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AMST 3100 The 1960sAMST 3100 The 1960s

The CountercultureThe Counterculture

Powerpoint 11Powerpoint 11Read Chafe Chapter 11; Farber Read Chafe Chapter 11; Farber

Chapter 8Chapter 8

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The War at HomeThe War at Home• The rise of the counterculture The rise of the counterculture

reflected a loss of faith in the reflected a loss of faith in the liberal reforms promoted by John liberal reforms promoted by John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson.Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson.

• As faith and idealism toward As faith and idealism toward liberal reforms declined, liberal reforms declined, radicalism grew among specific radicalism grew among specific elements of American society. elements of American society. Many of these late 1960s radicals Many of these late 1960s radicals came from the frustrated civil came from the frustrated civil rights advocates, frustrated war rights advocates, frustrated war protestors, college students, protestors, college students, Hispanic youth, feminists, gays, Hispanic youth, feminists, gays, and youth culture in general. and youth culture in general. – Radicals believed that the system Radicals believed that the system

itself was too corrupt for the changes itself was too corrupt for the changes needed and it was time to tear it needed and it was time to tear it down and rebuilt it into a more down and rebuilt it into a more democratic, inclusive (multicultural), democratic, inclusive (multicultural), peace-oriented, and egalitarian peace-oriented, and egalitarian system.system.

Street riot by members of the counterculture in Berkeley, California. By the late 1960s, the counterculture had shifted away from liberal democratic reforms and toward radicalism.

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Blacks: From Civil Rights to Blacks: From Civil Rights to Black PowerBlack Power• By the mid-1960s, SNCC had split By the mid-1960s, SNCC had split

apart from the SCLC. apart from the SCLC. • The SCLC remained a liberal reform The SCLC remained a liberal reform

movement with the basic goal of movement with the basic goal of racial assimilation. racial assimilation. – At first, the SCLC envisioned At first, the SCLC envisioned

SNCC as their own youth group SNCC as their own youth group spin-off, but by 1964 SNCC did not spin-off, but by 1964 SNCC did not agree with this characterization.agree with this characterization.

• SNCC, led by increasingly radicalized SNCC, led by increasingly radicalized people like Stokely Carmichael in people like Stokely Carmichael in 1966, began to reject the American 1966, began to reject the American Dream of assimilation to advocate a Dream of assimilation to advocate a more rapid and radical change more rapid and radical change toward black nationalism. toward black nationalism.

• SNCC had become more skeptical SNCC had become more skeptical toward the system. It had tackled toward the system. It had tackled racism in the Deep South and had racism in the Deep South and had seen federal agents passively watch seen federal agents passively watch SNCC members be brutalized by SNCC members be brutalized by Southern racists.Southern racists.

Stokeley Carmichael addresses a SNCC rally in Florida in 1967. The theme of SNCC rallies during this period was “black power.” Black power advocates rejected the melting pot version of the American Dream, favoring a pluralistic vision of multi-ethnic equality. Rather than deny their “African-ness” they sought to affirm it: “I’m black and I’m proud!” However, the black power movement frightened many whites because it came across as militant.

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Rising SNCC RadicalismRising SNCC Radicalism• The beginning of the split between the The beginning of the split between the

SCLC and SNCC probably occurred during SCLC and SNCC probably occurred during the famous 1963 March on Washington the famous 1963 March on Washington where King gave his “I Have a Dream” where King gave his “I Have a Dream” speech. speech. – John Lewis, the leader of SNCC at that John Lewis, the leader of SNCC at that

time, had written a speech that was time, had written a speech that was critical of the federal government. critical of the federal government. Lewis’s script asked the question, Lewis’s script asked the question, “Which side is the federal government “Which side is the federal government on?” That sentence and other critical on?” That sentence and other critical commentary was censored by organizers commentary was censored by organizers of the March to avoid offending the JFK of the March to avoid offending the JFK administration. administration.

• Lewis and others had become frustrated at Lewis and others had become frustrated at the passivity of the Kennedy administration.the passivity of the Kennedy administration.

• Then they went through Freedom Summer Then they went through Freedom Summer and proffered the MFDP at the 1964 and proffered the MFDP at the 1964 Democratic Convention, only to be Democratic Convention, only to be “insulted” by a gesture of 2 token seats. “insulted” by a gesture of 2 token seats. Now it was LBJ who frustrated SNCC, and Now it was LBJ who frustrated SNCC, and SNCC stormed out. The system itself was SNCC stormed out. The system itself was broken, they concluded.broken, they concluded.

