

5. Phonological Aspects of the Plural Morphology

5.1 Long front high tense vowel sound [ii]/ regressive tensing assimilation

When the plural marker for gender A (-i) is added to a root or stem word ending in the

non tense counter part of [i], [ɪ], assimilation seems to take place and [ɪ] become tense. This

assimilation accounts for the long vowel sound that occurs in several pluralizations under the

gender A suffixes. The rule of assimilation can be seen below:

[+son -cons +high -back]—> [+tense]/ #___ +[+son -cons +high -back +tense]


Examples of the outcome of this process are demonstrated in the table below:

English Root/Stem Gender A

Plural

Tree tʃɪ tʃii

Mountain nəbɪ nəbii

Farm sɪ sii

5.2 Word final [n] deletion

I hypothesize that certain nominal and adjective stems end in the alveolar nasal [n].

Examples are provided in the table below:

English Stem

Adjective Good tʃɛn-/tʃan-

Nominal Belly ɸitʃɛn-

Nominal Waist/hip sɛn-

Nominal Egg tʃɛn-

Nominal Bird ɸidʒɛn-

Nominal Tail nɛn-

With the addition of several phonological rules this would provide an explanation for a velar

nasal appearing all of these words’ plural forms as demonstrated in the table below:


Good tʃɛn/tʃan tʃɛŋgɛl (when in association

with a noun from gender class

B)

Belly ɸitʃɛn ɸitʃɛŋgɛl


Waist/hip sɛn sɛŋgɛl

Egg tʃɛn tʃɛŋgɛl

Bird ɸidʒɛn ɸidʒɛn

Tail nɛn nɛŋgɛl

Under the assumption that the root ends in [n] the suffix addition would initially look like this:

ɸitʃɛn+n. Therefore the phonological rule set in place for this occurrence would be a deletion of

the nasal when another nasal has been added as a suffix:

[+son, +cons, -cont, +nasal, CORONAL, +ant]—>Ø/ ____+[+son, +cons, -cont, +nasal,

CORONAL, +ant]

This is why the singular form appears as ɸitʃɛn and not ɸitʃɛnn.

5.3 Regressive velar assimilation with gender class B pluralization

Under the assumption that some stems do in fact end in an alveolar nasal [n], there

appears to be a regressive velarization of the nasal when the gender class B suffix -gɛl is added,

so ɸitʃɛn+gɛl—> ɸitʃɛŋgɛl. The following phonological rule must be set in place in order for this

to occur:

[+son, +cons, -cont, +nasal, CORONAL, +ant]—> [DORSAL, +high, +back]/ ____ +gɛl

This process can be seen the table below:

English Root/Ste

m

Gender

B

Singular

Gender

B Plural

Final

Plural

Product

Belly ɸitʃɛn ɸitʃɛn+n ɸitʃɛn+g

ɛl

ɸitʃɛŋgɛl

Waist/hi

p

sɛn sɛn+n sɛn+gɛl sɛŋgɛl

Egg tʃɛn tʃɛn+n tʃɛn+gɛl tʃɛŋgɛl


Bird ɸidʒɛn ɸidʒɛn+

n

ɸidʒɛn+

gɛl

ɸidʒɛn

Tail nɛn nɛn+n nɛn+gɛl nɛŋgɛl

5.4 Additional [n] deletion in gender class C pluralization

In the case of adjective stems that end in the alveolar nasal [n], they may take on the

gender marking of the noun they are in relation with. This is evident in the adjective for ‘good’

when it is used to describe plural nouns from gender class C. For example the final product of

the word ‘good women’ appears as, naɸɔtʃabɛl. If the adjective stem for ‘good’ ends in [n] we

must assume the break down of the word before the final product appears as: naɸɔ+tʃan+bɛl. In

the final product the [n] is not present, so a phonological deletion rule must be set when -bɛl is

added:

[+son, +cons, -cont, +nasal, CORONAL, +ant]—>Ø/ ____+bɛl

6. Conclusion

According to this data, several conclusions/hypotheses can be made. First, it seems clear

that Nafara has plural and singular markers indexed by gender class, that attach to stem/root

words. It also seems clear that there are at least three gender classes. I would hypothesize that

there are more than three gender classes. The irregularity of -r attaching to some root words, is

evidence to believe that there are quite possibly more than three.

