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Incorporating and Discussing Evidence

Foundation of Academic Writing: Demonstrating

Research Skills

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Basic Requirements of Academic Writing: Review Strictly observe layout conventions Check spelling and grammar Observe a formal style of writing Avoid repetition and stereotypical phrases Arrange your paragraphs according to logical

criteria and link them by observing cohesion and coherence

Discuss the facts you are dealing with from a critical standpoint

Quote conflicting arguments in an orderly manner Present your own opinions concerning an

argument in a well structured and meaningful way

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Poor Academic Writing VS Good Academic Writing POOR ACADEMIC

WRITING Descriptive Summarizes or

paraphrases sources one by one

Sweeping statements and over-generalizations

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GOOD ACADEMIC WRITING

Central argument Analytical Evaluates, selects,

interprets sources Integrates sources

seamlessly

Structures the evidence to support the argument

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Example of Poor Academic Writing Asia has been the world’s most rapidly

expanding market for food … Australian consumers are only predicted to spend an additional US$6 billion per year on food by the year 2000 (DPIE, 1994). Japan is the dominant importer, accounting for 49.2% of Asia’s total imports … a slight increase from 4.4% in 1990 to 7.1% in 1994 (DPIE, 1994). The Asian population is also starting to eat different types of foods … increasing interest in fresh fruits and vegetables (DPIE, 1994).

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Marketing of Asian Food Example No context given (why is the writer telling

us this?) Single source – not justified (Is it the only

source? The best source?) Raw data – no interpretation (So what

does it all mean?) Referencing deficiencies (A reference at

the end of a paragraph does not “cover” the whole paragraph)

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Problem: No Academic Voice When a student over-uses secondary

sources in a paragraph it may simply read as a string of quotations, devoid of the student's academic voice that “ties” the ideas together into a coherent argument.

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Expressing Your Academic Voice It is important that your “academic voice”

is present in your writing. The writer's academic voice or argument is

evident in the way the student introduces and interprets the evidence that supports his/her point.

The paraphrased material does not dominate the paragraph, but rather is secondary to and supports the student's argument.

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Example of Strong Use of Academic Voice: Say It; Support It; Explain It

The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is yet another indicator of Australia’s lack of egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates that, at least in terms of economics, there is an established class system in Australia. McGregor (1988) argues that Australian society can be categorized into three levels: the Upper, Middle and Working classes. In addition, it has been shown that “most Australians continue to remain in the class into which they were born” (McGregor, 1988, p. 156), despite arguments about the ease of social mobility in Australian society (Fitzpatrick, 1994). The issue of class and its inherent inequity, however, is further compounded by factors such as race and gender within and across these class divisions.

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Example of Good Academic Writing

Family studies have confirmed that the majority of canine red cell antigens are inherited as simple Mendelian dominants (Colling & Saison 1980; Ikemoto, et al. 1978;. Kamel & Ezzat, 1968; Vriesendorp, et al. 1973). Exceptions to this mode of inheritance include the closed system of NF6 and 7 (Suzuki, et al., 1975) and the Japanese D1 and D2 system (Ejima, et al., 1976), both of which appear to be controlled by codominant alleles.

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Canine Red Cells ExampleIn this example: the author has consulted a number of

sources and compared them with respect to the inheritance of canine red cell antigens.

The author then presents the agreement first (simple Mendelian dominant inheritance) followed by the exceptions (rather than going through each source separately, summarizing the results and leaving it to the reader to do the comparison and interpret the findings).

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Meeting the Expectations Understand what you read in relation to

the set task, i.e. read with task in mind. Be active in your approach. This means

you need to engage and interact with sources, eg., ask “What does this mean in relation to my argument/ my task/ what I want to say?”

Tell your reader why the evidence is relevant and what conclusions you want them to draw.

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How Do You Know If You Are Meeting the Expectations?

You can assume if your mark is high then you have met the expectations!

Written feedback should allow you to find out how you could better meet the expectations for each task.

It is worth spending time reflecting on the feedback. The goal is for you to be able to judge for yourself the standard of your essay, lab or assignment.

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Rules for Incorporating Research

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1. Examine Dates and Credentials

Is the source primary or secondary? Is enough documentation provided?

Does the author have advanced degrees and a fine reputation in the field?

When was the research conducted and where? Does the interpretation of results seem logical

and objective or does the author have a hidden agenda?

Has other research reported similar or conflicting results? What do authorities in the field generally accept?

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2. Use Tentative Words to Discuss Findings

Verbs: Nouns: Phrases:

indicates indication probable cause

found theorize

findings possibility

possible influence is often a sign of

reported report apparently is

suggest suggestion could indicate

imply implication suggests that

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3. Restate Common Knowledge This includes all information you were

aware of before you started researching. This applies particularly to class notes.