John Lewis in the foreground, with King and Andrew Young in the background. This photo was taken during the Selma March of 1965.

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James MeredithJames Meredith• SNCC would continue to see a SNCC would continue to see a

lack of sincere action on the part lack of sincere action on the part of the political system. The of the political system. The problem wasn’t just the problem wasn’t just the Dixiecrats, they concluded. It Dixiecrats, they concluded. It was the system itself, with its was the system itself, with its entrenched backstage power entrenched backstage power brokers who were too friendly to brokers who were too friendly to the status quo.the status quo.

• On June 5, 1966, James On June 5, 1966, James Meredith started a solo march Meredith started a solo march from Memphis to Jackson, from Memphis to Jackson, Mississippi to protest racism. Mississippi to protest racism. His march was called the His march was called the “March Against Fear.” Meredith “March Against Fear.” Meredith was gunned down by a sniper was gunned down by a sniper soon after starting this march. soon after starting this march. – This event helped galvanize This event helped galvanize

rising black frustration at the rising black frustration at the system. Stokely Carmichael system. Stokely Carmichael of SNCC vowed to continue of SNCC vowed to continue the march in Meredith’s the march in Meredith’s name.name.

When civil rights advocates like Stokeley Carmichael heard Meredith was shot while on his solo march, they formed a massive new “march against fear” and completed Meredith’s march to Jackson.

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Black Power!Black Power!• The March Against Fear The March Against Fear

continued. On June 16, 1966 continued. On June 16, 1966 Stokely Carmichael arrived Stokely Carmichael arrived with other marchers at with other marchers at Greenwood, Mississippi and Greenwood, Mississippi and was promptly arrested for was promptly arrested for trespassing when they tried trespassing when they tried to set up camp. Here, to set up camp. Here, Carmichael delivered a Carmichael delivered a speech in which he said, speech in which he said, – "This is the twenty-seventh "This is the twenty-seventh

time I have been arrested and time I have been arrested and I ain't going to jail no more! I ain't going to jail no more! The only way we gonna stop The only way we gonna stop them white men from whuppin' them white men from whuppin' us is to take over. What we us is to take over. What we gonna start sayin' now is Black gonna start sayin' now is Black Power!"Power!"

Stokeley Carmichael calls for Black Power in 1966.

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Malcolm XMalcolm X• The father of the Black Power movement was The father of the Black Power movement was

probably Malcolm X. He was a charismatic probably Malcolm X. He was a charismatic and influential leader within the Nation of and influential leader within the Nation of Islam who had already become radicalized by Islam who had already become radicalized by the time of the 1963 March on Washington.the time of the 1963 March on Washington.– He was a strong advocate of militant self-He was a strong advocate of militant self-

defense, and the FBI had been watching defense, and the FBI had been watching him for quite a while.him for quite a while.

• While he mostly adhered to the Nation of While he mostly adhered to the Nation of Islam (Black Muslim) teachings, Malcolm X Islam (Black Muslim) teachings, Malcolm X also broke from these teachings to embrace also broke from these teachings to embrace black nationalism. black nationalism. – One of his ideological struggles was One of his ideological struggles was

between black separatism (from all other between black separatism (from all other races) versus a racially integrated black races) versus a racially integrated black Muslim movement. He was intelligent and Muslim movement. He was intelligent and ultimately learned to think for himself and ultimately learned to think for himself and not rely on ideological dogma to do his not rely on ideological dogma to do his thinking for him. This probably cost him thinking for him. This probably cost him his life, because he was murdered in his life, because he was murdered in February, 1965, by members of the Nation February, 1965, by members of the Nation of Islam for not being “true” to Nation of of Islam for not being “true” to Nation of Islam dogma.Islam dogma.

Malcolm X, on the right, with Martin Luther King, Jr. Both were charismatic leaders. Malcolm X rejected the assimilation melting pot ideal that King had seemed to champion in the early 1960s, preferring a more pluralistic vision of America.

