1 History, Distribution and World Production · arrival of Columbus (Collins, 1960). In some cases, ... 1860 1863 1835 Florida Azores 1930 Africa 1895 Ceylon ... tion and marketing

1 History, Distribution andWorld Production

Kenneth G. Rohrbach,1 Freddy Leal2 andGeo Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge3

1Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences, CTAHR, University of Hawaii atManoa, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; 2Universidad Central deVenezuela, Facultad de Agronomía, Maracay, Aragua, Venezuela; 3IPGRI/CIAT,

AA 6713, Cali, Colombia

Early History

Prior to the discovery of the pineapple fruitby Cristobal Colón (Christopher Columbus)on 4 November 1493 (Morrison, 1963), thefruit was already a stable component of thevegetative-crop complex and in the diet ofnative Americans in the lowland tropics(Laufer, 1929). The European explorers wereimpressed by this large and delicious fruitand often mentioned and described it intheir chronicles. These early reports indicatethat domesticated pineapple was alreadyvery widely distributed in the Americas(Orinoco, Amazon, coastal Brazil around Riode Janeiro) and the Caribbean prior to thearrival of Columbus (Collins, 1960). In somecases, the Europeans themselves could havecontributed to pineapple dispersion in thecontinent. Indeed, the many plants (e.g.lemon, orange, sugar cane, banana and plan-tain) introduced by Colón from the CanaryIslands since his second voyage were distrib-uted by the natives throughout tropicalAmerica in less than two decades, as evi-denced by banana and plantain cultivationin Puerto Bello in 1503 (Colón, 1506). On theother hand, if the natives dispersed thesenew crops so quickly, they very probably

had done the same with pineapple longbefore Colón. Other evidence points to theantiquity of pineapple cultivation. Thus, thenames ‘nanas’ and ‘ananas’ were extensivelyused throughout South America and theCaribbean. Early European explorersobserved a high degree of domestication andselection exhibited in the pineapples theyfound. The Amerindians easily distinguishedlandraces from the wild types and haddeveloped a thorough knowledge of the cropagronomy, including its production cycle.Specifically adapted landraces (e.g. theAndean ‘Perolera’ and ‘Manzana’) werefound with variation in fruit yield and qual-ity. Five additional centuries of work by tal-ented horticulturists and modern plantbreeders have not added significantly to thevariety of domesticated types (Leal andCoppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996; Coppensd’Eeckenbrugge et al., 1997).

In addition to the fresh fruit, the nativeAmericans used pineapple for the prepara-tion of alcoholic beverages (pineapple wine,chicha and guarapo), for the production offibre, and for medicinal purposes, as anemmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebicand vermifuge and for the correction ofstomachal disorders, and for the poisoning

© CAB International 2003. The Pineapple: Botany, Production and Uses(eds D.P. Bartholomew, R.E. Paull and K.G. Rohrbach) 1

Pineapple Chapter 01 14/10/02 2:09 PM Page 1

of arrowheads. Most of these medicinal usesare related to the proteolytic enzyme brome-lain of the pineapple (Leal and Coppensd’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). The nativeAmericans also domesticated the curagua, asmooth-leaved type with a higher yield oflong and strong fibres, and used it for mak-ing nautical and fishing-lines, fishing nets,hammocks and loincloths (Leal and Amaya,1991). There is still a small traditional indus-try based on pineapple fibre in Brazil (Lemeand Marigo, 1993) and even in thePhilippines, where ‘piña cloth’ was men-tioned as early as 1571 (Collins, 1960;Montinola, 1991).

From the early 1500s, the pineapple fasci-nated the Europeans, who introduced andgrew it in greenhouses. The first successfulgreenhouse cultivation was by Le Cour, orLa Court, at the end of the 17th century nearLeyden. He published a treatise on pineap-ple horticulture, including ‘forcing’ theplants to flower. Pineapple plants were dis-tributed from The Netherlands to Englishgardeners in 1719 and to France in 1730(Gibault, 1912). As pineapple cultivation inEuropean greenhouses expanded during the18th and 19th centuries, many varieties wereimported, mostly from the Antilles. Griffin(1806) described ten of them and consideredmost of the others as useless and their culti-vation cumbersome. Others have describednumerous varieties (Loudon, 1822; Munro,1835; Beer, 1857). The now famous varietyCayenne Lisse (‘Smooth Cayenne’) wasintroduced from French Guiana by Perrotetin 1819 (Perrotet, 1825). With the notableexceptions of ‘Smooth Cayenne’ and‘Queen’, most of these early varieties disap-peared as commercial cultivation in Europedeclined and pineapple fruit was importedfrom the West Indies.

