1 DULBEA Does Unobserved Heterogeneity Matter? A Panel Data Analysis of the Gender Pay Gap Amynah Gangji, Kristian Orsini and Salimata Sissoko Dulbea (Université

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Does Unobserved Heterogeneity Matter? A Panel Data Analysis of

the Gender Pay Gap

Amynah Gangji, Kristian Orsini and Salimata Sissoko

Dulbea (Université Libre Bruxelles)

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Outlines

This paper provides evidences on the effect of controlling for unobserved individual heterogeneity in estimating the (un)adjusted gender pay differentials.

Using the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), we present a cross-country comparison of the gender pay gap over time (1994-2001) based on cross-section and panel data estimation techniques.

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The European Community Household Panel (ECHP)

Annual interview of a representative set of European households. Length: 1994-2001

Covers many topics, subdivided into 2 groups: Data related to households (financial situation, housing

conditions, durable consumption, children,…) Data related to individuals (economic activities, income,

education and training, health, social relations, migrations, satisfaction with various aspects of life, etc.)

=> valuable source of information: allow countries comparison thanks to a standardised methodology as well as to study changes over time at the micro level.

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Sample*Countries: Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Ireland, the Netherlands

*Selected individuals: Wage-earners aged between 20 to 60 years, working in the private sector and not self-employed

BE: 7.226 observations and 2001 individuals

GE: 24.896 observations, 5759 individuals

*Years: 1994-2001

*Unbalanced panel data (BE: 36%; GE: 33%; UK, IT, DK: 30%)

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Countries

The select countries differ according to their welfare state model:The conservative-corporatist model (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands and Spain)The Scandinavian model (Denmark) The liberal welfare model (Ireland and UK).

Furthermore, we can identify Italy and Spain as representative of the Mediterranean mode

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Countries

According to Gornick they also differ regarding the level of public support to child care arrangements, maternity and parental leave provision. High support (Denmark, France and Belgium)Medium support (West-Germany, Italy and the

Netherlands)Low support (Ireland, Spain and United-

Kingdom)

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MethodologyWage equations

Estimated model:

ln Wit = β0 + β1 Xit + β2 Zi + αi + εit

Xit: time-varying explanatory variables,

Zi : time-invariant explanatory variables,

αi : unobserved heterogeneity term constant over time. E(αi)= 0, σ²α

εit: error term E(εit)= 0, σ²ε, uncorrelated with X, Z and α

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MethodologyHow to estimate the wage equation?

• Ordinary Least Square (OLS) bias since do not take into account the unobserved

heterogeneity term • Fixed effects model (FE)

unbiased estimators but inefficient since do not take into account time-invariant variables

• Random Generalised Least Square (GLS)

only if E(αi | Xit, Zi) = 0 (Hausman test)• Random Generalised Least Square with

instrumentation (IV/GLS)

unbiased and efficient estimators

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1. Fixed effects model:ln Wit - ln Wi . = β (Xit - Xi .)+ (εit - εi . )

where Wi . = (1/Ti) , Xi . = (1/Ti)

2. Computation of the mean individual residuals

3. Between effect model

If E(αi | Xit, Zi) 0 =>Instrumentation of Zi

Proper instruments: Xi. strongly correlated with the Zi but uncorrelated with αi

A. Gangji, K. Orsini and S.Sissoko Why Are Inequalities so Unequal?

lnˆ... iii XWd

)(ˆ.. iiii Zd

iT

t itW1

iT

t itX1

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4. Computation of variances estimations to compute weights.

where σ²ε is the residual variance from the fixed effects model and σ²be the residual variance from the between regressions.

5. Estimation of the GLS equation

Yit – θi Yi . = (Xit – θi Xi .)β + (1- θi ) Zi γ + (εit - θi ε i .)


²²

1i

iT

²ˆ)/1()/1(²ˆ²ˆ1

N

iibe TN

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MethodologyHausman test

Distributed as a chi-squared with a degree of freedom equal to the number of instruments used minus the number of time-invariant instrumented variables.

If the test reject the null hypothesis, need to use new combination of instruments until the test accept the null hypothesis.