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Black Power!Black Power!• The Black Power movement was a The Black Power movement was a

rejection of the liberal reformist rejection of the liberal reformist assimilation ideal promoted by Martin assimilation ideal promoted by Martin Luther King, Jr.. They argued that Luther King, Jr.. They argued that assimilation robs black people of their assimilation robs black people of their own identity and heritage. own identity and heritage.

• Rather, Black Power advocates sought Rather, Black Power advocates sought racial separation in order to preserve racial separation in order to preserve their unique African-American identities, their unique African-American identities, which had been robbed by the European which had been robbed by the European colonialists and American slave traders of colonialists and American slave traders of the past.the past.

• This movement was a celebration of black This movement was a celebration of black nationalism (or black identity), complete nationalism (or black identity), complete with their own black-run institutions. with their own black-run institutions. They argued that blacks had to learn to They argued that blacks had to learn to be self-sufficient and to fight oppression be self-sufficient and to fight oppression on their own terms. This included on their own terms. This included organizing community self-help groups in organizing community self-help groups in the inner cities, as well as an assertion the inner cities, as well as an assertion that Black is Beautiful, a rediscovery of that Black is Beautiful, a rediscovery of African names, and a celebration of Black African names, and a celebration of Black culture.culture.

The Black Panthers were one of the outcomes of the Black Power movement. Formed in 1966, they advocated a militant defense of their right to determine their own destiny. But the military uniforms and open display of weapons made them a target of J. Edgar Hoover and others who were frightened they might start a race war.

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Black Power!Black Power!• Black power advocates also rejected the Black power advocates also rejected the

nonviolent approach of Dr. King, nonviolent approach of Dr. King, favoring violence if used for self-defense.favoring violence if used for self-defense.

• The “peace and love thing” that King The “peace and love thing” that King advocated was over for most Black advocated was over for most Black Power advocates. It was a time for a new Power advocates. It was a time for a new militancy - to stand up and say “I’m militancy - to stand up and say “I’m black and I’m proud.” black and I’m proud.”

• This new militancy was particularly This new militancy was particularly aimed at the police, who patrolled aimed at the police, who patrolled ghettos like Watts in Los Angeles as ghettos like Watts in Los Angeles as though they were an occupying colonial though they were an occupying colonial army. It was time to fight internal army. It was time to fight internal colonization.colonization.– This was not a complete rejection of This was not a complete rejection of

nonviolence. To black power nonviolence. To black power advocates, however, nonviolence was advocates, however, nonviolence was a a strategystrategy whereas to Martin Luther whereas to Martin Luther King, Jr. it was a King, Jr. it was a principleprinciple. .

• To Stokely Carmichael, blacks needed to To Stokely Carmichael, blacks needed to unite in solidarity, develop a class unite in solidarity, develop a class consciousness, and become self-reliant.consciousness, and become self-reliant.

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The Black PanthersThe Black Panthers• The Black Panther Party (BPP) was The Black Panther Party (BPP) was

formed in October, 1966 by Huey formed in October, 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, and was the Newton and Bobby Seale, and was the inner city expression of the Black Power inner city expression of the Black Power Movement. Movement. – It was originally called the Black It was originally called the Black

Panther Party for Self-Defense, and Panther Party for Self-Defense, and was founded in Oakland California.was founded in Oakland California.

• The Party embraced the basic ideals of The Party embraced the basic ideals of the black power movement. Essentially the black power movement. Essentially it was an expression of this movement it was an expression of this movement by poor young blacks who were by poor young blacks who were frustrated at the failure of the War on frustrated at the failure of the War on Poverty and other reforms of the Poverty and other reforms of the establishment to make a real difference establishment to make a real difference in the ghetto.in the ghetto.

• The Black Panthers developed a Ten-The Black Panthers developed a Ten-Point program calling for Point program calling for “Land, Bread, “Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice And Peace,” And Peace,” among other things. They among other things. They instituted a variety of community action instituted a variety of community action programs to alleviate poverty and gave programs to alleviate poverty and gave young black teens positive role models young black teens positive role models of disciplined, responsible behavior.of disciplined, responsible behavior.

Black Panther founders Huey Newton, on the right, and Bobby Seale on the left. The Panthers were targeted by the FBI’s COINTELPRO (counter-intelligence program), which engaged in illegal activities to try to destroy the Panthers. Bobby Seale was also one of the Chicago Eight.