’Smooth Cayenne’ and ‘Queen’ weretaken from Europe to all tropical and sub-tropical regions (Fig. 1.1; Collins, 1951). TheSpaniards and Portuguese dispersed othervarieties, including ‘Singapore Spanish’, toAfrica and Asia during the great voyages ofthe 16th and 17th centuries. However, thediversity of these varieties is still negligiblecompared with the variation found inAmerica. ‘Smooth Cayenne’ is by far the

most important variety in world trade; manyothers are only grown regionally for localconsumption. Both Smooth Cayenne andSingapore Spanish can be called true culti-vars (see Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge and Leal,Chapter 2, this volume).

Development of the Pineapple Trade

Drought tolerance and the ease of transportof vegetative propagules facilitated the widediffusion of pineapples around the world.However, the relatively short shelf-life offresh pineapple fruit limited early commer-cial trade to relatively short transportationroutes or some form of preservation. Jamsand sweets made in the West Indies, Braziland New Spain (Mexico) were the first com-mercial products of pineapple (Thévet, 1557;Acosta, 1590; Loudon, 1822). In the early19th century, fresh pineapples were sentfrom the West Indies to Europe attached tothe entire plant, which lowered the price inthe European markets and led to a decline inEuropean glasshouse production (Loudon,1822). Commercialization during the mid-19th century developed based on the short-est trade routes rather than an optimumpineapple production environment.Production in Florida, the Bahamas, Cubaand Puerto Rico supplied the NorthAmerican market and the Azores theEuropean market. The Azores maintainedtheir monopoly of the European fresh-fruitmarket until after the Second World War,when production shifted to Africa (Py et al.,1987).

Commercial processing of pineapplestarted in Hawaii at the end of the 19th cen-tury. The invention and refinement of theautomatic peeling and coring machine byHenry Ginaca, a Hawaiian PineappleCompany (Dole) employee, between 1911and 1919 allowed the development of alarge-scale economically viable canningindustry. This was paralleled by a majorexpansion of pineapple production. The 1919ginaca peeled and cored up to 65 pineapplesmin−1. A 1925 model, also developed by theHawaiian Pineapple Company, processed90–100 pineapples min−1. No additional sig-

2 K.G. Rohrbach et al.


nificant improvements have been made onthis machine since 1925 (Anon., 1993). Otherimportant canning operations started aroundthe same period in South-East Asia(Malaysia in 1888, Taiwan in 1902,Philippines in 1920), Australia, South Africa,the Caribbean (Martinique, Cuba and PuertoRico) and Kenya. The Second World Warruined the South-East Asian industry anddestroyed international trade. Hawaii gaineda strong leadership position that lasted untilthe development of new competitors (Côted’Ivoire and the Philippines, followed byThailand) between 1950 and the early 1960s.In these same years, refrigerated sea trans-portation developed and diminished theimportance of proximity to the market.Hawaii, West Africa (mainly Côte d’Ivoire)and Taiwan shifted part of their productionto the fresh-fruit market, exporting, respec-tively, to the North American, European andJapanese markets. Philippine productionexpanded greatly in the 1970s, exportingcanned products and significant quantities of

fresh fruit to Japan (Py et al., 1987). Today,the canned-product market remains veryimportant but the value of the internationalfresh-fruit market is rapidly increasing.

World Production and Trade

Pineapple is now the third most importanttropical fruit in world production afterbanana and citrus. The processing of pineap-ple has made the fruit well known through-out the temperate developed world. Majorpineapple products of international trade arecanned slices, chunks, crush (solid pack) andjuice and fresh fruit (Fig. 1.2). Internationaltrade is dominated by a few multinationalcompanies that have developed the infra-structure to process and market pineapple.Thailand and Indonesia are, to a degree,exceptions, with small local processing oper-ations. Despite the significance of cannedpineapple in international trade, approxi-mately 70% of the pineapple produced in the

History, Distribution and World Production 3

Hawaii

England

Netherlandsand Belgium

1897

1860

1863

1835

Florida

Azores

1930

Africa 1895

Ceylon

SouthAfrica

?France

1923

Taiwan1926

Philippines

1893

Fiji

1930

Mexico

1946 Cuba

1947 Haiti

1858FrenchGuiana

SouthAmerica

Australia

1820

1885

Fig. 1.1. Distribution of the ‘Smooth Cayenne’ cultivar (after Collins, 1951).


world is consumed as fresh fruit in the coun-try of origin (Loeillet, 1997). Important pro-ducing countries, such as Brazil, India,China, Nigeria, Mexico and Colombia, pro-duce fruit primarily for their own fresh-fruitmarkets and canning is a minor industry.