)ˆˆ())ˆ(ˆ)ˆ(ˆ()'ˆˆ(²~ 1

GLSwGLSwGLSwW

Null hypothesis: E(αi | Xit, Zi) = 0

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Average gender pay gap (1994 & 2001)Table 1: Average gender wage gap in European countries, 1994 and 2001 (euros)

1994 2001

Male Female Gap Male Female Gap

Belgium 12.00 10.05 16.2% 14.20 11.99 15.6%

Denmark 17.37 14.85 14.5% 20.57 17.25 16.1%

France 11.75 9.61 18.2% 11.71 9.86 15.8%

Germany 12.44 9.44 24.1% 13.59 10.53 22.5%

Ireland 9.59 6.87 28.4% 11.75 9.42 19.9%

Italy 7.49 6.35 15.3% 7.83 6.53 16.6%

The Netherlands 15.87 11.75 25.9% 15.54 12.51 19.5%

Spain 6.31 4.84 23.2% 7.02 5.39 23.2%

United-Kingdom 12.21 8.31 32.0% 14.62 10.83 25.9%

Source: European Community Household Panel (ECHP)

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EstimationVariables used

• Actual tenure <1 year of tenure, 1-5 years, 6-10 years (reference), 11-15 years, 16 years and more.

• potential experience & potential experience squared: =age-age when started first job - tenure

• Type of contract:- permanent employment (reference)- fixed-term, short-term contract, casual work with no contract


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• Occupations - ISCO 1-DIGIT:1. Legislators senior officials & managers2. Professionals3. Technicians & associate professionals4. Clerks (reference)5. Service workers&shops & market sales workers6. Skilled agricultural&fishery workers7. Craft and related trades workers8. Plant & machine operators & assemblers9. Elementary occupation


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• Industries - ISCO 1-DIGIT:1. Mining and quarrying (C)2. Manufacturing (D) (reference)3. Electricity, gas and water supply (E) (reference)4. Construction (F)5. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal and household goods (G) 6. Hotels and restaurants (H)7. Transport, storage and communication (I)8. Financial intermediation (J)9. Real estate, renting and business activities (K)

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• Enterprise’s size:Small size (1-99 employees) (reference)Medium size (100-500 employees)Large size (>500 employees)

• Level of education:Education low (ISCED 0-2)(reference)Education medium (ISCED 3)Education high (ISCED 5-7)

• Job status Supervisory Intermediate, Non-supervisory (reference)


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OLS - PoolOLS - Wave1

OLS -Wave8Random

EffectFixed Effect GLS, IV

0,016 0.020 0.010 0.024 0.021 0.027(0,001)*** (0.003)*** (0.003)*** (0.001)*** (0.033) (0.002)***

-0,024 -0.032 -0.014 -0.035 -0.046 -0.039(0,002)*** (0.006)*** (0.006)** (0.003)*** (0.005)*** (0.003)***

-0,095 -0.102 -0.041 -0.080 -0.042 -0.062(0,010)*** (0.028)*** (0.034) (0.009)*** (0.010)*** (0.009)***

-0,051 -0.034 -0.026 -0.033 -0.001 -0.018(0,009)*** (0.025) (0.027) (0.008)*** (0.009) (0.008)**

0,048 0.044 0.084 0.037 -0.012 0.016(0,012)*** (0.037) (0.035)** (0.010)*** (0.011) (0.010)*

0,148 0.107 0.198 0.125 0.003 0.079(0,010)*** (0.025)*** (0.031)*** (0.012)*** (0.015) (0.012)***

0,235 0.173 0.252 0.114 0.048 0.079(0,011)*** (0.030)*** (0.028)*** (0.010)*** (0.010)*** (0.009)***

0,094 0.070 0.092 0.054 0.026 0.040(0,007)*** (0.020)*** (0.021)*** (0.006)*** (0.007)*** (0.006)***

-0,072 -0.088 -0.072 -0.037 -0.021 -0.029(0,008)*** (0.024)*** (0.023)*** (0.006)*** (0.007)*** (0.006)***

0,233 0.228 0.260 0.126 0.055 0.091(0,009)*** (0.025)*** (0.024)*** (0.009)*** (0.010)*** (0.009)***

