History of PharmacognosyHistory of Pharmacognosy

Clay tablet fromClay tablet from MesopotamiaMesopotamia, Nippur, 14th, Nippur, 14th--13th century BC13th century BC

EgyptianEgyptian medicalmedical papyrus is thepapyrus is the Ebers papyrusEbers papyrus

the Chinese god of wind and patron of pharmacythe Chinese god of wind and patron of pharmacy

Chinese emperorChinese emperor Shen NungShen Nung

(c. 3000 B.C.)(c. 3000 B.C.)

ChinaChina

Ayurveda originated in India more than 5,000 years ago and is onAyurveda originated in India more than 5,000 years ago and is one of the oldeste of the oldestcontinuously practiced healthcontinuously practiced health--care systems in the world. The word Ayurvedacare systems in the world. The word Ayurvedacomes from the root words AYUR (comes from the root words AYUR (””lifelife””) and VEDA () and VEDA (””science, knowledge or wisdomscience, knowledge or wisdom””););thus Ayurveda translates asthus Ayurveda translates as ““the Science and Wisdom of Lifethe Science and Wisdom of Life””

Vedic representation of DhanvantariVedic representation of Dhanvantari

IndiaIndia

clay figurinesclay figurines of their goddessof their goddess

Pharmacist preparing drugsPharmacist preparing drugsFrom DioscoridesFrom Dioscorides Materia MedicaMateria Medica, 7th/13th century, 7th/13th century

GreekGreek

RomanRoman

Claudius Galenus (129Claudius Galenus (129--200)200)

1.1. A medicinal preparation composed mainly of herbal or vegetableA medicinal preparation composed mainly of herbal or vegetable matter.matter.

2. A remedy prepared according to an official formula.2. A remedy prepared according to an official formula.

galenicalgalenical

Avicenna:Avicenna: Ibn Sina PeakIbn Sina Peak(980(980--1037)1037)

canon medicinaecanon medicinae

One of the most important works on medicineOne of the most important works on medicinein the Middle Agesin the Middle Ages

Paracelsus (1493Paracelsus (1493--1541)1541)

Auroleus Phillipus Theostratus BombastusAuroleus Phillipus Theostratus Bombastusvon Hohenheim, immortalized as "Paracelsusvon Hohenheim, immortalized as "Paracelsus

Carl von LinnCarl von Linnéé (1707(1707--1778)1778)

Alexander TschirchAlexander Tschirch

18561856--19391939

Strychni semen

Cannabis indica L.

Plants and drugsPlants and drugs

In the context of pharmacy a botanical drug is a product,In the context of pharmacy a botanical drug is a product,that isthat is

••Derived from a plant and transformed into a drug by dryingDerived from a plant and transformed into a drug by dryingcertain plant parts, or sometimes the whole plantcertain plant parts, or sometimes the whole plant

••Obtained from a plant, but no longer retains the structureObtained from a plant, but no longer retains the structureof the plant or its organs and contains a complex mixture ofof the plant or its organs and contains a complex mixture ofbiogenic compounds (fatty and essential oils, gums, resins,biogenic compounds (fatty and essential oils, gums, resins,balms).balms).

Biological resourcesBiological resources

At least 250 000 species of higher plants are known.At least 250 000 species of higher plants are known.A large number have important uses for humans.A large number have important uses for humans.

foodsfoodsbuilding materialsbuilding materialsdyesdyesspicesspicesmedicnal plantsmedicnal plants

It is impossible to say how many of there are medicinal,It is impossible to say how many of there are medicinal,since a plant may be used only locally or on a worldwidesince a plant may be used only locally or on a worldwidelevel.level.

WHO: 20 000 medicinal plantWHO: 20 000 medicinal plant

In Europe, at least 2 000 medicinal and aromatic plantIn Europe, at least 2 000 medicinal and aromatic plantspecies are used on a commercial bases.species are used on a commercial bases.

More than half of all medicinal plants are still collected fromMore than half of all medicinal plants are still collected fromthe wild.the wild.

Most important medicinal plants are produced underMost important medicinal plants are produced undercontrolled agricultural conditions.controlled agricultural conditions.

