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Cognitive Development

In

Children

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Refers to ◦Internal process and the product of the mind leading to knowledge development

Covers a wide aspects of mental activities:◦Memorizing◦Categorizing & simbolizing◦Problem solving & creativity◦Inventions◦Dreaming & fantasizing◦Reading & Writing◦Language acquisition etc

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Changes in thinking (logic) Language acquisition The process of how human receive, store

and remember information (knowledge) from their environment.

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How human relate the knowledge they receive and applied it to their everyday lives.

How the information from the environment Receive Stored Re-use

Stressed on individual Level of understanding & use of knowledge

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Thus, every changes, including those learned is being:-

◦Recorded by the brain

◦Processed which involves mental activities

The thinking & reasoning process of children differs from adolescent and adults.

As age increases, the ability to think and reasons became complex (better)

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Attention

Efficiency, ability to shift focus improve. Less attraction to novelty, better sustained attention after first year.

Memory

Retention intervals lengthen. Recall appears by 1 year; excellent in second year.

Categorization

Impressive perceptual categorization in first year. Conceptual categorization in second year

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Psychological structures Organized ways of making sense of

experience Change with age

◦Action-based (motor patterns) at first◦Later move to a mental (thinking) level

Focus on the ◦Function and the reaction of the mind to

the environment According to Piaget:

◦Human being can think and are rational◦The thinking ability of a child is strong and

inquisitive : Always interact with their environment

consistent to their understanding and cognitive ability.

Piaget argued that children have schemas.

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SCHEMA is a/an…◦ cognitive structure built to assist individual to understand

their past experiences.◦ Organized ways of making sense of experience

Child’s schemas change with age involved the modification of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand its world

Action-based (motor patterns) at first Later move to a mental (thinking) level

Thus, Schemas are… ◦ organized patterns of thought or behavior assist in making

sense of experience

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Adaptation◦ Building schemes

Assimilation◦ Using current schemes to

interpret external world Accommodation

◦ Adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit environment

Through the process of:- ◦ ADAPTATION

◦ ORGANIZATION.

A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on:◦ How a child response to an event that occurs in their

environment.

◦ The effect of these event on their development.

Schemas developed by children must be able to handle new information and situations

Schema can be built based on adaptation process

◦Adaptation is the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment.

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According to Piaget, adaptation can be further divided into two intellectual processes:

◦Assimilation: Involves interpreting new information in light of an old (existing) schema. E.g: All 4-legged animals are viewed as a “dog”

◦Accommodation: Process by which old schemas are created or modified to fit new situations. E.g.: A horse is not a “dog”

Equilibrium exist when children are not changing very much and they are in a steady, comfortable cognitive state Assimilation is used more than accommodation.

Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive discomfort, that occurs during times of rapid change Accommodation is used more than assimilation 14

Organization is an internal process of arranging and linking together schemas to form an interconnected cognitive system.

Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium when they become part of a broad network of structures that can be jointly applied to the surrounding world.

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Stages of Cognitive development:

1. Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)2. Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)3. Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)4. Formal Operation (12 and above)

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Birth to 2 years Building schemes through sensory and motor exploration

Circular reactions

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Piaget based this stage on his observation of his children.

Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR):

◦CR the means by which infants explore the environment and build schemas by trying to repeat chance events caused by their own motor activity.

◦Reactions are first centered on infant’s own body later change to manipulating objects then to produce effects in the environment.

8-12 mths Concept of Object permanence develop

Object permanence, the realization that an object/person continues to exist when out of sight.

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Reflexive Schemes Birth –1 month

Newborn reflexes

Primary Circular Reactions

1 – 4 months Simple motor habits centered around own body

Secondary Circular Reactions

4 – 8 months Repeat interesting effects in soundings (external)

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions

8 – 12 months

Intentional, goal-directed behavior; object permanence

Tertiary Circular Reactions

12 – 18 months

Explore properties of objects through novel actions

Mental Representations

12 months – 2 years

Internal depictions of objects or events; deferred imitation

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Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight

According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4.

