11

STS 301STS 301

ARCHAEOMETRY IARCHAEOMETRY I(A (A Short Summery)Short Summery)

COURSE OUTLINECOURSE OUTLINE1.1. IntroductionIntroduction

2.2. Metals and metallurgyMetals and metallurgy

-Ores and mining-Ores and mining

-Smelting-Smelting

-Metal structure and alloys-Metal structure and alloys

-Development of ancient Cu, Ag, Pb, Sn, Au,-Development of ancient Cu, Ag, Pb, Sn, Au,Zn, As and Fe metallurgyZn, As and Fe metallurgy

3.3. Decay and corrosionDecay and corrosion

4.4. Dating methods in archaeologyDating methods in archaeology

RECONSTRUCTION OF HUMANRECONSTRUCTION OF HUMANCULTURAL HISTORY REQUIRES THECULTURAL HISTORY REQUIRES THE

ESTABLISHMENT OFESTABLISHMENT OF

•• His biological evolutionHis biological evolution

•• His natural environmentHis natural environment

•• His means of subsistenceHis means of subsistence

•• His material culture (artifacts)His material culture (artifacts)

ASSESMENT OF CULTURALASSESMENT OF CULTURALDEVELOPMENT OF A GIVENDEVELOPMENT OF A GIVENSOCIETY CAN BE MADE BYSOCIETY CAN BE MADE BYINDEPTH ANALYSIS OF THEINDEPTH ANALYSIS OF THE

FOLLOWING SYSTEMSFOLLOWING SYSTEMS•• EconomicEconomic

•• PoliticalPolitical

•• SocialSocial

•• IdeologicalIdeological

•• TechnicalTechnical

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ARCHAEOLOGISTS ASK THEFOLLOWING QUESTIONS•• What is it?What is it?

•• How old is it?How old is it?

•• How has it been made?How has it been made?

•• Who made it?Who made it?

•• Was it made locally or did it come to theWas it made locally or did it come to thesite by trade?site by trade?

““ARCHAEOMETRYARCHAEOMETRY”” is ais asynthetic term indicating thatsynthetic term indicating that

““ancient things and phenomenonancient things and phenomenon””relate to them are to be relate to them are to be ““measuredmeasured

and quantifiedand quantified””

ARCHAEOMETRY DEALS WITHARCHAEOMETRY DEALS WITH

•• Composition ofComposition ofmaterialsmaterials

•• Dating of artifactsDating of artifacts

•• Conservation ofConservation ofartifactsartifacts

•• Prospecting sites Prospecting sites

•• Source analysisSource analysis

•• Trade patternsTrade patterns

•• Ancient technologyAncient technology

•• Authentication ofAuthentication ofartifactsartifacts

DISCIPLINES COOPERATINGDISCIPLINES COOPERATINGWITH ARCHAEOLOGISTSWITH ARCHAEOLOGISTS

•• Physical, chemical and biological sciences:Physical, chemical and biological sciences:identity, source, date and manufacturingidentity, source, date and manufacturingtechnology.technology.

•• Natural sciences: botanists, soil scientists,Natural sciences: botanists, soil scientists,zoologists.zoologists.

•• Geophysics: prospectingGeophysics: prospecting•• Anatomy and physiology: biological aspect ofAnatomy and physiology: biological aspect of

humans.humans.

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MATERIALSMATERIALS

HumanHuman’’s enjoyment, exploitation ands enjoyment, exploitation andeventual explanation of the inner qualitieseventual explanation of the inner qualities

of MATERIAL is one of the moreof MATERIAL is one of the morefascinating aspects of human history.fascinating aspects of human history.

Materials have fundamentally determinedMaterials have fundamentally determinedwhat man could do at every stage ofwhat man could do at every stage of

historyhistory

CLASSIFICATION OFCLASSIFICATION OFMATERIALSMATERIALS

•• Raw materials: stones, wood, clayRaw materials: stones, wood, clay

•• Separated materials: skin of animals, bone toolsSeparated materials: skin of animals, bone tools

•• Extracted materials: metalsExtracted materials: metals

•• Compounded materials: bronze, glass, potteryCompounded materials: bronze, glass, pottery

•• Constructed materials: basket weaving, textilesConstructed materials: basket weaving, textiles

ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALSARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS TIME LINE OF ANCIENT NEAREASTTIME LINE OF ANCIENT NEAREAST

