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Chapter 1

The Sociological Perspective and

Research Methods

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Putting Social Life Into Perspective

Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction.

Sociologists study societies and social interactions to develop theories about :How behavior is shaped by group lifeHow group life is affected by individuals

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Society

A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

We are all affected by global interdependencea relationship in which the lives of all people are

intertwinedany nation’s problems are part of a larger global

problem.

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Why Study Sociology

Gain a better understanding of ourselves and our social world.

See how behavior is shaped by the groups to which we belong

Promotes understanding and tolerance helps us look beyond personal experiences and

gain insight into the larger world order

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Fields That Use Social Science Research

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The Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.

Distinguishes between personal troubles and social issues.

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Suicide

As a Personal Trouble:Many people consider suicide to be the

result of personal problems.As a Public Issue:

Sociologist Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of cohesiveness in society instead of viewing it as an isolated act that could be understood by studying individual personalities or inherited tendencies.

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Suicide Rates by Race and Sex

Rates indicate the number of deaths by suicide for every 100,000 people in each category for 2001.

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Importance of a Global Sociological ImaginationThe future of our nation is intertwined with

the future of other nations on economic, political, environmental, and humanitarian levels.

Understanding diversity and developing tolerance for people who are different from us is important for our personal, social, and economic well-being.

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High-income Countries

These are nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and high levels of national and personal income.Examples: United States, Canada

They generally have a have a high standard of living and a lower death rate due to advances in nutrition and medical technology.

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Middle-income countries

Sometimes referred to as developing countries, these are nations with industrializing economies, particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income.Examples: Nations of Eastern Europe and

many Latin American countries, where nations such as Brazil and Mexico are industrializing rapidly.

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Low-income Countries

Low-income countries are primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income. Examples: Many of the nations of Africa and

Asia, particularly India and the People’s Republic of China.

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Comparing Countries

CountryCountry IMR IMR

(Per 1000 (Per 1000 live live births)births)

Female Female Life Life ExpectanExpectancycy

Male Life Male Life ExpectanExpectancycy

GDPGDP Literacy Literacy RateRate

MalaysiaMalaysia 90.590.5 43.743.7 43.143.1 313.8 313.8 BillionBillion

89%89%

Mexico Mexico 14.714.7 7777 7070 874.8 874.8 BillionBillion

93%93%

JapanJapan 5.65.6 83.283.2 77.177.1 4.218 4.218 TrillionTrillion

99%99%

United United StatesStates

6.36.3 81.181.1 75.375.3 13.13 13.13 TrillionTrillion

99%99%

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Race, Ethnicity and Class

Race is a term used to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics.Most sociologists consider race a social construction

used to justify inequalities.

Ethnicity refers to cultural identity and is based on factors such as language or country of origin.

Class is based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources.

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Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males.

Gender refers to the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences, referred to as femininity and masculinity.

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The Development of Sociological Thinking

Idea of observing how people lived, what they thought, and doing so in a systematic manner came about because of two processesIndustrializationUrbanization

Problems became more visible, new social thinkers wanted to understand why and how society was changing

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Auguste Comte

Considered the “founder of sociology.”Comte’s philosophy became known as

positivism— a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry.

Comte believed objective, bias-free knowledge was attainable only through the use of science rather than religion.

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Two Dimensions Of Comte’s Positivism

1. Methodological The application of scientific knowledge to

physical and social phenomena.

2. Social and political The use of such knowledge to predict the

likely results of different policies so the best one could be chosen.

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Harriet Martineau

Believed society would improve when: women and men were

treated equallyenlightened reform

occurredcooperation existed among

all social classes

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Herbert Spencer

Contributed an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change.

Social Darwinism The belief that the human

beings best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out.

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Emile Durkheim

Believed the limits of human potential are socially based.

One of his most important contributions was the concept of social facts. Social facts are patterned ways of acting,

thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but exert social control over each person.

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Karl Marx

Viewed history as a clash between conflicting ideas and forces.

Believed class conflict produced social change and a better society.

Combined ideas from philosophy, history, and social science into a new theory.

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Max Weber

Believed sociological research should exclude personal values and economic interests.

Provided insights on rationalization, bureaucracy and religion.

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Georg SimmelTheorized about society as a web of

patterned interactions among people. Analyzed how social interactions vary

depending on the size of the social group.Developed formal sociology, an approach

that focuses attention on the universal recurring social forms that underlie the varying content of social interaction.

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Jane Addams

Founded Hull House, one of the most famous settlement houses, in Chicago.

One of the authors of a methodology text used by sociologists for the next forty years.

Awarded Nobel Prize for assistance to the underprivileged.

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W. E. B. Du Bois

One of the first to note the identity conflict of being both a black and an American.

Pointed out that people in the U.S. espouse values of democracy, freedom, and equality while they accept racism and group discrimination.

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Theoretical Perspectives

Theoretical perspectives are based on ideas about how social life is organized.

The major perspectives in U.S. sociology are:FunctionalistConflictsymbolic interactionistpostmodernist perspectives

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Major Theoretical Perspectives

Theory View of Society

FunctionalistComposed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability.

ConflictSociety is characterized by social inequality; social life is a struggle for scarce resources.

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Major Theoretical Perspectives

Theory View of Society

SymbolicInteractionist

Behavior is learned in interaction with other people.

Postmodernist

Postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications bring into question assumptions about social life and the nature of reality.

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Polling Question

Which sociological perspective do you think explains the concept of inequality in our society the most accurately?

A. Structural-functional

B. Conflict

C. Symbolic interactionist

D. Feminist

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The Sociological Research Process

Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.

The relationship between theory and research has been referred to as a continuous cycle.

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Theory and Research Cycle

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Quantitative and Qualitative ResearchQuantitative research focuses on data that

can be measured numerically.Example: comparing rates of suicide

Qualitative research focuses on interpretive description rather than statistics to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

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Conventional Research Model

1. Select and define the research problem.

2. Review previous research.

3. Formulate the hypothesis.

4. Develop the research design.

5. Collect and analyze the data.

6. Draw conclusions and report the findings.

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Qualitative Research Method

1. Researcher begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan.

2. Researcher has to decide when the literature review and theory application should take place.

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Qualitative Research Method

3. The study presents a detailed view of the topic.

4. Access to people or other resources that can provide necessary data is crucial.

5. Appropriate research method(s) are important for acquiring useful qualitative data.

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Research Methods: Survey ResearchDescribes a population without

interviewing each individual.Standardized questions force respondents

into categories.Relies on self-reported information, and

some people may not be truthful.

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Research Methods: Analysis of Existing Data

Materials studied may include: books, diaries, poems, and graffitimovies, television shows,

advertisements, greeting cardsmusic, art, and even garbage

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Research Methods: Field ResearchStudy of social life in its natural setting.Observing and interviewing people where

they live, work, and play.Generates observations that are best

described verbally rather than numerically.

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Approaches to Field Research

Participant observationCollecting observations while part of the

activities of the group being studied.

EthnographyDetailed study of the life and activities of a

group of people over a period of years.

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Research Methods: Experiments

Study the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behavior.

Designed to create “real-life” situations.Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect

relationship between variables.

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Polling Question

If you possessed the money, skill, and other necessary resources, in which one area would you like to conduct research?

A. Racial profiling

B. The cause(s) of sexual orientation

C. Sexual assault and abuse

D. The effects of divorce on children