Incomplete at first

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Internal, mental depictions of objects, people, events, information◦Can manipulate with mind◦Allow deferred imitation (ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not immediately present) and make-believe play

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Piaget: Develops about 18 months Newer research:

◦Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation

◦6 – 9 months – copy actions with objects

◦12 – 14 months – imitate rationally◦18 months – imitate intended,

but not completed, actions

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Cognitive Advances Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in the use

of *symbolic thought, or representational ability, which first emerges at the end of the sensorimotor stage

An understanding of symbolism comes only gradually usually after age

◦ Growing understanding of space, causality, identities, categorization, and number

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Gains in Mental Representation◦Make-believe Play◦Dual Representation

Limitations in Thought — Cannot Perform Mental Operations◦Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking◦Conservation◦Hierarchical Classification

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With age, make-believe gradually becomes:◦More detached from real-life

conditions◦Less self-centered ◦More complex Sociodramatic Play

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Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol

Mastered around age 3 Adult teaching can help

◦Provide lots of maps, photos, drawings,

make-believe playthings, etc.◦Point out similarities to real world

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Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities

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Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect Attribute life to inanimate objects = animism Failure to understand conservation: two things

remain equal if their appearance changes but nothing is added or taken away◦ Egocentrism : Center so much on their own point

of view that they cannot take in another's ◦ Conservation: Understanding that the basic

properties of an object are constant even if the object changes shape

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Egocentrism refers to a cognitive refers to a cognitive view in which a child understands view in which a child understands the world to have only their view the world to have only their view (has great difficulty in (has great difficulty in understanding the views of others)understanding the views of others)

◦E.g: Piaget’s three-mountain task. A preoperational child is unable to describe the “mountains” from the doll’s point of view - an indication of egocentrism

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Centration Focus on one aspect and neglect others

Irreversibility Cannot mentally reverse a set of steps

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Egocentric Thought

Can adjust language to others and take others’ perspectives in simple situations.

Animistic thinking comes from incomplete knowledge of objects.

Illogical Thought

Can do simplified conservation Can reason by analogy Use causal expressions

Categorization Everyday knowledge is categorized.

Appearance versus reality

Make-believe helps children tell the difference.

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Discovery learning Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn

◦ Developmentally appropriate practice Acceptance of individual differences

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Piaget: children younger than 6 cannot distinguish between thoughts or dreams and real physical entities and have no theory of mind

What is Theories Of Mind?◦ Theories Of Mind is….

Preschoolers generally believe that mental activity starts and stops. Not until middle childhood do children know that the mind is continuously active

By age 3, children's understanding of others' emotional and mental states is becoming more mature. They realize that a person who does not immediately find what she wants will keep looking.

Children tend to believe that everyone else knows what they know and believes what they do

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Conservation◦Decentration◦Reversibility

Classification/ categorization Seriation

◦Transitive inference Spatial Reasoning

◦Directions◦Maps

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Understand the concept of conservationUnderstand the principleof identityCategorisation/ classification

o Transitive inference - able to recognize a relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship between them and a third object.

o Class inclusion - able to see the relationship between a whole and its parts.

o Children now use inductive reasoning. Starting with observations about particular members of a class of people, animals, objects, or events, then draw general conclusions about the class as a whole.

