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Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

IssueIssue DetailsDetails

Nature/NurtureNature/Nurture

How do genetic How do genetic inheritance (inheritance (our natureour nature) )

and experience (and experience (the the nurture we receivenurture we receive) )

influence our behavior?influence our behavior?

Continuity/StagesContinuity/Stages

Is developmental a Is developmental a gradual, continuous gradual, continuous

process or a sequence of process or a sequence of separate stages?separate stages?

Stability/ChangeStability/Change

Do our early personality Do our early personality traits persist through traits persist through life, or do we become life, or do we become

different persons as we different persons as we age.age.

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Prenatal Development and Prenatal Development and the Newbornthe Newborn

How, over time, did we come to be who we How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, progresses in an orderly, though fragile,

sequence.sequence.

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ConceptionConception

A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and outer coating of the egg (female) and

fuses to form one fertilized cell.fuses to form one fertilized cell.

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Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

A zygote is a fertilized cell with 100 cells that A zygote is a fertilized cell with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 become increasingly diverse. At about 14

days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b). b). L

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Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses and d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses

that can enter the placenta and harm the that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.developing fetus.L

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TeratogensTeratogens

Examples:Examples:

alcoholalcohol tobaccotobacco drugsdrugs virusesviruses

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The Competent NewbornThe Competent Newborn

Infants are born Infants are born with reflexes that with reflexes that

aid in survival, aid in survival, including rooting including rooting reflex which helps reflex which helps them locate food. them locate food.

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The Competent NewbornThe Competent Newborn

Offspring cries are important signals for Offspring cries are important signals for parents to provide nourishment. In parents to provide nourishment. In animals and humans such cries are animals and humans such cries are quickly attended to and relieved.quickly attended to and relieved.

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Cognitive Development in Cognitive Development in the Newbornthe Newborn

Infants pay more attention to Infants pay more attention to configuration of faces, suggesting a configuration of faces, suggesting a

preference. preference.

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Infancy and ChildhoodInfancy and Childhood

Infancy and childhood span from birth to Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years, the teenage years. During these years,

the individual grows physically, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.cognitively, and socially.

StageStage SpanSpan

InfancyInfancy Newborn to toddlerNewborn to toddler

ChildhoodChildhood Toddler to teenagerToddler to teenager

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Physical DevelopmentPhysical Development

Infants’ psychological development depends on Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand their biological development. To understand

the emergence of motor skills and memory, we the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand the developing brain. must understand the developing brain.

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MaturationMaturation

The development of the brain unfolds based The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called babbling before talking—this is called

maturation.maturation.

Maturation sets the basic course of Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.development, while experience adjusts it.

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Motor DevelopmentMotor Development

First, infants begin to roll over. Next, First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. Experience has little effect on this walk. Experience has little effect on this

sequence.sequence.

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Influence of experienceInfluence of experience

Critical periodsCritical periods

Brain plasticityBrain plasticity

Rosenzwieg’s ratsRosenzwieg’s rats

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Experience and Brain Experience and Brain DevelopmentDevelopment

Early postnatal experiences affect brain Early postnatal experiences affect brain development. Rosenzweig et al. (1984) development. Rosenzweig et al. (1984)

showed that rats raised in enriched showed that rats raised in enriched environments developed thicker cortices environments developed thicker cortices than those in impoverished environment.than those in impoverished environment.

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Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

PiagetPiaget believed that the driving force behind believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the development amidst experiences with the

environment. Our cognitive development is environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make.shaped by the errors we make.

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SchemasSchemas

Schemas are mental molds into which we Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.pour our experiences.

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Assimilation and Assimilation and AccommodationAccommodation

The process of The process of assimilationassimilation involves involves

incorporating new incorporating new experiences into our experiences into our

current understanding current understanding (schema). The process (schema). The process of adjusting a schema of adjusting a schema

and modifying it is and modifying it is called called

accommodationaccommodation..

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Piaget’s Theory and Current Piaget’s Theory and Current ThinkingThinking

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Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage

In the In the SensorimotorSensorimotor stage, babies take in stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, the world by looking, hearing, touching,

mouthing, and grasping. Children younger mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp than 6 months of age do not grasp object object permanencepermanence, i.e., objects that are out of , i.e., objects that are out of

sight are also out of mind.sight are also out of mind.

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Sensorimotor Stage: Sensorimotor Stage: CriticismsCriticisms

Piaget believed children in the Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they sensorimotor stage could not think —they

do not have any abstract concepts or ideas. do not have any abstract concepts or ideas.

However, recent research shows that children However, recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage can think and count. in the sensorimotor stage can think and count.

1.1. Children understand the basic laws of Children understand the basic laws of physics. They are amazed at how a physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear.ball can stop in midair or disappear.

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Sensorimotor Stage: Sensorimotor Stage: CriticismsCriticisms

2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) 2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) showed that children stared longer at the showed that children stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones.wrong number of objects than the right ones.

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Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage

Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperationalpreoperational stage—too young to stage—too young to

perform mental operations.perform mental operations.

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ConservationConservation

try a conservation task with a child try a conservation task with a child you knowyou know

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Preoperational Stage: Preoperational Stage: CriticismCriticism

DeLoache (1987) showed that children as DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use young as 3 years of age are able to use

mental operations. When shown a model of mental operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old

did.did.

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EgocentrismEgocentrism

Piaget concluded that preschool children Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.things from another’s point of view.

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Theory of MindTheory of Mind

Preschoolers, Preschoolers, although still although still

egocentric, develop egocentric, develop the ability to the ability to

understand another’s understand another’s mental state when mental state when

they begin forming a they begin forming a theory of mind.theory of mind.