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The Black PanthersThe Black Panthers• While Stokely Carmichael While Stokely Carmichael

embraced “Black Power,” Huey embraced “Black Power,” Huey Newton and Bobby Seale Newton and Bobby Seale embraced the Marxist notion of embraced the Marxist notion of “power to the people!” and “power to the people!” and considered the black underclass considered the black underclass an urban proletariat. an urban proletariat. – The Black Panthers would aid in their The Black Panthers would aid in their

development of a revolutionary class development of a revolutionary class consciousness.consciousness.

• The Black Panthers eventually The Black Panthers eventually forged alliances with Students for forged alliances with Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), the a Democratic Society (SDS), the Youth International Party Youth International Party (YIPPIES), the Chicago Brown (YIPPIES), the Chicago Brown Berets, and even the Gay Berets, and even the Gay Liberation Front.Liberation Front.

• The BPP was most active between The BPP was most active between 1966 and 1972.1966 and 1972.

In this photo the Black Panthers are in the process of forming a coalition with the Peace and Freedom Party in Berkeley California.

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The Black PanthersThe Black Panthers• The Black Panthers were not very The Black Panthers were not very

well understood by mainstream well understood by mainstream whites, however. The corporate whites, however. The corporate media tended to emphasize their media tended to emphasize their militancy (despite the fact that it was militancy (despite the fact that it was mostly self-defensive) and this mostly self-defensive) and this frightened suburban whites into fears frightened suburban whites into fears of a race war. of a race war. – Charles Manson tried to exploit Charles Manson tried to exploit

this fear in his 1969 Tate-Labianca this fear in his 1969 Tate-Labianca murders. These murders, like the murders. These murders, like the Altamont Festival that year, Altamont Festival that year, helped signal the death of the helped signal the death of the idealistic 1960s.idealistic 1960s.

• The police were particularly The police were particularly concerned about this new black concerned about this new black militancy. J. Edgar Hoover and other militancy. J. Edgar Hoover and other white authorities developed white authorities developed COINTELPRO, a secret illegal COINTELPRO, a secret illegal counter-intelligence program counter-intelligence program intended to infiltrate and disrupt the intended to infiltrate and disrupt the BPP, civil rights organizations, and BPP, civil rights organizations, and other “subversive” groups of the other “subversive” groups of the 1960s. 1960s.

Black Panther members and actor Marlon Brando attend the funeral of Bobby Hutton, a young Panther believed to be murdered by the police two days after the assassination of Martin Luther King. The Panthers were fundamentally an urban, class-conscious proletariat that advocated black nationalism – the right of African Americans to decide for themselves their national destiny and to forge their own institutions.

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The Black PanthersThe Black Panthers• The BPP opposed police brutality in the The BPP opposed police brutality in the

ghetto. At that time, the police force was ghetto. At that time, the police force was not yet integrated and consisted mostly not yet integrated and consisted mostly of less-educated conservative white of less-educated conservative white males, many of whom were racists.males, many of whom were racists.– One of the reforms advocated by One of the reforms advocated by

liberal reformers was the integration liberal reformers was the integration of the police force. By 1972, the of the police force. By 1972, the police force would be integrated.police force would be integrated.

• Both the Panthers and the police died in Both the Panthers and the police died in violent confrontations that were shown violent confrontations that were shown on the nightly news programs. At least on the nightly news programs. At least 30 Black Panthers died in such conflicts 30 Black Panthers died in such conflicts by 1970. It is likely that both sides by 1970. It is likely that both sides initiated conflict, although the Panthers initiated conflict, although the Panthers always claimed self-defense.always claimed self-defense.– This was an era of black urban riots. This was an era of black urban riots.

There were more than 130 urban There were more than 130 urban riots between 1965 and 1967, with riots between 1965 and 1967, with another hundred or more following another hundred or more following the death of Martin Luther King in the death of Martin Luther King in April, 1968. April, 1968.

BPP national headquarters office in Oakland, California, shot out by police bullets. Fall,1968.

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The Decline of the Black The Decline of the Black PanthersPanthers• In August, 1967, the FBI instructed In August, 1967, the FBI instructed

COINTELPRO to neutralize what they COINTELPRO to neutralize what they called black nationalist hate groups called black nationalist hate groups and the BPP was targeted for and the BPP was targeted for elimination. While the SCLC, SNCC, elimination. While the SCLC, SNCC, and the Nation of Islam had also been and the Nation of Islam had also been targeted by COINTELPRO, the Black targeted by COINTELPRO, the Black Panthers were their primary target.Panthers were their primary target.