0,172 0.190 0.176 0.100 0.047 0.073(0,006)*** (0.018)*** (0.018)*** (0.006)*** (0.007)*** (0.006)***

0,099 0.109 0.079 0.145 - 0.179(0,008)*** (0.024)*** (0.023)*** (0.013)*** - (0.019)***

0,199 0.200 0.210 0.314 - 0.361(0,010)*** (0.029)*** (0.028)*** (0.015)*** - (0.021)***

2,541 1,328 1,486 2,498 3,825 2,460(0,025)*** (0.048)*** (0.053)*** (0.032)*** (1.238)*** (0.064)***

Constant

Medium size enterprise

Large size enterprise

Education medium

Education high

Supervisory (status)

Intermediate (status)

Fixed contract(status)

Tenure 1-5 years

Tenure 11-15 years

Tenure >15 years

Males

Potential experience

Potential experience^2/100

Tenure <1 year

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men women men women men women men women men women0.023 0.018 0.032 0.025 0.028 0.019 0.041 0.023 0.054 0.029(0.003)*** (0.004)*** (0.003)*** (0.002)*** (0.002)*** (0.002)*** (0.002)*** (0.002)*** (0.004)*** (0.004)***

-0.034 -0.032 -0.060 -0.048 -0.040 -0.030 -0.081 -0.053 -0.109 -0.061(0.006)*** (0.008)*** (0.004)*** (0.005)*** (0.004)*** (0.005)*** (0.004)*** (0.004)*** (0.007)*** (0.008)***

-0.035 0.021 -0.039 -0.022 -0.074 -0.118 -0.027 -0.027 0.009 -0.043(0.016)** (0.018) (0.009)*** (0.012)* (0.010)*** (0.015)*** (0.009)*** (0.010)*** (0.014) (0.015)***

-0.018 -0.009 -0.035 -0.020 -0.028 -0.031 -0.002 -0.008 0.013 -0.033(0.011) (0.012) (0.007)*** (0.008)** (0.008)*** (0.011)*** (0.007) (0.009) (0.011) (0.012)***

0.027 0.036 -0.000 0.004 0.016 0.034 0.024 0.002 -0.025 0.011(0.013)** (0.016)** (0.009) (0.010) (0.008)* (0.013)*** (0.012)** (0.014) (0.015)* (0.016)

0.051 0.066 -0.011 -0.012 0.051 0.077 -0.015 0.022 0.032 -0.019(0.016)*** (0.024)*** (0.012) (0.015) (0.013)*** (0.018)*** (0.018) (0.024) (0.023) (0.026)

0.045 0.082 0.139 0.029 0.254 0.166 0.073 0.044 0.034 -0.017(0.018)** (0.029)*** (0.026)*** (0.030) (0.026)*** (0.033)*** (0.014)*** (0.013)*** (0.023) (0.023)

0.028 0.023 0.097 0.089 0.178 0.241 0.070 0.106 0.043 0.089(0.017)* (0.019) (0.024)*** (0.030)*** (0.028)*** (0.039)*** (0.014)*** (0.016)*** (0.027) (0.024)***

0.029 -0.001 0.093 0.053 0.087 0.070 0.057 0.032 0.028 0.044(0.015)** (0.015) (0.022)*** (0.019)*** (0.022)*** (0.020)*** (0.013)*** (0.012)*** (0.022) (0.016)***

-0.043 -0.028 -0.053 -0.025 -0.029 -0.140 -0.077 -0.124 -0.046 -0.099(0.022)** (0.018) (0.029)* (0.023) (0.027) (0.021)*** (0.018)*** (0.013)*** (0.025)* (0.020)***

-0.013 -0.072 0.020 -0.014 0.009 -0.137 0.022 -0.005 0.003 0.029(0.018) (0.035)** (0.023) (0.047) (0.022) (0.045)*** (0.014) (0.025) (0.023) (0.032)

0.005 0.009 -0.021 -0.072 0.006 -0.124 -0.006 -0.017 -0.023 0.028(0.018) (0.035) (0.023) (0.030)** (0.021) (0.027)*** (0.014) (0.020) (0.022) (0.022)