The problem on the The problem on the right probes such right probes such ability in children.ability in children.

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Concrete Operational Concrete Operational StageStage

In concrete operational stage, given In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour conservation problems and mentally pour

liquids back and forth into glasses of liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities.different shapes conserving their quantities.

Children in this stage are also able to transform Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.

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Formal Operational StageFormal Operational Stage

Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. from concrete thinking to abstract thinking.

We can now use symbols and imagined We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this called this formal operationalformal operational thinking. thinking.

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Formal Operational StageFormal Operational Stage

Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve the problem below 7-year-olds can solve the problem below

(Suppes, 1982). (Suppes, 1982).

If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about Mary? in school. What can you say about Mary?

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Reflecting on Piaget’s TheoryReflecting on Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s stage theory has been influential Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. However, many cultures and societies. However,

today’s researchers believe the following:today’s researchers believe the following:

1.1. Development is a continuous process.Development is a continuous process.

2.2. Children express their mental abilities and Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age.operations at an earlier age.

3.3. Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition.Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition.

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Social DevelopmentSocial Development

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Origins of AttachmentOrigins of Attachment

Like bodily contact, familiarity is another Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor that causes attachment. In some factor that causes attachment. In some

animals (goslings), animals (goslings), imprintingimprinting is the cause is the cause of attachment.of attachment.

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Origins of AttachmentOrigins of Attachment Harlow (1971) Harlow (1971)

showed that infants showed that infants bond with surrogate bond with surrogate mothers because of mothers because of bodily contactbodily contact and and not because of not because of nourishment.nourishment.

““contact comfort”contact comfort”

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Responsive ParentingResponsive Parenting

John Bowlby, Mary AinsworthJohn Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth

Sensitive, contingent responding > Sensitive, contingent responding >

Secure attachmentSecure attachment Inconsistent or non-responsive >Inconsistent or non-responsive >

Insecure attachment (Anxious Insecure attachment (Anxious or Avoidant)or Avoidant)

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Attachment DifferencesAttachment Differences

Placed in a strange situation, 60% of Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express children express secure attachmentsecure attachment, i.e., , i.e., they explore their environment happily in they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their the presence of their mothers. When their

mother leave, they show distress.mother leave, they show distress.

The other 30% show The other 30% show insecure attachment.insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or These children cling to their mothers or

caregivers and are less likely to explore the caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment.environment.

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Secure AttachmentSecure Attachment

Relaxed and attentive caregiving Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure becomes the backbone of secure

attachment. attachment.

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Insecure AttachmentInsecure Attachment

Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys experience great anxiety if their terry-experience great anxiety if their terry-

cloth mother is removed.cloth mother is removed.

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Deprivation of AttachmentDeprivation of Attachment

What happens when circumstances prevent What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments?a child from forming attachments?

In such circumstances children become:In such circumstances children become:

1.1. WithdrawnWithdrawn

2.2. FrightenedFrightened

3.3. Unable to develop speechUnable to develop speech

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Prolonged DeprivationProlonged Deprivation

If parental or caregiving support is deprived for If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels.including alterations in brain serotonin levels.

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Day Care and AttachmentDay Care and Attachment

Quality day care that consists of responsive Quality day care that consists of responsive adults interacting with children does not adults interacting with children does not

harm children’s thinking and language skills.harm children’s thinking and language skills.

However, some recent studies suggest that However, some recent studies suggest that extensive time in day care may increase extensive time in day care may increase aggressiveness and defiance in children.aggressiveness and defiance in children.

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Child-Rearing PracticesChild-Rearing Practices

PracticePractice DescriptionDescription

AuthoritarianAuthoritarian Parents impose rules and Parents impose rules and expect obedience.expect obedience.

PermissivePermissiveParents submit to children’s Parents submit to children’s

demands.demands.

AuthoritativeAuthoritativeParents are demanding but Parents are demanding but responsive to their children.responsive to their children.

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Authoritative ParentingAuthoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting correlates with social Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — but other factors like genetics competence — but other factors like genetics may lead to an easy-going temperament that may lead to an easy-going temperament that may evoke an authoritative parenting style.may evoke an authoritative parenting style.

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AdolescenceAdolescence

Many psychologists Many psychologists once believed that our once believed that our traits were set during traits were set during

childhood. Today childhood. Today psychologists believe psychologists believe that development is a that development is a

lifelong process. lifelong process. AdolescenceAdolescence is defined is defined

as a life between as a life between childhood and childhood and

adulthood.adulthood.

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Brain DevelopmentBrain Development

Until puberty, neurons increase their Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, connections. However, at adolescence,

selective pruning of the neurons begins. selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to Unused neuronal connections are lost to

make other pathways more efficient.make other pathways more efficient.

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Frontal CortexFrontal Cortex

During adolescence, neurons in the frontal During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve

conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional and the limbic system may explain occasional

teen impulsiveness.teen impulsiveness.

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Developing MoralityDeveloping Morality

Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person adolescents, such as “Should a person

steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.He found stages of moral development.

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Moral ThinkingMoral Thinking1.1. Preconventional Morality:Preconventional Morality:

Before age 9, children show Before age 9, children show morality to avoid morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.punishment or gain reward.

2.2. Conventional Morality:Conventional Morality: By By early adolescence, social early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld rules and laws are upheld for their own sake.for their own sake.

3.3. Postconventional Postconventional Morality:Morality: Affirms people’s Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived follows personally perceived ethical principles.ethical principles.