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Elements of qualitative data analysis

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Graham R Gibbs

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Contents

BooksOnline resourcesPhilosophyData preparationCodingNarrativeCharts and tablesCAQDAS

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Books Gibbs, G.R. (2007) Analyzing Qualitative Data. London: Sage. Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data:

Systematic approaches. Los Angeles, [Calif.]; London: SAGE. Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research. Los Angeles,

[Calif.]; London: SAGE. Flick, U. (2013). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis.

London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: a

sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. The tables in this video are taken from this edition, but there is a new edition:

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M. & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. 3rd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., McNaughton Nicholls, C and Ormston, R (eds) (2013) Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage.

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Online resourcesOnlineQDA

– http://onlineqda.hud.ac.ukMy YouTube Channel

– Graham R Gibbs: https://www.youtube.com/user/GrahamRGibbs

MSc Applied Educational and Social Research @ Strathclyde.– http://www.strath.ac.uk/aer/materials/

QSR for NVivo– http://www.qsrinternational.com/

– NCRM– http://www.ncrm.ac.uk/

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Philosophy

Realist – Critical Realist – Constructivist – Relativist

Induction – Deduction - Abduction

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Data preparation…

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Transcription: Who should do it?

SelfAudio typistDictation/speech recognition software

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Self

Tedious but good because it begins data analysis

Careful reading of whole transcript produces new ideas etc.

May have no choice if text in a language few others can understand.

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Software

Dictation/speech recognition software– Still not good enough to transcribe voice from tape or digital recording

– Because needs v. good quality sound AND learns your own accent as you use it.

– IBM Via Voice or Dragon Dictate– Can listen to tape and then dictate to computer. Still at best only 95% accurate.

Transcription software– E.g. Express Scribe, F4/F5 Transribe.

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Prepare textAnonymise

– Maybe easier if this is delayedCheck for accuracy

– Member checking (with respondents)?

Use […] for missing textUse [bribery?] for words you are not sure about.

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Levels of transcription

People don’t speak in sentences– Repeat themselves– Hesitate, stutter– Use contractions (don’t, coz, etc)– Use filler words (like, y’know, er, I mean)

Options– Just the gist– Verbatim– Verbatim with dialect– Discourse level.

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Just the gist

“90% of my communication is with … the Sales Director. 1% of his communication is with me. I try to be one step ahead, I get things ready, … because he jumps from one … project to another. …This morning we did Essex, this afternoon we did BT, and we haven't even finished Essex yet.”(… indicates omitted speech)

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Verbatim

“I don’t really know. I’ve a feeling that they’re allowed to let their emotions show better. I think bereavement is part of their religion and culture. They tend to be more religious anyway. I’m not from a religious family, so I don’t know that side of it.”

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Verbatim with dialect

“‘s just that – one o’ staff – they wind everybody up, I mean, – cos I asked for some money – out o’ the safe, cos they only keep money in the safe – ’s our money – so I asked for some money and they wouldn’t give it me – an’ I snatched this tenner what was mine.”

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Conversation analysis

Bashir:Did you ever (.) personally assist him with the writing of his book. (0.8)

Princess: A lot of people.hhh ((clears throat)) saw the distress that my life was in. (.) And they felt it was a supportive thing to help (0.2) in the way that they did.

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Start analysis…

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Coding/indexing/categorizing

N.B. confusion because used in quantitative data where it means putting numbers to answers.

“indexing” “categories” “codes” “themes”

= linking chunks of data (text) as representative of the same phenomenon.

Not necessarily to count them (cf. Content analysis)

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Analysis. Bryman suggests these stages

Stage 1Read the text as a whole, Make notes at the end

Look for what it is aboutMajor themesUnusual issues, events etcGroup cases into types or categories (may reflect research question – e.g. male and female)

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Stage 2. Read again

Mark the text (underline, circle, highlight)

Marginal notes/ annotationsLabels for codesHighlight Key wordsNote any analytic ideas suggested.

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Stage 3. Code the text

Systematically mark the textIndicate what chunks of text are about – themes – Index them.

Review the codes.Eliminate repetition and similar codes (combine)

Think of groupingsMay have lots of different codes (Don’t worry at early stage – can be reduced later)

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Stage 4. Relate general theoretical ideas to the

text.Coding is only part of analysisYou must add your interpretation.

