1

Ethics of Computing MONT 113G, Spring 2012

Session 18Ethical reasoning

2

Descriptive (Empirical Claims)

Descriptive claims give facts that can be tested or verified.

Examples:The car is in the driveway.XX% of the American public favor healthcare reform.All societies consider some domain of life private.

(This one would be hard to test).

Others?

3

Normative (prescriptive) claimsNormative claims state what people should do or what ought

to be the case.

Examples:Speech on the internet should not be censored.All societies should keep some domains of life private.

Others?

These cannot be verified by examining societies.They make a recommendation.Empirical evidence may be used to analyze and evaluate them.

4

Empirical claims alone are not enough

Normative claims cannot be supported by simply pointing to the facts about what people do:

Examples:Throughout history some people have intentionally killed other people.

Therefore? it is OK for individuals to kill others when they

choose.

Downloading proprietary music is commonly done. Therefore?

it is OK to download proprietary music.These are not adequate arguments.

5

The Dialectic Method

1. Normative claims are formed into arguments.(Argument: A claim and a set of reasons to justify the claim).

2. Arguments are examined for:ConsistencyPlausibilityCoherenceFit with ordinary experienceFit with empirical information

6

Importance of the Dialectic Method

1. First step is to move from unreflective beliefs and gut feelings to claims connected to a value that others accept.

Example: "Censorship is wrong."

2. Critical examination of beliefs can lead to change in belief OR to a stronger and better understood beliefs.

3. Claims should be consistent from one argument to the next.

Example: Views on abortion and capital punishment.

7

Example of the Dialectic Method

Euthanasia.

Claim: Euthanasia is wrongReason for claim:

Human life has the highest value.Test claim in a variety of cases:

Terminally ill? Extreme pain? Very old?Test claim in different types of cases:

Capital punishment? War?Modify claim:

E.g. Taking a human life is wrong except in self defense.

8

Practical Ethics is like Design

If you give design specifications to several groups of engineers, each group will come up with a different design.

There is often more than one good solution.

There are also solutions that a clearly wrong.

9

Ethical RelativismClaim: Ethical beliefs, rules and practices vary from culture to culture and from time to time.

Empirical support:•Cultures vary in what they consider right and wrong.

(E.g. polygamy)•Morals change over time

(e.g. slavery).•Moral beliefs are influenced by how and by whom one is raised.

Questions:•Is it possible that universal norms underlie the disparate rules/practices?•Is this the way things ought to be?

10

Problems with Ethical Relativism

1. Normative claim: One should act in conformance with one's society.• This asserts a universal moral principle (contradiction)• Many moral heroes (Ghandi, Jesus) considered bad under

this claim.2. Alternative claim: It is wrong to judge other cultures by the

standards of your own.• Again asserts a universal principle• What about a culture that believes in human sacrifice?

3. Ethical relativism does not provide much help in making moral decisions.• New technologies create situations people have not faced

before. There are no societal conventions that apply.• E.g. Human cloning

11

Utilitarianism

Utilitarians focus on the consequences of actions.They seek actions, rules or policies that bring about good consequences.

Basic Rule: (What is it?)Everyone ought to act so as to bring about the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.

12

Intrinsic vs. Instrumental ValueSome things have instrumental value: They are valued because they lead to something else that is valued for its own sake.Example: MoneyOther examples?

Some things have intrinsic value: They are valuable in themselves.Example: KnowledgeOther examples?

13

Happiness has Intrinsic Value

1. Utilitarians focus on maximizing happiness, because happiness has intrinsic value.

2. Some utilitarians argue that everything else is desired as a means to happiness.

Example: Why go to college?

3. Therefore, each person should choose actions that bring about the most happiness.

14

Utilitarianism vs. Egoism

Utilitarianism: •Want to bring about the most happiness for everyone.•Each person's happiness counts for the same as everyone else's.•Ethical choice could make one's self unhappy, if it makes others happy.

Egoism: What is Egoism and how does it differ from Utilitarianism?•Specifies that one should act to bring about the greatest amount of good consequences for one's self.