• The tactics of COINTELPRO included The tactics of COINTELPRO included infiltration, misinformation, to divide infiltration, misinformation, to divide and destroy leadership as well as and destroy leadership as well as various wings of the movement, and various wings of the movement, and even the instigation of violence. even the instigation of violence.

• By 1972, thanks mostly to By 1972, thanks mostly to COINTELPRO in combination with the COINTELPRO in combination with the internal disintegration of the BPP, the internal disintegration of the BPP, the Black Panthers were effectively Black Panthers were effectively eliminated as a viable “threat” to the eliminated as a viable “threat” to the establishment.establishment.

J. Edgar Hoover sought to eliminate the BPP through COINTELPRO. By 1972, he had largely succeeded.

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The Student MovementThe Student Movement• White students paid attention White students paid attention

while SNCC was morphing while SNCC was morphing toward the Black Panther Party. toward the Black Panther Party. – SNCC had become a role model SNCC had become a role model

organization for white activists, organization for white activists, too. too.

• Like SNCC, college students Like SNCC, college students were initially idealistic about were initially idealistic about changing the world. changing the world.

• Students were also influenced Students were also influenced by youth culture themes that by youth culture themes that pitted the older generation’s pitted the older generation’s values against the emerging values against the emerging values of the youth culture.values of the youth culture.

• It would be the Vietnam War It would be the Vietnam War along with the restriction of free along with the restriction of free speech on college campuses speech on college campuses that would galvanize the that would galvanize the emerging student movement.emerging student movement.

Student protest buttons from the Berkeley campus of the University of California.

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The Port Huron StatementThe Port Huron Statement• In 1962, the Students for In 1962, the Students for

a Democratic Society a Democratic Society (SDS) met in Ann Arbor, (SDS) met in Ann Arbor, Michigan to produce a Michigan to produce a manifesto. manifesto.

• The manifesto they The manifesto they produced was very produced was very similar to the 1960 similar to the 1960 statements of SNCC. statements of SNCC. They were full of hope They were full of hope and idealism, they and idealism, they advocated direct action, advocated direct action, and they showed faith in and they showed faith in American institutions for American institutions for humanistic reform.humanistic reform.

Click the image above to read the Port Huron Statement.

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These SDS students were These SDS students were disturbed by many features of disturbed by many features of American life:American life:

• The Bomb, the Cold War, militarism and imperialismThe Bomb, the Cold War, militarism and imperialism• Bureaucracy and over-rationalizationBureaucracy and over-rationalization• The concentration and centralization of power in Big The concentration and centralization of power in Big

Government and Big Business, and the corresponding Government and Big Business, and the corresponding authoritarianism that comes with concentration of authoritarianism that comes with concentration of powerpower

• Organization Man style bland careerismOrganization Man style bland careerism• The blind conformity found on college campuses along The blind conformity found on college campuses along

with in loco parentis and administrative with in loco parentis and administrative authoritarianismauthoritarianism

• PovertyPoverty• The injustice of racism and the exploitation of people The injustice of racism and the exploitation of people

and the environment by powerful corporations and and the environment by powerful corporations and governmentsgovernments

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The 1962 Port Huron Statement The 1962 Port Huron Statement pledged to do the following:pledged to do the following:

• To achieve universal disarmament, To achieve universal disarmament, demilitarization, and peacedemilitarization, and peace

• To use diplomacy rather than militancy as the To use diplomacy rather than militancy as the basis of foreign policybasis of foreign policy

• To work to eliminate poverty and exploitationTo work to eliminate poverty and exploitation• To work for civil rights and to respect the natural To work for civil rights and to respect the natural

dignity of all humans dignity of all humans • To revitalize American democracyTo revitalize American democracy• To create communities with meaningful work and To create communities with meaningful work and

leisure activitiesleisure activities• To make corporations more publicly accountableTo make corporations more publicly accountable• To respect the environmentTo respect the environment

These ideas were labeled the “new left” and they These ideas were labeled the “new left” and they became part of the ideological infrastructure of became part of the ideological infrastructure of the 1960s counterculture.the 1960s counterculture.