10,000 -9,000 BC10,000 -9,000 BC Mesolithic AgeMesolithic Age 9,000 -7,000BC 9,000 -7,000BC Proto Neolithic AgeProto Neolithic Age 7,000 -5,600 BC7,000 -5,600 BC Neolithic AgeNeolithic Age 5,600 -5,000 BC 5,600 -5,000 BC Early ChalcolithicEarly Chalcolithic 5,000 -4,000 BC 5,000 -4,000 BC Middle ChalcolithicMiddle Chalcolithic 4,000 -3,200 BC 4,000 -3,200 BC Late ChalcolithicLate Chalcolithic 3,200 -2,000 BC 3,200 -2,000 BC Early Bronze AgeEarly Bronze Age 2,000 -1,600 BC 2,000 -1,600 BC Middle Bronze AgeMiddle Bronze Age 1,600 -1,200 BC 1,600 -1,200 BC Late Bronze AgeLate Bronze Age 1,200 - 1,200 - BCBC Iron AgeIron Age

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GEOLOGICAL TIMESGEOLOGICAL TIMES

•• Precambrian 4.6 B - 570 M yearsPrecambrian 4.6 B - 570 M years

•• Paleozoic (Ancient life) 570 M - 225 M yearsPaleozoic (Ancient life) 570 M - 225 M years

•• Mesozoic (Middle life) 225 M - 65 M yearsMesozoic (Middle life) 225 M - 65 M years

•• Cenozoic (New life) 65 M - PresentCenozoic (New life) 65 M - Present

ANCIENT ATMOSPHEREANCIENT ATMOSPHERE

GENESISGENESIS PALEOZOIC ERAPALEOZOIC ERA570 - 250 M years570 - 250 M years

•• 570 x 10570 x 1066 years: Early shelled organisms years: Early shelled organisms

•• 480 x 10480 x 1066 years: Early fish years: Early fish

•• 420 x 10420 x 1066 years: Early land plants years: Early land plants

•• 380 x 10380 x 1066 years: Early Trees, formation of years: Early Trees, formation of coal deposits coal deposits

•• 300 x 10300 x 1066 years: Early reptiles years: Early reptiles

•• 240 x 10240 x 1066 years: Final assembly of Pangaea years: Final assembly of Pangaea

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Formation of PangeaFormation of PangeaNATURAL CATASTROPIESNATURAL CATASTROPIES

AND LIFE ON EARTHAND LIFE ON EARTH

EXTINCTIONEXTINCTION MASS EXTINCTIONSMASS EXTINCTIONS

1.1. Ordovicion (440 M years ago): 57 % of marine invertebrateOrdovicion (440 M years ago): 57 % of marine invertebrategenera.genera.

2.2. Devonian (370 M years ago): large amounts of biomass died,Devonian (370 M years ago): large amounts of biomass died,tropic reefs vanished.tropic reefs vanished.

3.3. Permian-Triassic (250 M years ago): 96 % of marinePermian-Triassic (250 M years ago): 96 % of marineinvertabrates vanished.invertabrates vanished.

4.4. Triassic (210 M years ago): Half of the genera of marineTriassic (210 M years ago): Half of the genera of marineinvertabrates vanished.invertabrates vanished.

5.5. Cretaceous-Tertiary (65 M yearas ago): Impact of a astroid, endCretaceous-Tertiary (65 M yearas ago): Impact of a astroid, endof the age of reptiles (dinosaurs) and beginning of the age ofof the age of reptiles (dinosaurs) and beginning of the age ofmammals.mammals.

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PLATE TECTONICS DURINGPLATE TECTONICS DURINGMESOZOIC ERAMESOZOIC ERA

•• Continents drifted to almost present ositionsContinents drifted to almost present ositions

•• Atlantic and Indian Oceans opened at a pace ofAtlantic and Indian Oceans opened at a pace of2cm/year2cm/year

•• Africa swing around Gibraltar an d squeezed theAfrica swing around Gibraltar an d squeezed theMediterraneanMediterranean

•• India raced north from Antarctica slamming into AsiaIndia raced north from Antarctica slamming into Asiato form the Himalayasto form the Himalayas

•• Australia moving north separated from AntracticaAustralia moving north separated from Antractica

•• Mesozoic Era came to an end abruptly 65 M years agoMesozoic Era came to an end abruptly 65 M years agotogethe with the mass extinction of plants and animalstogethe with the mass extinction of plants and animals

•• The principal casualities among thte reptiles were theThe principal casualities among thte reptiles were thedinosaurs.dinosaurs.

•• LW Alvarez recognized 2 cm clay later at the MesozoicLW Alvarez recognized 2 cm clay later at the Mesozoic(Cretaceous) and Canezoic (Tertiary) boundary enriched(Cretaceous) and Canezoic (Tertiary) boundary enrichedwith iridium (30 times) at several places around the world.with iridium (30 times) at several places around the world.