Statistics on world pineapple productionare collected by the Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations (FAO).According to FAO statistics (Baker, 1990;Anon., 2002), total pineapple production wasapproximately constant in the 1999–2001period, with a mean world production forthese 3 years of 13,527,149 metric tonnes (t).World production has more than tripled dur-ing the past 30 years (3,833,137 t in 1961 to13,738,735 t in 2001). The leading pineapple-producing countries are Thailand with2,311,332 t, the Philippines with 1,520,715 tand Brazil with 1,504,493 t (means 1999–2001).China (1,181,169 t), India (1.1 million t), and,Nigeria (800,000 t) follow. Nigerian statisticsannounced year after year are a surprisinglyconstant 800,000 t. Other producers exceeding250,000 t are Mexico (535,000 t), Costa Rica(475,000 t), Colombia (360,000 t), Indonesia(300,000 t), Venezuela (300,000 t), USA

(293,000 t) and Kenya (280,000 t). The valueof these statistics is relative to their accuracy.Thus, the joint use of statistics for productionand planted areas allows yield estimationsranging from a high (and unlikely) of 48 tha−1 for Cuba to a low of 7 t ha−1 forIndonesia (Table 1.1). Indeed, several coun-tries are thought to give rough estimates,which may explain the surprising officialproduction of countries such as Nigeria andthe low correlation between yields and theprobable level of technology and inputs usedin the production system. In addition, FAOstatistics do not separate fresh fruit fromprocessed pineapple or export from localconsumption.

Pineapple produced in Thailand and thePhilippines dominates world trade. The for-mer country processes approximately 1.6million t of its total production of 2 million t.Thailand’s pineapple is produced on almost100,000 ha of small farms of 1–5 ha (Anupuntet al., 2000). In contrast to Thailand, produc-tion and marketing in the Philippines isalmost exclusively run by multinational cor-porations using large plantation productionsystems. Export and marketing from the


Fruitskin

Fruitcore

Longitudinalfruit

section

Pineapplefruit andcrown

FRESH FRUIT

SUGAR ANDCATTLE FEED

JUICECONCENTRATE

SPEARS

CRUSH

TITBITS

CHUNKS

FRUIT SLICE

JUICE

Corehole

Fruitcylinder

Fig. 1.2. Pineapple products.


Philippines of both processed and fresh fruitare frequently handled with other products,such as bananas. The large scale of produc-tion, high level of technology and low labourcosts make competition with production,processing and marketing of both cannedand fresh fruit from Thailand and thePhilippines very difficult for the smaller pro-ducing countries. Australia and South Africamarket canned and fresh fruit almost exclu-sively within the country and remain com-petitive because of efficient production andprocessing (Sanewski and Scott, 2000) andinternational trade barriers. While Hawaiiwas the centre of world processing and tech-nology in the first half of the 20th century, itsproportion of production has declinedsteadily as production and competition fromThailand and the Philippines have risen (Fig.1.3). However, the value of the Hawaiianpineapple industry (US$) unadjusted for

inflation has increased as production wasgradually shifted from processed to freshfruit for the domestic market (Rohrbach,2000). Taiwan (Lin and Chang, 2000), likeHawaii, has shifted from a dominant pro-cessing industry to a domestic and exportfresh-fruit market.

World trade in pineapple mainly consistsof processed products. World exports ofcanned pineapple doubled between 1983 and1992, passing 1 million t and representing avalue of more than US$600 million. Asiancountries have been the primary suppliers,increasing their share from 69 to 85%, whileAfrica’s share has decreased from 25 to 10%.Leading countries are now Thailand (315,000t), the Philippines (209,000 t), Indonesia(95,000 t), Kenya (84,000 t) and Malaysia(44,000 t). The European Union imports450,000 t, a 2.4-fold increase between 1983and 1993. The USA and Canada import


Table 1.1. Pineapple production (t), ha harvested and yields (t ha−1) for 2001 by country(Anon., 2002).