They understand seriation can arrange objects in a series based on one or more dimensions, such as weight (lightest to heaviest) or color

Understanding of spatial relationships/ reasoning better

Children's thinking at this stage is so concrete38

Operations work best with objects that are concrete◦Problems with abstract ideas

Horizontal décalage◦Master concrete operational tasks gradually

(development within a stage i.e. a step-by step fashion, not all at once) E.g, they usually grasp conservation problem in a

certain order first: first number then length, mass & liquid finally area & weight

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Attention becomes more:

Selective Adaptable Planful

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Increase in information-processing capacity

Gains in cognitive inhibition

Both may be related to brain development

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Postponing action to weigh alternatives Organizing task materials

◦Remembering steps of plan◦Monitoring how well plan works◦Revising if necessary

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Chunking - Breaking the information into manageable chunk. ◦eg. OFHRTJUDYCX OFH RTJ UDY CX

Rehearsal - Simple repetition◦Elaboration when info to be remembered is linked to

other information Imagery - Conjured image of an object/related meaning. Mnemonics - Memory strategy to help remember information

◦Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned information with well learned information.

Schema activation - Strategy to use with encoding complex info. relates new information to prior knowledge.

Level of processing -Material that is only skimmed will not be as deeply processed as material that is studied in detail.

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Reading◦Whole-language approach◦Basic-skills approach

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MathematicsDrill“Number sense”

See mind as active, constructive Understand more about sources of

knowledge◦Mental inferences◦False beliefs

Consider interactions of variables

Schooling promotes developing theory of mind

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Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation Develop the capacity for abstract thought a new, more

flexible way to manipulate information Can use symbols more extensively Can understand metaphor and allegory Can imagine possibilities and can form and test

hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning) Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise in

specific fields Higher gain of information-processing capacity; Growth in metacognition awareness and monitoring of

one's own mental processes and strategies.

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INTELLIGENCE

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Group Tests Allow testing of large

groups Require little training to

administer Useful for instructional

planning Identify students who

need individual testing

Individually-Administered Tests

Examiners need training & experience◦ Provide insights about

accuracy of score Identify highly intelligent

and children with learning problems

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Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½ yrs)

o Mental, motor, social scale

Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult) o General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual, short term

memory scale

Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC III)◦ 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool & Primary Scale of

Intelligence - WPPSI-R)◦ 6-16 yrs (WISC)

o Verbal & performance scale

Kaufman Battery of Assessmento Information processing 51

Formula * MA/CA x 100 = IQ

Ma = mental age CA = Chronological age Example

◦ Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a metal age of 12 years old. Thus Hasif have an IQ of 120, ie.

12/10 x 100 = 120

According to IQ score chart, ◦ Score above100 = cerdik pintar◦ Score between 100 -69 = kurang kemampuan

intelektual ◦ score of 70 & below = kurang upaya mental

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Genetics◦Accounts for about half of

differences Environment

◦SES◦Culture Communication styles Cultural bias in test content

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Linguistic Logico-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Naturalist Interpersonal Intrapersonal

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© 2006 Th

e McGraw

-Hill Companies, Inc

. All rights reserved. Santrock,

Educational

Psyc

hology,

Second

Edition, Clas

sroom Updat

e

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

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Children with Learning Problems◦Mental retardation =significantly subnormal cognitive functioning

◦Dyslexia=developmental reading disorder in which reading achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ or age.

◦Learning disabilities =disorders that interfere with school achievementperformance substantially lower than expected.

◦Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with or without hyperactivity

ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with heritability approaching 80 percent

ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes combined with behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills, and special classroom placement 58

Gifted◦Exceptional intellectual

strength The traditional criterion of giftedness

is high general intelligence, as shown by an

◦Usually measured by high IQ (score of 130 or higher)

Talented◦Outstanding performance in

a specific field◦Measured by divergent

thinking and creativity

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Gifted Children:

A classic longitudinal study of gifted children began in 1921, by Lewis M. Terman:

◦ these children were taller, healthier, better coordinated, better adjusted, and more popular than the average child

◦ Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational superiority has held up for nearly eighty years

◦ Creativity=ability to see things in a new light divergent thinking enrichment or acceleration classes for both gifted and

creative children

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Asian schools show more: Cultural valuing of academic achievement Emphasis on effort High-quality education for all Time devoted to instruction