•• Iridium is poor in silicous Earth crust but found Iridium is poor in silicous Earth crust but foundextensively in iron meteorites.extensively in iron meteorites.

•• It is now believed that an asteroid with 10 Km diameterIt is now believed that an asteroid with 10 Km diameterhad struct the Earth. This impact would eject debriss tohad struct the Earth. This impact would eject debriss tospace which would block sunlight for a lkong timespace which would block sunlight for a lkong time(Possibly years)(Possibly years)

MASS EXTINCTIONSMASS EXTINCTIONS

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REALREALREASONREASON

WHYWHYDINOSAURSDINOSAURS

BECAMEBECAMEEXTINCTEXTINCT

CENOZOIC ERACENOZOIC ERA65 M - Present65 M - Present

•• 65 x 1065 x 1066 years: Early primates years: Early primates

•• 53 x 1053 x 1066 years: Separation of Australia and years: Separation of Australia and Antartica Antartica

•• 40 x 1040 x 1066 years: Collision of India with Asia years: Collision of India with Asia

•• 20 x 1020 x 1066 years: Formation of Himalaya years: Formation of Himalaya

•• 1.8 x 101.8 x 1066 years: Oldest stone tools years: Oldest stone tools

•• 1.4 x 101.4 x 1066 years: Homo Erectus years: Homo Erectus

•• 0.1 x 100.1 x 1066 years: Neanderthal man years: Neanderthal man

ICE AGES (GLACIATIONS)ICE AGES (GLACIATIONS) FAMILY TREE OF HOMINIDSFAMILY TREE OF HOMINIDS

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MIGRATION OF HOMO ERECTUSMIGRATION OF HOMO ERECTUS

CLIMATE DURING PLEISTOCENE

99

15,000 years old 15,000 years old dwelling made out dwelling made out of mammothof mammothbones in Mazhirich, bones in Mazhirich, Ukraine. Ukraine.

CIVILIZATIONS OF ANATOLIACIVILIZATIONS OF ANATOLIA

10,000 - 9,000 BC10,000 - 9,000 BC Mesolithic AgeMesolithic Age 9,000 - 5,500 BC 9,000 - 5,500 BC Neolithic AgeNeolithic Age 5,500 - 3,200 BC 5,500 - 3,200 BC ChalcolithicChalcolithic 3,200 - 1,000 BC 3,200 - 1,000 BC Bronze AgeBronze Age 1,200 - 1,200 - BC BC Iron AgeIron Age

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTIONNEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

•• Beginning of agricultureBeginning of agriculture

•• Domestication of animalsDomestication of animals

•• Invention of potteryInvention of pottery

•• Beginning of settlementsBeginning of settlements

•• Use of new stone implementUse of new stone implement

1010

STONE TOOLSSTONE TOOLS

Olduvan 2.5 million years

Acheulean 1.5 million years

Mousretian200,000-40,000 years

Upper Paleolithic40,000-12,000 years

CatalhoyukCatalhoyukdaggerdagger

OBSIDIAN TOOLSOBSIDIAN TOOLSBrittle, hard, volcanic glass composed of mainly quartz (SiOBrittle, hard, volcanic glass composed of mainly quartz (SiO22), feldspar ), feldspar (aluminum silicate minerals). It can be flaked in to sharp tools.(aluminum silicate minerals). It can be flaked in to sharp tools.

OBSIDIAN MIRROROBSIDIAN MIRROR NEOLITHIC OBSIDIAN TRADENEOLITHIC OBSIDIAN TRADE

1111

MARBLEMARBLE Soft metamorphic stone of CaCOSoft metamorphic stone of CaCO33 and and CaMgCOCaMgCO33

Cycladic sculpture (3rd. Mil BC)Cycladic sculpture (3rd. Mil BC)

ANATOLIAN IDOLSANATOLIAN IDOLS

BeycesultanBeycesultan

KaratasKaratas

KültepeKültepe

MARBLE STATUESMARBLE STATUES BASALT/DIABASEBASALT/DIABASEIgneous rock with high iron content. UsedIgneous rock with high iron content. Usedas grinding and crushing tools and sculptureas grinding and crushing tools and sculpture

Hittite Goddess KubabaHittite Goddess Kubaba

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BONE TOOLSBONE TOOLS HUMAN REMAINSHUMAN REMAINSPaleoanthropological examination of human bones yield information Paleoanthropological examination of human bones yield information OOn subsistence strategy, dietary habits, environmental conditions andn subsistence strategy, dietary habits, environmental conditions andDDiseases and famines. DNA analysis of bones also yield informationiseases and famines. DNA analysis of bones also yield informationOOn social structure, as well as migrations. n social structure, as well as migrations.