Country Production (t) Harvested (ha) Yield (t ha−1)

Thailand 2,300,000 97,300 24Philippines 1,571,904 45,000 35Brazil 1,442,300 59,238 24China 1,284,000 57,700 22India 1,100,000 80,000 14Nigeria 881,000 115,000 8Mexico 535,000 12,500 43Costa Rica 475,000 12,000 40Colombia 360,000 9,000 40Indonesia 300,000 42,000 7Venezuela 300,000 15,000 20USA 293,000 8,130 36Kenya 280,000 8,500 33Côte d’Ivoire 225,675 5,200 43South Africa 145,441 6,200 23Australia 140,000 3,000 47Dominican Republic 136,862 5,500 25Malaysia 130,000 7,000 19Guatemala 101,287 3,710 27Honduras 70,000 3,900 18Cameroon 42,000 4,000 11Martinique 20,800 484 43Swaziland 19,680 600 33Cuba 19,000 400 48Cambodia 16,500 1,600 10Puerto Rico 15,000 500 30

Pineapple Chapter 01 24/10/02 11:25 AM Page 5

380,000 t, representing a replacement fordecreasing Hawaiian production (Loeillet,1995; Anon., 1998a).

The market for concentrated pineapplejuice, especially frozen concentrate, has alsoincreased. Estimated at 40,000 t in 1983, itincreased to 167,000 t in 1993 (representingthen up to US$400 million), to reach 215,000 tin 1993. Supply is dominated by Thailandand the Philippines. The Philippines is alsolargely dominant for the smaller market forsingle-strength juice (70,000 t). The USA andCanada (90,000 t) are the major importers ofconcentrated juice, with Europe (118,000 t)second (Loeillet, 1994).

Per capita consumption of pineapple juicein the USA is essentially static at between 1and 1.3 l year−1 which contrasts withincreases of both orange- and apple-juiceconsumption (Fig. 1.4).

The international fresh-pineapple market(about 670,000 t) is dominated by Costa Rica,the Philippines and the Côte d’Ivoire. TheNorth American market is primarily sup-plied by Costa Rica and Hawaii (Fig. 1.5). In

the USA, annual per capita consumption offresh pineapple fruit has gone from 0.3 to 0.9kg. This is still very low when comparedwith the approximately 5 kg consumption ofprocessed pineapple over the past 25 years(Fig. 1.6) and with the consumption of otherfruits such as bananas, apples and oranges(Fig. 1.7). The European market is mainlysupplied by Côte d’Ivoire, with significantamounts transshipped through France toseveral other European countries (Fig. 1.8;Aldrich, 1984; Anon., 1998b). Europeancountries such as the Netherlands andBelgium obtain fresh pineapple from severaldifferent countries, including Costa Rica, aswell as the Côte d’Ivoire through France. InEurope, per capita consumption of freshpineapple is highest in France and in 1984was approximately equal to the current USfresh-pineapple consumption (Aldrich,1984). The principal South-East Asian fresh-fruit export market is Japan, which is domi-nated by the Philippines. Taiwan alsosupplies significant amounts. China,Indonesia and Hawaii occasionally supply


Pro

duct

ion

and

proc

essi

ng (

t) (

� 1

000)

Thailand

Brazil

Philippines

USA

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

1961 1971 1981 1991

Years

Fig. 1.3. Shifts in Hawaiian and multinational foreign production and processing industries (Anon., 1998a;Baker, 1990).


small amounts. Imports of fresh pineappleinto Japan have declined somewhat in recentyears (Fig. 1.9) (Anon., 1997). In contrast toEurope and the USA, Brazil’s consumptionof fresh pineapple is approximately 11 kg percapita year−1 (Reinhardt and Souza, 2000).

Chilled fresh-cut fruit pineapple packed asspears or chunks in sealed plastic bags forretail sale is a relatively new product. Fruitmay be processed at the production site and

transported chilled at 0–1°C or shipped wholewithout the crown to large metropolitan cen-tres and processed just before retail sales. Theshelf-life of this product is limited to 1–3weeks unless the product is actually frozen.The chilled fresh-cut product addresses con-sumer demand for ready-to-eat foods that donot require any preparation time. Industrysources estimate that the market for vacuum-packed fresh-cut pineapple in Japan will soon


Juic

e co

nsum

ptio

n (l)

Orange

Apple

Pineapple

25

20

15

10

5

0

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

Fig. 1.4. Per capita consumption of orange, apple and pineapple juice in the USA (Putnam and Allshouse,1999).

Costa Rica Dom Republic Ecuador Honduras Mexico

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

US

impo

rts

(t)

1981 1986 1991 1996

Year

Fig. 1.5. Countries supplying fresh pineapple to the US market (Anon., 1998b). Dom, Dominican.


approach 20% of the total fresh-pineapplefruit market for Japan (Anon., 1999). InHawaii, it is estimated that chilled fresh-cutpineapple represents up to 10% of the totalfresh-fruit market. High-pressure processinghas recently been used to extend the shelf-lifeof chilled fresh-cut fruit (Aleman et al., 1994).Commercialization of this process will bedependent on the costs versus benefits ofhigh-pressure processing equipment.