-0.022 -0.014 0.029 -0.137 -0.037 -0.204 -0.026 -0.064 -0.037 -0.029(0.018) (0.026) (0.024) (0.027)*** (0.025) (0.028)*** (0.017) (0.018)*** (0.023) (0.023)

0.057 0.035 -0.045 -0.036 0.064 0.181 0.083 0.092 0.010 -0.127(0.025)** (0.058) (0.037) (0.055) (0.052) (0.119) (0.023)*** (0.034)*** (0.035) (0.068)*

-0.044 0.012 0.034 -0.080 -0.075 -0.166 0.024 0.048 0.007 0.035(0.018)** (0.039) (0.018)* (0.037)** (0.019)*** (0.050)*** (0.018) (0.039) (0.017) (0.046)

-0.041 -0.061 -0.051 -0.069 -0.011 -0.046 -0.060 -0.044 -0.067 -0.012(0.016)** (0.017)*** (0.016)*** (0.019)*** (0.017) (0.019)** (0.011)*** (0.012)*** (0.016)*** (0.020)

-0.050 0.040 -0.066 -0.063 -0.096 -0.109 -0.165 -0.084 -0.152 -0.043(0.048) (0.033) (0.039)* (0.035)* (0.038)** (0.040)*** (0.024)*** (0.016)*** (0.042)*** (0.025)*

Sec G

Sec H

Occupation8

Occupation9

Sec CE

Sec F

Occupation2

Occupation3

Occupation5

Occupation7

Tenure 1-5 years

Tenure 11-15 years

Tenure >15 years

Occupation 1



Tenure <1 year

IrelandBelgium Denmark France UK

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men women men women men women men women men women-0.020 0.002 -0.008 -0.006 -0.010 0.033 -0.018 0.000 0.011 0.096(0.020) (0.034) (0.022) (0.034) (0.024) (0.047) (0.015) (0.019) (0.025) (0.034)***

0.057 0.020 -0.128 -0.025 0.132 0.120 0.144 0.077 0.080 0.094(0.026)** (0.028) (0.036)*** (0.030) (0.041)*** (0.035)*** (0.021)*** (0.018)*** (0.039)** (0.028)***

0.006 0.009 0.048 -0.009 -0.020 -0.004 0.025 0.049 0.015 0.045(0.017) (0.017) (0.017)*** (0.021) (0.017) (0.021) (0.012)** (0.013)*** (0.018) (0.019)**

0.068 0.083 0.018 0.061 0.034 0.011 0.057 0.054 0.049 0.078(0.013)*** (0.019)*** (0.008)** (0.012)*** (0.009)*** (0.016) (0.010)*** (0.012)*** (0.014)*** (0.016)***

0.023 0.021 0.010 0.014 0.021 0.013 0.034 0.036 0.026 0.026(0.010)** (0.012)* (0.008) (0.010) (0.007)*** (0.011) (0.007)*** (0.008)*** (0.011)** (0.012)**

-0.041 0.016 -0.068 -0.103 -0.016 -0.080 -0.012 -0.065 -0.064 0.006(0.017)** (0.017) (0.016)*** (0.018)*** (0.012) (0.017)*** (0.016) (0.019)*** (0.021)*** (0.021)

0.067 0.036 0.069 0.025 0.081 0.065 0.061 0.046 0.120 0.090(0.015)*** (0.017)** (0.013)*** (0.017) (0.014)*** (0.019)*** (0.010)*** (0.012)*** (0.014)*** (0.015)***

0.070 0.021 0.073 0.009 0.059 0.074 0.053 0.059 0.082 0.063(0.012)*** (0.014) (0.011)*** (0.014) (0.010)*** (0.014)*** (0.007)*** (0.008)*** (0.011)*** (0.012)***

0.149 0.133 0.071 0.090 0.132 0.062 0.139 0.134 0.160 0.217(0.025)*** (0.046)*** (0.046) (0.031)*** (0.025)*** (0.024)*** (0.036)*** (0.032)*** (0.085)* (0.073)***

0.384 0.348 0.277 0.246 0.366 0.258 0.322 0.249 0.403 0.436(0.029)*** (0.048)*** (0.060)*** (0.042)*** (0.027)*** (0.026)*** (0.029)*** (0.027)*** (0.111)*** (0.109)***