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By 3 MTHS OLD:◦turn head toward bright colors and lights

◦turn toward the sound of a human voice

◦recognize bottle or breast ◦respond to your shaking a rattle or bell

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BY 6 MTHS OLD:

◦open his mouth for the spoon ◦imitate familiar actions you perform ◦Language babble, making almost sing-song sounds

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By 12 MTHS OLD:◦copy sounds and actions you make ◦respond to music with body motion ◦try to accomplish simple goals (seeing and then crawling to a toy)

◦look for an object she watched fall out of sight (such as a spoon that falls under the table)

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By 18 months:◦ identify an object in a picture book ◦ laugh at silly actions (as in wearing a bowl as a

hat) ◦ look for objects that are out of sight ◦ put a round lid on a round pot ◦ follow simple 1-step directions ◦ solve problems by trial and error ◦ Language

say 8-10 words you can understand

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By 2 years old:◦ like to take things apart ◦ explore surroundings ◦ point to 5-6 parts of a doll when asked ◦ Language have a vocabulary of several hundred words use 2-3 word sentences say names of toys ask for information about an object (asks,

"Shoe?" while pointing to shoe box) hum or try to sing listen to short rhymes like to imitate parents

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By 3 years :◦recognize sounds in the environment◦pay attention for about 3 minutes◦remember what happened yesterday◦know what is food and what is not food◦know some numbers (but not always in the right order)◦know where things usually belong◦understand what is "1“, "now," "soon," and "later“◦substitute one object for another in pretend play (as in

pretending a block is a "car")◦laugh at silly ideas (like "milking" a dog)◦look through a book alone◦match circles & squares; match object to a picture of that

object or match objects that have same function (as in putting a cup and plate together)

◦count 2 to 3 objects◦avoid some dangers, like a hot stove or a moving car◦follow simple one-step commands

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By 3 years :◦ Language

use 3-5 word sentences ask short questions use plurals ("dogs," "cars," "hats") name at least 10 familiar objects repeat simple rhymes name at least one color correctly

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By 4 years old:o recognize red, yellow, and blueo understand taking turns and can do so without always being

remindedo understand "big," "little," "tall," "short“o want to know what will happen nexto sort by shape or coloro count up to 5 objectso follow three instructions given at one time

("Put the toys away, wash your hands, and come eat.")o distinguish between the real world and the imaginary or

pretend worldo identify situations that would lead to happiness, sadness, or

anger

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Can count 10 or more objects Correctly names at least four colors Better understands the concept of time Knows about things used every day in the

home (money, food, appliances)

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Children can begin to think about their own behavior and see consequences for actions.

In the early stages of concrete thinking, they can group things that belong together (for instance babies, fathers, mothers, aunts are all family members). As children near adolescence, they master sequencing and ordering, which are needed for math skills.

Children begin to read and write early in middle childhood and should be skillful in reading and writing by the end of this stage.

They can think through their actions and trace back events that happened to explain situations, such as why they were late to school. 72

Children learn best if they are active while they are learning. For example, children will learn more effectively about traffic safety by moving cars, blocks, and toy figures rather than sitting and listening to an adult explain the rules.

Six- to 8-year-olds can rarely sit for longer than 15-20 minutes for an activity. Attention span gets longer with age.

Toward the beginning of middle childhood, children may begin projects but finish few. Allow them to explore new materials. Nearing adolescence, children will focus more on completion.

Teachers set the conditions for social interactions to occur in schools. Understand that children need to experience various friendships while building esteem.

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Children can talk through problems to solve them. This requires more adult time and more sustained attention by children.

Children can focus attention and take time to search for needed information.

They can develop a plan to meet a goal. There is greater memory capability because

many routines (brushing teeth, tying shoes, bathing, etc.) are automatic now.

Child begins to build a self-image as a "worker." If encouraged, this is positive in later development of career choices.

Many children want to find a way to earn money.

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