Types of drugs derived from plants (1)Types of drugs derived from plants (1)

Herbal drugs, derived from specific parts of a medicinal plantHerbal drugs, derived from specific parts of a medicinal plant

These are known asThese are known as herbal medicinal productsherbal medicinal products (HMP(HMPSS),), herbalherbalremediesremedies oror phytomedicinesphytomedicines and include, for example:and include, for example:

••The herb of St. JohnThe herb of St. John’’s wort (s wort (Hypericum perforatumHypericum perforatum) used in) used inthe treatment of mild to moderate depressionthe treatment of mild to moderate depression

••The leaves ofThe leaves of Ginkgo bilobaGinkgo biloba, used for cognitive deficiencies, used for cognitive deficiencies(often in the elderly)(often in the elderly)

••The flower heads of chamomile (The flower heads of chamomile (Chamomila recutitaChamomila recutita), used), usedfor mild gastrointestinal complains and as antifor mild gastrointestinal complains and as anti--inflammatoryinflammatoryagentagent

••The leaves and pods of senna (The leaves and pods of senna (CassiaCassia spp.) used forspp.) used forconstipationconstipation

Types of drugs derived from plants (2)Types of drugs derived from plants (2)

Natural products, or compounds isoleted from natureNatural products, or compounds isoleted from nature

These are pure chemical entities, often used in the form ofThese are pure chemical entities, often used in the form oflicensed medicines. They are sometimes producedlicensed medicines. They are sometimes producedsynthetically and referred to assynthetically and referred to as ‚‚nature identicalnature identical’’ but werebut wereoriginally discovered from plant drugsoriginally discovered from plant drugs

Examples:Examples:

••Morphine, from opium poppy (Morphine, from opium poppy (Papaver somniferumPapaver somniferum), used as an), used as ananalgesicanalgesic

••Digoxin and other digitalis glycosides, from foxglove (Digoxin and other digitalis glycosides, from foxglove (DigitalisDigitalisspp.), used to treat heart failurespp.), used to treat heart failure

••Taxol, from the Pacific yew (Taxol, from the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifoliaTaxus brevifolia), used as anticancer), used as anticancertreatmenttreatment

••Quinine, from Cinchona bark (Quinine, from Cinchona bark (CinchonaCinchona spp.), used in thespp.), used in thetreatment of malariatreatment of malaria

••Caffeine, from the coffee shrub (Caffeine, from the coffee shrub (CoffeaCoffea arabicaarabica), used as a), used as astimulantstimulant

Types of drugs derived from plants (3)Types of drugs derived from plants (3)

Extracts, purified / enriched extracts of some medicinalExtracts, purified / enriched extracts of some medicinal

plants (Traditional herbal medicines, phytotherapeuticalplants (Traditional herbal medicines, phytotherapeutical

preparations.preparations.

••Standardized extracts of:Standardized extracts of: Hypericum perforatum,Hypericum perforatum,

Crataegus monogyma, Silybum marianumCrataegus monogyma, Silybum marianum, etc., etc.

••Extracts, purified extracts of selected combination ofExtracts, purified extracts of selected combination of

medicinal plantsmedicinal plants

Types of drugs derived from plants (4)Types of drugs derived from plants (4)

Nutraceuticals orNutraceuticals or ‚‚functional foodsfunctional foods’’

Many foods are known to have beneficial effects on healthMany foods are known to have beneficial effects on health

Examples include:Examples include:

••Garlic, ginger, turmeric and many other herbs and spicesGarlic, ginger, turmeric and many other herbs and spices

••AnthocyaninsAnthocyanins –– or flavonoidor flavonoid –– containing plants such ascontaining plants such asbilberries, cocoa and red winebilberries, cocoa and red wine

••CarotenoidCarotenoid –– containing plants such as tomatoes, carrotscontaining plants such as tomatoes, carrotsand many other vegetablesand many other vegetables

Homoeopatic productsHomoeopatic products

TaxonomyTaxonomy

It is the science of naming organisms and their correctIt is the science of naming organisms and their correctintegration into the existing system of nomenclatureintegration into the existing system of nomenclature(taxa, genus, species).(taxa, genus, species).

The exact namingThe exact naming (taxonomy) and an understanding of the(taxonomy) and an understanding of thespecies relationship to other speciesspecies relationship to other species is an essential basisis an essential basisfor pharmacognostical workfor pharmacognostical work..

Example of botanical classificationExample of botanical classification

The opium poppy,The opium poppy, Papaver somniferumPapaver somniferum L.L.

BinomialBinomial: this is the genus and species names, plus the: this is the genus and species names, plus theauthorityauthority Papaver somniferumPapaver somniferum as the binomial and followed byas the binomial and followed bya short acronym (in this casea short acronym (in this case ‚‚LL’’) which indicates the botanist) which indicates the botanistwho provided the first scientific description of the species.who provided the first scientific description of the species.

‚‚LL’’ stands for Carl von Linnaeus (or Linnstands for Carl von Linnaeus (or Linnéé), a Swedish botanist), a Swedish botanist(1707(1707--1778) who developed the binomial nomenclature.1778) who developed the binomial nomenclature.