1,992 1,983 2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466(0.040)*** (0.061)*** (0.064)*** (0.048)*** (0.064)*** (0.036)*** (0.064)*** (0.034)*** (0.064)*** (0.094)***

Observations 4260 2966 5299 2953 11756 7475 10718 8672 5524 4028

R² 1133 - 1238 - 2517 - 2248 - 1493 -

R² - - - - - - - - - -

var a - - - - - - - - - -

var e - - - - - - - - - -

Hausman test 2,53 0,03 0,26 0,33 4,20 9,12 1,95 7,84 1,51 0,21

p-value 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

IrelandBelgium Denmark France UK

Constant



Education medium

Education high

Sec K



Fixed contract (status)

Sec I

Sec J

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men women men women men women men women0.027 0.031 0.044 0.031 0.027 0.022 0.047 0.022(0.002)*** (0.003)*** (0.004)*** (0.004)*** (0.002)*** (0.002)*** (0.003)*** (0.006)***

-0.039 -0.056 -0.072 -0.059 -0.042 -0.038 -0.088 -0.083(0.003)*** (0.006)*** (0.006)*** (0.007)*** (0.004)*** (0.005)*** (0.004)*** (0.005)***

-0.062 -0.060 -0.014 -0.050 -0.010 -0.002 -0.044 -0.045(0.009)*** (0.013)*** (0.014) (0.014)*** (0.008) (0.011) (0.010)*** (0.013)***

-0.018 -0.021 0.009 -0.028 0.002 -0.016 -0.006 -0.020(0.008)** (0.011)** (0.010) (0.010)*** (0.006) (0.008)* (0.005) (0.007)***

0.016 -0.003 -0.014 -0.012 0.006 0.016 -0.004 -0.005(0.010)* (0.014) (0.012) (0.013) (0.007) (0.010) (0.008) (0.010)

0.079 0.032 -0.038 -0.063 -0.006 0.031 -0.009 0.022(0.012)*** (0.023) (0.019)** (0.023)*** (0.010) (0.014)** (0.011) (0.016)

0.130 0.141 -0.031 0.039 0.069 -0.019 0.049 0.076(0.018)*** (0.035)*** (0.018)* (0.019)** (0.017)*** (0.046) (0.016)*** (0.022)***

0.117 0.148 -0.010 0.037 0.019 0.029 0.044 -0.018(0.017)*** (0.021)*** (0.018) (0.019)** (0.017) (0.024) (0.016)*** (0.023)

0.024 0.016 -0.037 0.022 0.024 -0.021 0.025 -0.012(0.012)** (0.012) (0.016)** (0.012)* (0.010)** (0.018) (0.013)* (0.011)

-0.033 -0.071 -0.052 -0.030 -0.004 -0.066 -0.064 -0.072(0.016)** (0.016)*** (0.023)** (0.016)* (0.013) (0.016)*** (0.020)*** (0.016)***

-0.026 -0.040 -0.040 -0.014 -0.021 -0.078 0.015 0.005(0.013)* (0.022)* (0.021)* (0.036) (0.011)* (0.017)*** (0.014) (0.021)

-0.025 -0.049 -0.087 -0.005 -0.009 -0.096 0.047 0.044(0.014)* (0.024)** (0.022)*** (0.029) (0.012) (0.019)*** (0.015)*** (0.021)**

-0.070 -0.035 -0.029 -0.029 -0.009 -0.065 0.004 -0.004(0.014)*** (0.018)* (0.024) (0.025) (0.012) (0.016)*** (0.016) (0.021)

0.043 0.150 0.671 0.031 -0.046 -0.087 0.021 0.007(0.019)** (0.073)** (0.150)*** (0.150) (0.017)*** (0.034)** (0.023) (0.063)

-0.007 -0.034 -0.033 -0.093 -0.005 0.091 0.028 0.027(0.010) (0.033) (0.023) (0.036)*** (0.011) (0.033)*** (0.010)*** (0.026)

-0.045 0.003 0.010 -0.022 -0.012 0.007 -0.017 0.001(0.010)*** (0.014) (0.017) (0.019) (0.010) (0.013) (0.010)* (0.013)