Identify significance for respondents

Interconnections between codesRelation of codes to research question and research literature.

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Thematic Coding

Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss + Corbin + Charmaz)

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Jonathon Smith)

Template analysis (Nigel King)Framework analysis (Ritchie and Lewis)

All are types of thematic analysis.

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How is coding done?Text

In a village like this ... the young fellows in the village don't seem to have much difficulty when they're out of work – a fortnight and they're back again – word of mouth, I'd say. It’s a different, tricky situation that I'm in – I just can't say, “Oh, I heard there's a job going on building site, I’ll go and have a go for it.” I wouldn't be able to do that.

Code

Age contrast

Constrained

Contrast situation

Word of mouth

Young find work easily

Residence focus

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Questions to ask

Look for the gerunds – the doing… "What is going on?What are people doing?What is the person saying?What do these actions and statements take for

granted?How do structure and context serve to support,

maintain, impede or change these actions and statements?"

(Charmaz 2003: 94-95)

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What can codes be about?

Lofland suggests:1. Acts – usually brief events2. Activities – of longer duration in a setting,

people involved3. Meanings – what directs participants’ actions?

a) What concepts they use to understand their worldb) What meaning or significance it has for them.

4. Participation – People’ involvement or adaptation to a setting

5. Relationships – between people, considered simultaneously

6. Settings – the entire context of the events under study

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What can codes be about? 2

Strauss suggests Conditions Interactions Strategies and tactics Consequences What happens if…

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Ways to identify themes

Ryan and Bernard (2003)RepetitionsIndigenous typologies (in vivo)Metaphors and analogiesTransitions (pauses, sections)Similarities and Differences

– Constant comparisonLinguistic connectors

– Because, before, after, next, closeness, examples

Missing data (what is omitted)

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Coding supports 2 forms of analysis

RetrievalUsing the coding frame

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1. Retrieval

Retrieve all the text coded with the same label = all passages about the same phenomenon, idea, explanation or activity - Literally cut and paste

Used envelopes/files - Now done using software

Enables cross case comparison on same theme.

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2. Developing the coding frame

Use the list of codes to examine further kinds of analytic questions, e.g. – relationships between the codes (and the text

they code)– Code dimensions– grouping cases

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Data driven or concept driven?

Inductive or deductiveMost qualitative analysis does bothi.e. start with some theoretical ideas these derived from literature, research brief/questions, interview schedule

anddiscover new ideas, theories, explanations in the data.

Strauss - sociologically constructed codes vs. in vivo codes

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Description to analytic

‘Loss of physical co-ordination’, ‘Togetherness’, ‘Doing for’, ‘Resignation’, ‘Core activity’

‘Dancing’, ‘Indoor bowling’, ‘Dances at works club’, ‘Drive together’

Descriptive codes

‘Joint activities ceased’, ‘Joint activities continuing’ Categories

Analytic codes

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Example code hierarchy

Friendship types– Close, generalized– Sporting

• Club• Non-club

– WorkChanges in Friendship

– Making new friends• New same sex friends• New different sex friends

– Losing touch– Becoming sexual relationships

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Example showing analysis

One of a set of interviews by Wendy Hollway and Tony Jefferson.

On fear of crime Will use some of this for a group work exercise.

Part of interview with: Barbara 65, F, White,Retired nursing auxiliary, Interview covered, Husband's death, ill health, sister - prison, stealing & drug taking, tenants association. From low crime area.

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INT So you say - well 2 of those things happened after - when you've been talking to this accountant friend of yours. How did it come up? I mean that's er, you'd been alone for quite a while ....

BARBARA They'd been burgled.INT Right.BARBARA And they got through a little window like this.

Actually 'e'd got a young lad with 'im. And er, Margaret's engagement ring and she says "that was the one thing - that was the one thing, it grieved me more than anything" she said. "They could 'ave the television, the lot" she said. But the fact that they took 'er engagement ring…

INT Yeah.BARBARA That upset 'er. And er, we were just talking in

general and - and it came up and I says er, "I've got a chain on my door." And 'e says er, "it's not strong enough that, Barbara." He says "you really want something else on" and 'e went - his daughter lived up Stokebridge and 'e went to a little shop up there, or something. And got me that chain…

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BARBARA …And 'e put it on and you can lock it. If you put it on as you're going out, er, its 'ook, and then you 'ave to unlock it to let it drop.