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The Student MovementThe Student Movement• In 1962, the baby boomers In 1962, the baby boomers

were attending universities were attending universities in huge, galvanizing in huge, galvanizing numbers.numbers.

• A college degree was now A college degree was now required for many middle required for many middle class jobs.class jobs.

• Most students came from the Most students came from the growing middle class and growing middle class and had come from economically had come from economically secure families. They could secure families. They could afford to think big.afford to think big.– They were aiming for They were aiming for

something more than something more than mere security – they were mere security – they were aiming for happiness and aiming for happiness and a humane social world.a humane social world.

• Given their affluence, these Given their affluence, these students were more free to students were more free to think critically about the think critically about the shortcomings of the shortcomings of the consumer society.consumer society.

In the colleges of the 1960s, there was a strong liberal arts tradition. Students learned about existentialism, classic literature, the Bill of Rights, and other ideas that encouraged a humanistic attitude toward life.

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The Student MovementThe Student Movement• Having been exposed to the civil rights Having been exposed to the civil rights

movement, the prevailing JFK-style movement, the prevailing JFK-style idealism, and humanistic ideas taught in idealism, and humanistic ideas taught in college classrooms, students began to college classrooms, students began to push for reforms – at first within the push for reforms – at first within the university itself.university itself.– Some of their first concerns involved Some of their first concerns involved

in loco parentisin loco parentis authoritarianism and authoritarianism and censorship. censorship. In loco parentisIn loco parentis means means “in place of parent” and it meant that “in place of parent” and it meant that the university had the same power the university had the same power over students that their parents had, over students that their parents had, including control over housing including control over housing arrangements and other aspects of arrangements and other aspects of students’ personal lives. students’ personal lives.

• Given the popularity of the civil rights Given the popularity of the civil rights movement in the early 1960s, white movement in the early 1960s, white college students saw an opportunity to college students saw an opportunity to take a stand. take a stand. – Many had joined SNCC in the early Many had joined SNCC in the early

1960s and these students brought 1960s and these students brought back the lessons they learned from back the lessons they learned from SNCC. SNCC.

– Most of the former SNCC volunteers Most of the former SNCC volunteers also came to share the belief that the also came to share the belief that the problem was not a few bigoted problem was not a few bigoted individuals in the South. Rather, it individuals in the South. Rather, it was the larger establishment. It was was the larger establishment. It was the system itself.the system itself.

White college students who had volunteered to work for civil rights organizations in the South learned about organizing, leadership, negotiating skills and tactics, procuring resources, use of media, protest tactics, and establishing clear goals. They brought this knowledge back to their universities to share with others. It was empowering.

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The Student MovementThe Student Movement• Consequently, these idealistic Consequently, these idealistic

young white students who had young white students who had participated in SNCC participated in SNCC activities in the South activities in the South returned to their college returned to their college campuses with a radical campuses with a radical message: message: – Many of the social problems Many of the social problems

were were built intobuilt into established established institutions which function to institutions which function to maintainmaintain the status quo and the status quo and which were being run by a which were being run by a managerial elite, or what C. managerial elite, or what C. Wright Mills called the power Wright Mills called the power elite.elite.

• Some students, frustrated Some students, frustrated with their bland school with their bland school newspaper, began to publish newspaper, began to publish these ideas in their own these ideas in their own “underground” newspapers. “underground” newspapers. This was the start of the Free This was the start of the Free Speech Movement.Speech Movement.

The American sociologist C. Wright Mills studied American society in the 1950s and found that it was not the pluralistic democracy promoted in American grade schools. There were deep structural problems that required structural solutions.

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The Underground PressThe Underground Press• One of the main flowers of the free One of the main flowers of the free

speech movement was the speech movement was the proliferation of underground proliferation of underground newspapers across the country – on newspapers across the country – on and off the campus. Virtually every and off the campus. Virtually every city in the country had at least one city in the country had at least one underground newspaper by 1969. underground newspaper by 1969. – Examples of some of the best Examples of some of the best

underground newspapers include underground newspapers include the Berkeley Barb, the Great the Berkeley Barb, the Great Speckled Bird (Atlanta), the San Speckled Bird (Atlanta), the San Francisco Oracle, and the East Francisco Oracle, and the East Village Other (NY City). The Village Other (NY City). The Charlotte underground press was Charlotte underground press was called the Inquisition, started in called the Inquisition, started in 1969. 1969.