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4. Acknowledge Everything Else Historical information

that is not commonly known

Statistics, surveys, and opinion polls

Expert opinion, estimates, predictions

Tables, charts, graphs, visuals

Current information based on direct observation

Research results and interpretations

Theories, criticisms and interpretations

Footnote from printed material

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5. State Your Own Ideas and Conclusions – When???? As a rule, informative secondary research papers

do not include personal opinion or reactions. If you are unclear on this point, be sure to ask your instructor.

If your professor does ask for your critical response, provide it only after you have described your research findings in detail. Offer a logical interpretation of the evidence, taking into consideration the opinions of authorities.

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6. Note-Taking and Critical Reading from Sources

Preserve the meaning of the original passage as you take notes, summarize, paraphrase, and quote.

Any informative research paper is usually expected to consist mainly of summary. Paraphrase at times and sprinkle your paper with direct quotations at appropriate intervals. One or more long direct quotations may be used.

Psychology papers tend to have NO direct quotations.

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Summarizing Reduce the passage by 50 to 75 percent. Make essentially the same points as the

original. Clearly identify the source in the first

sentence of the summary. Use synonyms to replace major words that

are not generic.

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Plagiarized Summary According to Mark L. Knapp, in 1900 in Berlin,

Germany, Herr Von Osten purchased a horse. When von Osten trained the horse to count by rapping his hoof, he did not know that Hans would become one of the most famous horses in history. Hans was a rapid learner and soon could do arithmetic and other tricks (1).

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Paraphrasing Restate an original passage by rewording

and using different sentence patterns. Paraphrase ONLY for the following

reasons:1. To emphasize important ideas.2. To clarify a difficult passage.3. To combine details.

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Guidelines for Summaries and Paraphrases Underline the topic sentences and key

points in the original. Rewrite, retaining the order of the original. If you are unable to paraphrase a difficult

phrase, copy and enclose in quotation marks.

Cite source and pages.

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Using Quotations – When??? To present technical words for which there is no

accurate paraphrase. To avoid any doubt about the accuracy of a

surprising statement or evidence. To capture the flavor of the original. To avoid an awkward or wordy paraphrase. To enhance your credibility as a writer.

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Using Quotations – How???? Use a signal phrase to precede the

quotation and introduce the speaker as: According to William Shakespeare… A study by Mahmoud Aziz… Others, like Hemingway, believe….

Avoid weak phrases like: A study revealed…, Experts say…., It is believed… In my opinion… I feel…..

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Using Quotations – How???

A verb in a signal phrase should indicate the intent of the writer or speaker and is usually in the present tense for English papers and in the past tense for Psychology papers:

Examples: admits, concedes, discloses, holds, observes, agrees, concludes, disputes, highlights, refuses, argues, concurs, emphasizes, insists, refutes, believes, denies, finds, maintains, reveals, claims, disagrees, grants, notes, stresses, states, explains, indicates, proposes, implies, suggests, writes, rejects, supports….

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Avoid the Five Common Problems of Research Papers Pulling ideas out of context Omitting significant information Overusing quotations Inadequate documentation Not distinguishing between fact and

opinion

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DocumentingWhy do you have to document? To support the points you have made in

your paper To cross-reference your sources so

readers can locate your material To eliminate incidences of plagiarism

StFX’s Policy on Academic Integrity:

http://libmain.stfx.ca/integrity/student/Plagiarismforstudents.htm

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Avoiding Plagiarism

You can avoid plagiarism by: Making a list of the writers and

viewpoints you discussed in your research.

Keeping the following three categories distinct in your research notes: 1. your ideas (DO NOT CITE), 2. your summaries of other’s material (CITE), and 3. exact wording you copy (CITE).

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Sources for Academic Research

Scholarly

journalsPeriodicals

Peer-reviewed Works

Academic sources

Books

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Using a Consistent Format Using a consistent format helps

your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on.

It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments.

You only include those references you have cited in your text.

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But …your professor is always right!

When in doubt, talk to your professor! They may have their own guidelines to follow.

These may be available on the individual professor’s website or on the departmental website.

Professors will often provide referencing information on the handout for your assignment

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Establishing Credibility The proper use of a referencing style

shows the credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material.

You are part of a community of scholars who are accessing the same information sources, for example: ProQuest database.

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Specific Formats at StFXSample Department Style Guides: Anthropology Style Guide Biology 112 Sample and their link to

Biology Referencing at UBC History Department - Click Student Information Political Science Department Psychology - Click Undergrad Info

Nursing papers are also specific with APA formatting. Check the course handouts

Your individual professors’ websites may also have specific guidelines on writing. These may be different from “the rules” of a particular style.