Another hypothesis that I would suggest, based on the data, is that the gender classes A

and B represent classifications based on size. The augmentative and diminutive endings being

the same (both singular and plural) as classes A and B, suggests a possible size gender

classification for these classes. This of course led to an analysis of words within the gender

classes. While there are outliers in the lists, meaning certain words do not fit the classifications,


there is a pattern that exhibits a possibility that gender A classifies nouns that are large in size,

while gender B classifies nouns that are small in size. We can see outliers in gender

classifications in many other languages. French for example, has two gender classes masculine

and feminine. Certain words do not fit either of these categories and are simply made masculine

or feminine. The word for table, for example, takes on the feminine article ‘la,’ however there is

nothing about a table that suggests femininity. This occurrence means several words that appear

under gender A and gender B classes may not correlate with their classification. Below is a table

demonstrating the English meaning of several words that fall under these genders:

Gender Class B (Small in Size) Gender Class A (Big in Size)

Girl Name

Boy Head

Ear Hair

Tongue Mouth

Tooth Arm (whole arm including hand)

Nose Back

Finger Leg (whole leg including foot)

Calf (leg) Blood

Animal Bone

Bull Cow

Rabbit Horse

Star Pig

Sky Wing

Wrist Snake

Ankle House

Thigh Door

Palm Ash


Forehead Chair

Toe Cloud

- Day

- Moon

- Mountain

- Rain

- Sun

In relation to the sky, there are several words. These words include: star, cloud, moon,

and sun. ‘star’ falls underneath the umbrella of gender class B (small in size), while ‘cloud’,

‘moon’, and ‘sun’ fall underneath gender class A (big in size). In relation to each other this

makes sense. Stars appear smaller than clouds, the moon, and the sun when seen in the sky.

However, the word sky itself appears in the gender class B. This does not fit the trend of size

classification. There is also a trend in comparing body parts: ear, tongue, tooth, nose, finger, toe,

calf, foot, hand, thigh, ankle, wrist, head, forehead, hair, mouth, arm (whole arm), leg (whole

leg). ‘Ear’, ‘eye’, ‘forehead’ and ‘nose’ both appear under gender B, while the word for the

whole ‘head’ appears under gender A. It is the same for ‘tongue’ and ‘tooth’ and the word for the

whole ‘mouth’; ‘finger’, ‘wrist’, and ‘hand/palm’ and the word for whole ‘arm’, and ‘foot’,

‘thigh’, ‘toe’, ‘ankle’, and ‘calf’ and the word for whole ‘leg.’ Here we see smaller parts of

whole parts of the body categorized under the gender classified for smaller size and the whole

body parts categorize under the gender classified for larger size. The list also demonstrates a

majority of animals that are smaller in size under gender B and animals that are larger in size

under gender A (with the exception of the word for bull). The lexical list is far too incomplete to

make full judgments on the classification that occurs here. With further research it might be

possible to determine whether or not this hypothesis is plausible.


It is obvious, based on section 5, that there is a relationship between morphology and

phonology. However there are several implication in which some of the rules established may

not work. Hypothesizing that there are stems that end in -n implied a need for several other rules.

The current phonological rules I have supplied work, but there are still several instances in which

they don’t. Further analysis of the phonology taking place is needed in order to fully grasp what

is happening here.

Further research and a larger lexical database, will help to deliver a better understanding

of the occurrences taking place in the singular/plural morphology of Senoufo Nafara.

References

Allan, Keith. 1977. Classifiers. Language 53 (1), 285–311.

Carstens, V. (1991). The morphology and syntax of determiner phrases in Kiswahili. UCLA PhD

dissertation.

Garbo, F. (2013). Evaluative morphology and noun classification: a cross-linguistic study of

Africa. SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 10 (1), 114-136.

Kirkle, R. (2013). Grammar sketch of Maasai.

Documents

1. Introduction - SIU...Running read: MORPHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS Dees 1 Definitive Nominal Morphological Components of Nafara 1. Introduction As the lexical database of Senoufo-Nafara