Most of the world production (about70%), and most of the canned pineapple

(about 95%), comes from the cultivar‘Smooth Cayenne’. ‘Queen’ is present insmall specific niches of high-quality andexpensive fresh fruit (Loeillet, 1996). Theincreasing importance of fresh pineapple inthe temperate markets is putting pressure onthe multinational corporations to switch tocultivars that are superior to ‘SmoothCayenne’ as fresh fruit. As industries shift todomestic fresh-fruit markets because of com-petition in processed fruit, ‘Smooth Cayenne’does not provide today’s consumer with the


Fresh

Processed

8

6

4

2

0

Per

cap

ita c

onsu

mpt

ion

(kg)

1970 1975 1981 1986 1991

Year

Fig. 1.6. Per capita consumption of fresh and processed pineapple in the USA (Putnam and Allshouse,1999).

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Per

cap

ita c

onsu

mpt

ion

(kg)

1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994

Years

Bananas

Apples

Oranges

Pineapples

Fig. 1.7. Per capita consumption of bananas, apples, oranges and pineapple in the USA (Putnam andAllshouse, 1999).


best fruit quality (Paull, 1993; Sanewski andScott, 2000). Taiwan, Hawaii, Malaysia,Australia, Cuba, Brazil and the French areputting resources into developing cultivarsspecifically for domestic fresh-fruit markets.A first result of these efforts has been therecent and successful introduction of a low-acid cultivar by Del Monte from Costa Ricainto the European and American markets(Malezieux, 2000).

By-products

Portions of the pineapple plant and process-ing wastes, in the form of shell and corematerials, and centrifuged solids from juice

production have been evaluated and used asanimal feeds (Wayman et al., 1976; Olbrichand Al, 1977; Stanley and Ishizaki, 1979). Inmany countries, feed tolerances must beestablished for pesticides used during pro-duction in order for by-products to be usedas animal feeds. The requirements for toler-ances affect the economic viability of by-product use for feeds, even though adisposal cost exists for cannery wastes.Additionally, because of the low nutrient val-ues of pineapple by-products, animal weightgains may not be economical when higher-quality feeds are available.

Pineapple fibre is considered to be moredelicate in texture than any other vegetalfibre. About 60 cm long, white and creamy


Fru

it su

pplie

d (t

)

180,000

160,000

140,000

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

Ivory Coast

Costa Rica

Honduras

Ghana

Dominican Rep.

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

Fig. 1.8. Major countries supplying fresh fruit to the European market (Anon., 1998b; Loeillet, 1994).

150,000

100,000

50,000

0Japa

nese

impo

rts

(t)

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Year

Fig. 1.9. Metric tons of pineapple imported into Japan (Anon., 1997, 1999).


and lustrous as silk, it easily takes andretains dyes. Numerous tests in Brazil,Florida, India and the Philippines haveshown its exceptional resistance to salt,vapour and traction (Correa, 1926;Montinola, 1991). However, while small cot-tage industries exist for speciality uses ofpineapple fibre from particular cultivars,numerous attempts at commercial produc-tion as a subproduct of the fruit industryhave failed. In fact, fibre quality and yieldare highly dependent on the cultivar, andthose of ‘Smooth Cayenne’ are among theweakest. In addition, cultural practices forfruit production have detrimental effects onfibre characteristics. Pineapple fibre has alsobeen processed into paper, which showsremarkable thinness, smoothness and plia-bility (Collins, 1960; Montinola, 1991). Recentstudies have resulted in several patents onpaper production and the development oflow-density polyethylene composites(Fujishige et al., 1977; Fujishige and Tsuboi,1978; George et al., 1993, 1995).

Bromelain was originally only extractedfrom Hawaiian pineapple stems but now ismanufactured in Taiwan, Thailand, Braziland Puerto Rico. The variability in the com-mercially produced product and its multipleingredients have limited successful develop-ment. Pineapple bromelain has been usedcommercially as a meat-tenderizing enzymeand as a nutraceutical. Attempts have beenmade to develop bromelain for pharmaceuti-cal use. The complexity of the active compo-nents of bromelain has limitedpharmaceutical research. Bromelain hasshown the following activity: (i) interferencewith the growth of malignant cells; (ii) inhi-bition of platelet aggregation; (iii) fibrinolyticaction; (iv) anti-inflammatory processes; and(v) skin débridement (Lotz-Winter, 1990).These biological properties of bromelainhave potential therapeutic activity in: (i)tumour growth; (ii) blood coagulation; (iii)inflammatory changes; (iv) débridement ofsevere burns; and (v) enhancement of drugabsorption (Taussig and Batkin, 1988).


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