INT Ah ha.BARBARA When you come in.INT Oh right.BARBARA You know, you can push the door and it - oh and

it is strong as well.INT Ah ha. And the 4 locks on the back? Do they

date back further?BARBARA Oh God, yeah.INT So you had lots of security even when your

husband was alive?BARBARA Oh yeah, mmm. Mmm. Em, I've got one of those

dead locks at the top.INT Yeah.BARBARA You know, they're just a hole in the door and

they're not from outside, they're only from inside. And even that locks wrong way. You 'ave to turn it that way to unlock it. (laugh).

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Notice

Interviewer and respondent names are in capitals

Wide margins and space and a half between lines

Use of contractionsPlace names and people’s names anonymised

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Read through

About neighbour being burgledLost TV etc. and engagement ring

Old and new security on front door.

Replaced by friend.

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Mark up text

Annotations and codes.

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4141

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Coding Frame

Crime experienced (the type of crime participants discuss having experienced themselves or by their friends and neighbours).– Burglary– Vandalism– Violence

But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g.– Low level (not reported etc.)– Significant (with emotional impact)

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Coding Frame, cont. Security measures (What measures people have taken to protect themselves, their property etc. both in the past and more recently).– Chain– Dead lock– Burglar alarm– Safe– Car alarms– Personal Alarm– Stay in– Walk with others

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Coding Frame, cont.

But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g.– Physical, technology– Behavioural– Psychological (lights on timer etc.)

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Coding Frame, cont.

Feelings about experience of crime– Frightened– Hurt by loss (especially personal items)

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Descriptive vs Analytic/theoretical

Descriptive– Just what the people said– What happened– Their terms

Analytic– Use social science theory– Groups codes together– Use terms the respondents don’t or wouldn’t

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Narrative…

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Narrative, Life History and Biography

Story and narrative = the way that social actors produce, represent and contexualize their experience and personal knowledge. How they make sense of what happened.

Narrative is the wide, general term.Story restricted to genre that recounts protagonists,

events, complications and consequences.Data can come from interviews, biography,

autobiography, life history interview, personal letters, diaries etc.

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Three Theorists Norman Denzin

– Narrative as a story of a sequence of events with significance for narrator and audience.

– Story has beginning, middle and end and a logic. Narratives are temporal = have a causal sequence.

Catherine Kohler Riessman (1993) Elliot Mishler (1986)– During research interviews, respondents often include

lengthy stories.

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Four types of narrative/life history.

Lieblich et al (1998)

Content Form

Holistic 1 2

Categorical

3 4

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1. Holistic contentLooks at complete life story and examines its

content. Familiar in clinical case studies. Use familiar qualitative methods to identify key

themes. Look for transitions between themesEpisodes that seem to contradict themes in terms of

content, mood or evaluation by the narrator.Pay attention to the issues that are not mentioned.

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Typical themesRelational story - constantly referring to others.Belonging and separateness.Closeness, remoteness and experience of moving.The meaning of the occupation (e.g vocation)Relations with opposite sexCan focus on early life as determinant of later

actions. (following Adler)

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2. Holistic form

Looks at the plot or structure of complete life stories.

Romance hero faces a series of challenges en route to his goal and eventual victory

Comedy goal is the restoration of social order and the hero must have the requisite social skills to overcome the hazards that threaten that order.

Tragedy the hero is defeated by the forces of evil and is ostracised from society.

Satire a cynical perspective on social hegemony

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Progression

Does story ascend or descend? Climax, turning point (epiphany) etc.

Advance - story moves to better thingsRegression - story moves to worse thingsStable - plot is steady, neither worse nor

better, just the same.

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3. Categorical content

Essentially a content analysis. Extract categories, and count and cross-tabulate.

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4. Categorical form

Discrete linguistic or stylistic linguistic characteristics. Metaphors used, passive vs. active.

e.g. use linguistic features to identify inner meaning of events to narrator.