Sacrificed Inca boySacrificed Inca boy

Preserved body ofPreserved body ofOtze in AlpsOtze in Alps(2500 BC)(2500 BC)

Preserved body in Preserved body in Hot desert sandHot desert sand

Human bodies can be preserved under extremely cold,Human bodies can be preserved under extremely cold,dry or in locations where bacteria cannot survive.dry or in locations where bacteria cannot survive.

An EgyptianAn EgyptianMummy.Mummy.2500 BC2500 BC

Preserved bodies in bog(tar sediment) (1500 AD)

SSTUDY OF HUMAN REMAINSPaleoanthropological examination of human bones yield information onPaleoanthropological examination of human bones yield information onsubsistence strategy, dietary habits, environmental conditions andsubsistence strategy, dietary habits, environmental conditions anddiseases and famines. DNA analysis of bones also yield information ondiseases and famines. DNA analysis of bones also yield information onsocial structure, as well as migrations.social structure, as well as migrations.

1313

PIGMENTSPIGMENTSFinally divided, water insoluble coloredFinally divided, water insoluble coloredmaterials applied on surfaces with a binder.materials applied on surfaces with a binder.They are generally colored inorganic minerals.They are generally colored inorganic minerals.

•• White:White: Calcium carbonate (CaCalcium carbonate (Ca22COCO33))

•• Black:Black: Lamp blackLamp black

•• Yellow:Yellow: Orpiment (AsOrpiment (As22SS33))

•• Red:Red: Red Ochers (FeRed Ochers (Fe22OO33))

•• Green:Green: Malachite CuMalachite Cu22COCO33(OH)(OH)22

•• Blue:Blue: Azurite CuAzurite Cu33(CO(CO33))22(OH)(OH)22

SOME NATURAL DYESSOME NATURAL DYES• Indigo (blue) from Indigofera tinctoria• Alizarin (red) from Rubia tinctorum• Saffron (yellow) Crocus sativus• Bark of oak tree, walnut hulls, oakgalls, (brown and

black)• Henna (reddish-orange)

IVORYIVORY

Urartian ivory carvings from Urartian ivory carvings from 1st century BC 1st century BC

AMBERAMBER

•• It is the fossil resins derived from the coniferousIt is the fossil resins derived from the coniferoustrees (sunlight solidified by the sea waves).trees (sunlight solidified by the sea waves).

•• Baltic sea region contains the main deposits ofBaltic sea region contains the main deposits ofamber formed about 60 million years ago.amber formed about 60 million years ago.

•• It is possible to provenance marble determining:It is possible to provenance marble determining:

a) succinic acid contenta) succinic acid content

b) trace element analysisb) trace element analysis

c) use of infra red spectroscopyc) use of infra red spectroscopy

1414

ANCIENT AMBERPYROTECHNOLOGYPYROTECHNOLOGY

•• Cooking of foodCooking of food 100,000 years ago100,000 years ago

•• Annealing stoneAnnealing stone 25,000 years ago 25,000 years ago

•• Baked clayBaked clay 9,000 BC 9,000 BC

•• PlasterPlaster 9,000 BC 9,000 BC

•• Smelting of ores Smelting of ores 6,000 BC 6,000 BC

•• GlazeGlaze 4,000 BC 4,000 BC

•• GlassGlass 2,000 BC 2,000 BC

CHEMISTRY INTRODUCED BYCHEMISTRY INTRODUCED BYPYROTECHNOLOGYPYROTECHNOLOGY

•• Oxidation: Burning organic material.Oxidation: Burning organic material.

•• Reduction: Reducing metals from their oresReduction: Reducing metals from their ores

•• Aggregation: Preparation of alloys, potteryAggregation: Preparation of alloys, pottery

•• Heat Separation: DistillationHeat Separation: Distillation

ACHIEVEMENTS PROVIDED BYACHIEVEMENTS PROVIDED BYPYROTECHNOLOGYPYROTECHNOLOGY

•• 100-150 100-150 ooC:C: Roasting of gypsum (CaSORoasting of gypsum (CaSO44) ) to obtain plasterto obtain plaster

•• 450-600 450-600 ooC: C: Structural water of clay is lost, Structural water of clay is lost, clay is irreversibly changedclay is irreversibly changed

•• 800-1000 800-1000 ooC:C: Vitrification of clay is completedVitrification of clay is completed•• 1100-12001100-1200ooC:C: Smelting of most metals from its Smelting of most metals from its

oresores•• 1200-1500 1200-1500 ooC:C:Extraction of iron from its ore, Extraction of iron from its ore,

turning silicates into glassturning silicates into glass

1515

POTTERYPOTTERY

Hacilar potteryHacilar pottery

GLAZEGLAZE

•• Glaze are vitreous coatings applied to theGlaze are vitreous coatings applied to thesurface of wares to decorate them or make themsurface of wares to decorate them or make themimpermeableimpermeable

•• An aqueous suspension of glaze ingredientsAn aqueous suspension of glaze ingredients(modifiers and colorants) are sprayed or painted(modifiers and colorants) are sprayed or paintedonto the pottery surface.onto the pottery surface.