-0.066 0.032 0.021 -0.120 -0.098 -0.007 -0.183 -0.111(0.020)*** (0.021) (0.046) (0.036)*** (0.025)*** (0.020) (0.031)*** (0.027)***

Tenure >15 years

Tenure 11-15 years

Tenure 1-5 years

Tenure <1 year

Occupation3

Occupation2

Occupation 1

Sec CE

Sec F

Sec G

Sec H

Occupation5

Occupation7

Occupation8

Occupation9

Germany



Spain NLD Italy

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men women men women men women men women-0.018 0.038 -0.041 0.026 -0.002 0.010 -0.014 0.010(0.014) (0.027) (0.024)* (0.030) (0.013) (0.031) (0.016) (0.029)

0.228 0.009 -0.025 0.004 0.031 0.049 0.083 0.053(0.029)*** (0.036) (0.032) (0.028) (0.021) (0.024)** (0.030)*** (0.032)*

-0.007 0.017 0.004 -0.032 -0.033 0.024 -0.029 -0.047(0.014) (0.015) (0.018) (0.018)* (0.012)*** (0.013)* (0.014)** (0.016)***

0.079 0.070 0.038 0.017 - - - -(0.009)*** (0.016)*** (0.013)*** (0.019) - - - -

0.040 0.043 0.013 0.031 - - - -(0.006)*** (0.010)*** (0.010) (0.012)*** - - - -

-0.029 -0.013 -0.013 -0.046 -0.002 -0.013 -0.016 0.008(0.006)*** (0.009) (0.024) (0.019)** (0.009) (0.012) (0.009)* (0.013)

0.091 0.066 0.017 0.025 0.073 0.083 0.104 0.080(0.009)*** (0.013)*** (0.014) (0.014)* (0.008)*** (0.013)*** (0.010)*** (0.014)***

0.073 0.058 0.040 -0.000 0.031 0.066 0.079 0.042(0.006)*** (0.010)*** (0.012)*** (0.012) (0.006)*** (0.009)*** (0.007)*** (0.010)***

0.179 0.201 -0.006 0.018 0.165 0.138 0.100 0.098(0.019)*** (0.044)*** (0.121) (0.114) (0.025)*** (0.019)*** (0.064) (0.147)

0.361 0.376 0.335 0.246 0.468 0.335 0.403 0.258(0.021)*** (0.047)*** (0.243) (0.199) (0.049)*** (0.040)*** (0.085)*** (0.229)

2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466 2,460 2,466(0.064)*** (0.048)*** (0.064)*** (0.075)*** (0.064)*** (0.029)*** (0.064)*** (0.171)***

Observations 13885 6618 11443 6422 4260 6173 15755 9141

R² 3373 - 2691 - 1133 - 3453 -

R² - - - - - - - -

var a - - - - - - - -

var e - - - - - - - -

Hausman test 14,20 0,62 0,50 0,21 0,53 2,35 1,73 5,55

p-value 0,96 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

GermanySpain NLD Italy

Education medium

Education high

Constant


Fixed contract (status)



Sec I

Sec J

Sec K


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Results Strong positive effect of education upon wage

BE, SP, UK: men better remuneratedFR, GE, IT: women better remunerated for an upper

secondary education, IRL: women better remunerated for tertiary

educationDK: women better remunerated

Positive influence of experience: concave relation

For all countries, except Spain, the return of experience is larger for men.

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Results An additional year of experience leads to from

about 1.5% higher wage in Belgium, Denmark, France and Spain to 2.1-2.6% in Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and UK

Wage increases with level of tenure. The variables relative to job status (supervisory),

size of the company and type of contract show, when significant, a positive relation between wage and degree of supervision of an employee, the size of firm or the permanent nature of an employment contract. .

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Conclusion

Controlling for individual heterogeneity, we observe an increase of the male-female differential, the rates of the return of experience and education as well as a reduction of penalty due to low tenure, low skilled occupations, fixed employment contract and relatively small enterprise size.

Documents

1 DULBEA Does Unobserved Heterogeneity Matter? A Panel Data Analysis of the Gender Pay Gap Amynah Gangji, Kristian Orsini and Salimata Sissoko Dulbea (Université