SpeciesSpecies:: somniferumsomniferumGenusGenus:: PapaverPapaverFamilyFamily:: PapaveraceaPapaveraceaOrderOrder:: PapaveralsPapaveralsClassClass:: MagnoliataeMagnoliataeSubphyliumSubphylium:: MagnoliphytinaMagnoliphytinaDivisionDivision:: SpermatophytaSpermatophytaKingdomKingdom:: PlantaePlantae

Medicinal plant productionMedicinal plant production

Production systems require certain conditions for eachProduction systems require certain conditions for eachspecies with respect to:species with respect to:

•• Temperature and annual course of temperatureTemperature and annual course of temperature•• Rainfall (if it is not possible to irrigate the fields)Rainfall (if it is not possible to irrigate the fields)•• Soil characteristics and qualitySoil characteristics and quality•• Day length and sun characteristicsDay length and sun characteristics•• AltitudeAltitude

The production should be based on the principles of GMPThe production should be based on the principles of GMP(good manufacturing practice) and/or ISO (International(good manufacturing practice) and/or ISO (InternationalOrganisation for Standardization) certification.Organisation for Standardization) certification.

GAP (good agricultural practice) and processing stepsGAP (good agricultural practice) and processing steps(drying, cutting, grinding, storage, packaging, transport,(drying, cutting, grinding, storage, packaging, transport,etc.) which are covered by GMP.etc.) which are covered by GMP.

Medicinal plants are delicat products and in manyMedicinal plants are delicat products and in manycases inadequate storage of transport can swin acases inadequate storage of transport can swin awhole yearwhole year’’s wortes worte

•• Moisture levelsMoisture levels•• Microbiological contaminationMicrobiological contamination•• PesticidesPesticides

Plant breedingPlant breeding

•• Constant levels of active ingradientsConstant levels of active ingradients•• Reproducibility of the drugReproducibility of the drug

••High yieldHigh yield••High resistance to pathogensHigh resistance to pathogens••Good adaptation to the locationGood adaptation to the location

In vitroIn vitro cultivation / fermentation technology.cultivation / fermentation technology.

CloningCloning

Different types of drug preparationsDifferent types of drug preparations

•• Fresh plant materialFresh plant material

•• Dried and cut drug materialDried and cut drug material

•• Dried and powdered drug materialDried and powdered drug material

•• Extraction and subsequent bulk production ofExtraction and subsequent bulk production ofpure natural productspure natural products

•• Unstandardized tincturesUnstandardized tinctures

•• Extracts prepared from dried drugExtracts prepared from dried drug materialmaterialusing different solvent systemsusing different solvent systems

•• ‘‘Special extractsSpecial extracts’’

•• Special methodsSpecial methods

Quality control and standardizationQuality control and standardization

Factors, which influence the quality of the finishedFactors, which influence the quality of the finishedproduct:product:

•• The quality of the botanical material usedThe quality of the botanical material usedIt is influenced by a multitude of biogenicIt is influenced by a multitude of biogenicand climatic factorsand climatic factors

•• The adequate processing of the freshThe adequate processing of the freshmaterial (drying, transportation, storage)material (drying, transportation, storage)

•• The use of appropriate and reproducibleThe use of appropriate and reproducibleextraction techniquesextraction techniques

•• Storage under appropriate conditions (dry,Storage under appropriate conditions (dry,cool, in the dark)cool, in the dark)

•• Use of the material only within the generallyUse of the material only within the generallyaccepted shelfaccepted shelf--life of the botanical druglife of the botanical drug

Quality control needs to assure:Quality control needs to assure:

•• The correct botanical identity of the drugThe correct botanical identity of the drug

•• The purity of the material usedThe purity of the material used

•• Contaminats are below the legal thresholdContaminats are below the legal threshold(Ph.Eur)(Ph.Eur)

•• Required level of active compoundsRequired level of active compounds

Pharmacopoeia monographsPharmacopoeia monographs

•• Title (English name, Latin name used inTitle (English name, Latin name used ininternational trade)international trade)

•• Definiton of the drug (plant to be used,Definiton of the drug (plant to be used,constituents with minimal amounts required)constituents with minimal amounts required)

•• CharacteristicsCharacteristics

•• Identification (macroscopic and microscopicIdentification (macroscopic and microscopicdescription) (TLC)description) (TLC)

•• Tests for purity (loss of drying,Tests for purity (loss of drying,nonnon--acceptable substances, foreign matter, ash)acceptable substances, foreign matter, ash)

•• Recquired level of biologically active or leadRecquired level of biologically active or leadcompoundscompounds

•• StorageStorage

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