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The History of APA & MLA Styles

In 1928, representatives of anthropological and psychological journals met to discuss the form of journal manuscripts and to write instructions for their preparation. Their goal was to create a “standard of procedures”.

The American Psychological Association’s (APA) 1st edition was 60 pages

The current 5th edition has 439 pages

The Modern Languages Association (MLA) was established in 1883.

Current membership is 30,000 members in 100 countries.

Scholars share findings and discuss academic trends (MLA.org).

Often used in English, History, Philosophy, Political Science, Sociology and Religious Studies.

APA MLA

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Quotations & Paraphrases Quotations are copied directly, word-for-

word from a source.

Paraphrases are your words, based on someone else’s ideas

BOTH need to be referenced!

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In-text citations

Use in-text citations when you are using direct quotations OR paraphrasing text.

Use in-text citations or footnotes or endnotes.

Your department or professor may have very specific guidelines

APA MLA

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In-text citations

One recent study found a genetic link to alcoholism (Bigelow, 2002).

Bigelow (2002) discovered a genetic link to alcoholism.

One recent study found a genetic link to alcoholism (Bigelow 42).

Bigelow discovered a genetic link to alcoholism (42).

APA MLA

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In-text citationsJones et al. (2004) discovered that . . .

The research results indicate that … (Jones et al., 2004).

Fred James, Howard Jones, Tom Sanfield, and Jennifer Kelsey discovered that ... (78).

The research results indicate that … (James, Jones, Sanfield, and Kelsey 78).

APA MLA

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Two AuthorsHansen-Ketchum and Farrell (2004) discussed ...

The ethical implications are … (Hansen-Ketchum & Farrell, 2004).

Patricia Hansen-Ketchum and Denise Farrell discussed ... (102).

The ethical implications are … (Hansen-Ketchum & Farrell 102).

APA MLA

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Three, Four or Five AuthorsWhitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw (2004) maintain that …

They maintain that … (Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, & Shaw, 2004).

Subsequent citations:

Whitty-Rogers et al. (2004) discovered that …

The research results indicate that …(Whitty-Rogers et al., 2004).

Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw maintain that … (97)

They maintain that … (Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw 97).

Subsequent citations:

Whitty-Rogers et al. discovered that ... (115).

The research proved that … (Whitty-Rogers et al., 115).

APA MLA

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Six or More AuthorsAlex et al. (2005) clarified the results by …

The researchers clarified their results by … (Alex et al., 2005).

Alex et al. (102) clarified the results by …

They clarified their results by … (Alex et al. 102).

APA MLA

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Dealing with Secondary Sources

Graham (as cited in Gillis & MacIsaac, 2002) described ...

The researcher described … (Graham, as cited in Gillis & MacIsaac, 2002).

Graham (qtd. in Gillis and MacIsaac 169) described ...

The researcher described … (Graham qtd. in Gillis and MacIsaac, 169).

Only the document that YOU read (ie., Gillis & MacIsaac’s) appears on your reference page

APA MLA

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Two or more sources in one citation

Use a semi-colon if more than one source included a paraphrased idea or information.

Conceptions of personal space vary among cultures (Morris 189-95; Worchel and Cooper 34-50).

APA MLA

Conceptions of personal space vary among cultures (Morris, 1977; Worchel & Cooper, 1983).

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Anonymous Sources

APA in-text citation for the article “Are You a Day or Night Person?”:

The morning lark and night owl connotations typically are used to categorize the human extremes (“Are You,” 1989).

MLA in-text citation for the article “Are You a Day or Night Person?”:

The morning lark and night owl connotations typically are used to categorize the human extremes (“Are You” 11).

APA MLA

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Block Quotations More than forty words Do not use quotation

marks (unless they appear in the original)

Indent one tab-stop Double space

More than four lines of text

Do not use quotations marks (unless they appear in the original)

Indent one tab-stop Double space

APA MLA

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Idiosyncrasies: MLAQuoting poetry

Separate two lines of poetry with a dash. The dash takes the place of the punctuation:Reflecting on the “incident” in Baltimore, Cullen concludes, “Of all the things that happened there / That’s all that I remember” (11-12).

Punctuation with QuotationsIf a quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation mark and requires a parenthetical reference, retain the original punctuation within the quotation mark and follow with the reference and the sentence period outside the quotation mark.

Dorothea Brooke responds to her sister, “What a wonderful little almanac you are, Celia!” (7).

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Footnotes/Endnotes (MLA & CM)

Note Entry1John Macquarrie, Existentialism (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972) 13.

Works Cited Entry

Macquarrie, John. Existentialism. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972.

See also: http://www.aresearchguide.com/8firstfo.html

(Simpson 61)

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Sample ReferencesReferences

Canadian Nurses Association. (2002). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.