Adverbials like suddenly may indicate how expected or unexpected events were.

Mental verbs like I thought, I understood, and I noticed, may indicate extent to which an experience is in consciousness and can be remembered.

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4. Categorical form cont. Denotations of time and place may indicate attempts to

distance an event or bring it closer

Past, present and future tense in verbs and transition between them, may indicate a speaker’s sense of identification with the events described.

Transitions between first-person, second-person and third-person voice may indicate difficulty of re-encountering a difficult experience.

Passive and active verbs may indicate speaker’s perception of agency.

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4. Categorical form cont.

Breaking chronological or causal flow with digressions, regressions, leaps in time etc. may indicate attempts to avoid discussion difficult experience.

Repetition may indicate that subject of discussion elicits an emotional charge for narrator.

Detailed description may indicate reluctance to describe difficult emotions.

Method - underline just the words referring to the factual events described. Then examine all the words not underlined.

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Formal narrative analysis…

Use the structure to identify how people tell stories the way they do.

How they give shape to eventsHow they make a pointHow they ‘package’ the narrated eventsTheir reaction to eventsHow they articulate their narratives with the

audience.

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Forms and Functions of Stories

A way of passing cultural heritage or organizational culture. – e.g. use of atrocity stories and morality fables in

occupational and organizational settings

– medical settings use of fables of incompetence gives warnings of what not to do)

– Oral culture of schoolchildren - urban legends.

A way of coming to terms with particularly sensitive or traumatic times or events. E.g. divorce or violence.

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Forms and Functions cont.To structure idea of self and self identity.

– Psychological view. Stories imitate life and present an inner reality to the outside world. They shape narrator’s identity. The story is one’s identity. We know or discover ourselves and reveal ourselves to others by the stories we tell.

Show how the actor frames and makes sense of a particular set of experiences E.g. – Measures of success– Overcoming adversity– Good and bad practice– Explanations of success or failure

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Success and moral talesCollective reminder of what not to do and how not to

be.Common theme = overcoming of difficulties and

achievement of successChallenge –> Adversity –> Success.+ Key turning points (epiphanies)

Can use these as a starting point for further exploration in analysis.

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Narrative as chronicle.A form of autobiography.Actors organize their lives through stories and so

make sense of them.“How it happened” “how I came to be where I am

today.”e.g. Notion of CAREERoccupational careerother social roles - e.g. parent, children, patients.

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Diagrams, charts and tables…

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Use for…

Clarification in elicitation process (share with respondents)

Develop ideas about a model, processes etc.

Illustrate examples and your argument

Lay out data so that patterns can be discovered

Data reduction

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Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. p. 133

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Matrices

Simple, like crosstabs. Exclusive values in each cell

Or

Non-exclusive values in each cell

See: Ritchie, J. and Lewis, J. (eds) (2003) Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage.

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Character of company departments

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Summary responses by codes

Cells contain typical or summaries of text from respondents

E.g. Job search strategies by gender

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Job search strategies by gender

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Example of a comparison within a single case

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Flow of people through job finding services

73Slide 73Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. p. 225.

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CAQDAS

Computer Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysisCAQDAS Networking Project

– http://www.surrey.ac.uk/sociology/research/researchcentres/caqdas/

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Current best selling programs

NVivoAtlas.tiMAXQDAHyperRESEARCHQDAMinerBut still small companies cf. Microsoft.– NVivo sold 400,000, vs Millions for Office

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Functions

Coding - mark text with codeRetrieve - show all text coded the same way.Complex retrievals – e.g. text coded with two codes.

MemosSearch (text and codes) & Textual analysis tools

Charts & diagramsLink with quants dataRelationsWord and pdf documentsImages, video and audioGIS

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Debates about CAQDAS

Distant from dataToo easy to move to quantifyDominance of code and retrieve

– Vs narrative thread– Vs postmodern variation

Fragmentation and decontextualisation

Coding loses interaction in focus groups

Needs time and resources to learn

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Advantage of CAQDAS

Faster and more efficientHelps explanations (eg. Use face sheet data)

Supports transparencyCode trees encourage looking at connections

Avoids anecdotalism - can check frequency