•• After drying, it is fired in a kiln with properAfter drying, it is fired in a kiln with propertemperature and atmospheretemperature and atmosphere

GLAZED PANELS FROMGLAZED PANELS FROMNINEVAHNINEVAH

1616

GLAZEGLAZEGLASSGLASS

Glass is a generic term for a transparent materialGlass is a generic term for a transparent materialthat has the rigidity of a crystal with the largelythat has the rigidity of a crystal with the largelyrandom molecular structure of a liquid. Mainrandom molecular structure of a liquid. Maincomponents of glass are:components of glass are:

•• Sand: Silica (SiOSand: Silica (SiO22))

•• Soda: Sodium carbonate (NaSoda: Sodium carbonate (Na22COCO33))

•• Lime: Calcium oxide (CaO)Lime: Calcium oxide (CaO)

GLASSGLASS

Ancient class making Ancient class making using a clay coreusing a clay core

GLASS FORMINGGLASS FORMING

1717

ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOODARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD

•• Can be preserved for long periods of time underCan be preserved for long periods of time underextremely coldextremely cold, , wetwet, , drydry or or anoxicanoxic conditions. conditions.

•• Buried archaeological wood generallyBuried archaeological wood generallyundergoes changes turning into dust, humus,undergoes changes turning into dust, humus,coal or mineralize depending on thecoal or mineralize depending on theenvironmental conditions.environmental conditions.

•• Waterlogged wood may undergo diagenesisWaterlogged wood may undergo diagenesiswhere sedimentary materials are slowlywhere sedimentary materials are slowlycompacted eventually to form rockcompacted eventually to form rock

WOODWOOD

WOOD FROMWOOD FROMTUTANKHANUMTUTANKHANUM’’S GRAVES GRAVE SWEEDISH WARSHIP VASASWEEDISH WARSHIP VASA

1818

CITADEL OF TROYCITADEL OF TROY

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DATINGBASIC PRINCIPLES OF DATING

•• Decay of radioactive isotopesDecay of radioactive isotopes

•• Variations in the direction and intensity of earthVariations in the direction and intensity of earth’’ssmagnetic fieldmagnetic field

•• Time dependent chemical changes occurringTime dependent chemical changes occurringsubsequent to burialsubsequent to burial

•• Annual occurrence of natural rhythmic processesAnnual occurrence of natural rhythmic processes

•• Sequence of floral and faunal developmentsSequence of floral and faunal developments

RADIOACTIVE DATINGRADIOACTIVE DATINGMETHODSMETHODS

1.1. Methods depend on radioactive decay:Methods depend on radioactive decay:

a) Radiocarbon (<50,000 y)a) Radiocarbon (<50,000 y)

b) Potassium-Argon (>500,000 y)b) Potassium-Argon (>500,000 y)

2.2. Radiation damage dating:Radiation damage dating:

a) Fission track (>1000 y)a) Fission track (>1000 y)

b) Thermo luminescence (>100 y)b) Thermo luminescence (>100 y)

c) Electron spin resonance (<10c) Electron spin resonance (<1066 y) y)

NON-RADIOACTIVE DATINGNON-RADIOACTIVE DATINGMETHODSMETHODS

1.1. Methods depending on the continuous natural andMethods depending on the continuous natural andchemical changes:chemical changes:

a) Archaeomagnetism (unlimited)a) Archaeomagnetism (unlimited)

b) Amino acid racemization (<10b) Amino acid racemization (<1066 y) y)

c) Uranium-fluoride concentrationc) Uranium-fluoride concentration

d) Obsidian hydration (<100,000 y)d) Obsidian hydration (<100,000 y)

2.2. Methods depending on natural cycles:Methods depending on natural cycles:

a) Dendrochronology (<7,000 y)a) Dendrochronology (<7,000 y)

b) Varne chronology (unlimited)b) Varne chronology (unlimited)

1919

DATING METHODSDATING METHODS

years

1414CCDatingDating