Mueller, C., & Karon, S. L. (2004). ANA nurse sensitive quality indicators for long-term care facilities [Electronic version]. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 19(1), 39-47. Retrieved October 27, 2005, from ProQuest database.

Registered Nurses Association of Nova Scotia. (1997). Standards of nursing practice. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Author.

Wolchik, S. A., West, S.G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., & Lengua, L.., (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(14), 843-856.

APA

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Sample ReferencesWorks Cited

Byatt, A. S. Babel Tower. New York: Random House, 1996.

Dickens, Charles. Bleak House. 1852-1853. New York: Penguin, 1985.

---. David Copperfield. 1849-1850. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1958.

Klein, Joe. “Dizzy Days.” The New Yorker 5 Oct. 1998: 40-45.

Miller, J. Hillis. Charles Dickens: The World and His Novels. Bloomington: U of Indiana P, 1958.

Poland, Dave. “The Hot Button.” Roughcut. 26 Oct. 1998. Turner Network Television. 28 Oct. 1998 <www.roughcut.com>.

Zwerdling, Alex. “Esther Summerson Rehabilitated.” PMLA 88 (May 1973): 429-439.

MLA

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Specific formats: LabsAbstract

The abstract is a brief summary of the paper and should not be more than 120 words. The goal of the abstract is to provide enough information so the reader can decide whether to read the full paper.

APA

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Verb tense“Past tense (e.g., ‘Smith showed’) or present perfect tense (e.g., ‘researchers have shown’) is appropriate for the literature review and the description of the procedure…Stay within the chosen tense.” (APA, 2001, p.33)

Use present tense (The results indicate …) to discuss the results and to present conclusions (APA, 2001, p. 33).

MLA insists on the consistent use of tense.

English essays require you to use the present tense.

History papers require you to use the past tense when discussing events, and present tense when discussing interpretations.

APA MLA

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GenderWhen an individual conducts this kind of self-appraisal, he is a much stronger person.

Plurals eliminate gender bias. (APA, 2001, p.66)

Correction

When individuals conduct this kind of self-appraisal, they are much stronger people.

APA MLA

In MLA, he or she is acceptable, but be consistent with number and person.

At all times make sure that your writing does not contain any gender biases.

To avoid awkward constructions talk about individuals in the plural.

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Numbers and Variables X’s and O’s Xs and Os

In the 1990’s

In the 1990s,

Twenty participants indicated their preference for …, but six refused. Furthermore, 17 participants …

Spell out numbers written in one or two words and represent other numbers by numerals:

thirty-six

one hundred OR 101

1,275 If you are including statistics, use

numerals for experimental data and spell out other numbers that can be written in one or two words.In the ten years covered by the study, the number of participating institutions in the United States doubled, reaching 90, and membership in the six-state region rose from 4 to 15.

APA MLA

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More Numbers …Grouped for comparison:

3 of 21 analyses 2 of the 20 responsesbut …15 traits on each of four checklists (traits and checklists are not being compared)

Representing mathematical functions:3 times as manymore than 5% of the sample

Never begin a sentence with a numeral.

Except at the beginning of a sentence use numerals for: Abbreviations or

symbols 3%, 4:20 p.m., 2”, $9

Addresses 4401 13th Avenue

Dates 1 April 2006; April 1,

2006 Decimal Fractions

8.3

APA MLA

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And More Numbers …Representing time, dates,

ages,sample, or population size:

2-year-oldsin about 3 years . . .2 weeks ago3 participants (but seven observers)

For large numbers, you may use a combination of numerals and words:4.5 million

Spell out centuries in lowercase letters:the twentieth century

Hyphenate centuries when they are used as adjectives before nouns:

Eighteenth-century thought

APA MLA

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AND even MORE numbers …Back-to-back modifiers:

2 two-way interactionsTen 7-point scalesTwenty 6-year-olds

Numerals are used to indicate most times of the day except time expressed in quarter and half hours and in hours followed by o’clock:

6:20 a.m.a quarter to twelvehalf past tenfive o’clock

APA MLA

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Where to go for help Your department website

The Writing Centre websitewww.stfx.ca/resources/writingcentre

click Resourcesclick Documenting

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Multiple Style Formats WebsitesPurdue Universityhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm

Diana HackerAPA, MLA & Chicago Manual

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Additional Style WebsitesAPA Electronic Sourceshttp://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

MLA Electronic Formatshttp://www.westwords.com/guffey/mla.html

Chicago Manual of Style (Turiban)

http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html

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RefWorks on the StFX library site is free!

http://libmain.stfx.ca/newlib/electronic/databases/welcome.htm

Off Campus Users – StFX Group Code

RWStFrXaU