– The underground newspapers were The underground newspapers were typically distributed on street typically distributed on street corners in the counterculture corners in the counterculture neighborhoods. Some had huge neighborhoods. Some had huge circulations. The underground circulations. The underground press helped sustain all aspects of press helped sustain all aspects of the emerging counterculture and the emerging counterculture and influenced young writers like influenced young writers like Hunter S. ThompsonHunter S. Thompson..

– Click this link Click this link for an assortment of for an assortment of underground newspapers relevant to the underground newspapers relevant to the African American experience.African American experience.

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The Free Speech MovementThe Free Speech Movement• The free speech movement came out The free speech movement came out

of the student movement and began in of the student movement and began in Berkeley in 1964. It involved the Berkeley in 1964. It involved the Students for a Democratic Society Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). (SDS).

• On college campuses, an example of On college campuses, an example of “institutional corruption” involved the “institutional corruption” involved the rights of the students toward free rights of the students toward free speech.speech.

• Colleges had become over-rationalized Colleges had become over-rationalized administrative bureaucracies, with administrative bureaucracies, with lots of formal rules and regulations lots of formal rules and regulations imposed on students.imposed on students.– In loco parentisIn loco parentis gave the gave the

administrators parental power over administrators parental power over students.students.

• At UC-Berkeley, the administration At UC-Berkeley, the administration ruled that non-campus political ruled that non-campus political literature could not be distributed on literature could not be distributed on campus. campus.

• This seemed an open violation of This seemed an open violation of academic ideals, so students dug in, academic ideals, so students dug in, just as the administrators did. just as the administrators did.

The Free Speech movement started on the Berkeley campus of the University of California in 1964. Students were organized by the SDS, who understood that collective – not individual – actions would be more effective in changing the university’s rules.

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The Free Speech MovementThe Free Speech Movement• Berkeley became a rallying point for other Berkeley became a rallying point for other

college campuses to protest the “absence” of college campuses to protest the “absence” of free speech (or more specifically the free speech (or more specifically the censorship policies of the university). censorship policies of the university).

• The SDS embarked on a campaign across The SDS embarked on a campaign across Northern urban regions to organize people, Northern urban regions to organize people, and eventually they succeeded in winning and eventually they succeeded in winning many of these free speech campaigns.many of these free speech campaigns.– This did not involve SNCC, because by This did not involve SNCC, because by

1964 SNCC was already beginning to 1964 SNCC was already beginning to purge its white membership. By 1965, purge its white membership. By 1965, SDS and SNCC operated as two separate SDS and SNCC operated as two separate movements, with no dramatic overriding movements, with no dramatic overriding issue linking university life to black issue linking university life to black culture. culture.

– Yet such an issue was just emerging. LBJ Yet such an issue was just emerging. LBJ had decided to escalate the Vietnam War had decided to escalate the Vietnam War and by 1965 the draft was becoming an and by 1965 the draft was becoming an issue. issue. It would be Vietnam that would It would be Vietnam that would provide the common galvanizing issue provide the common galvanizing issue that united various elements of the that united various elements of the counterculture into a powerful force.counterculture into a powerful force.

Mario Savio was one of the leaders of the free speech movement. He is seen here at a 1964 free speech rally on the Berkeley campus.

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Teach-InsTeach-Ins• Vietnam was becoming increasingly Vietnam was becoming increasingly

relevant on college campuses for several relevant on college campuses for several reasons:reasons:– At that time college students were At that time college students were

deferred from the draft, so colleges deferred from the draft, so colleges had become “safe havens”had become “safe havens”

– The draft politicized the war and The draft politicized the war and forced young people to learn about forced young people to learn about VietnamVietnam

– College campuses themselves were College campuses themselves were controversial because they did controversial because they did military research and had Reserve military research and had Reserve Officer Training Cores (ROTC) offices.Officer Training Cores (ROTC) offices.

• By 1965, many campuses offered teach-By 1965, many campuses offered teach-ins on Vietnam, often sponsored by SDS.ins on Vietnam, often sponsored by SDS.– These teach-ins were initially These teach-ins were initially

idealistic, but became futile as the idealistic, but became futile as the antiwar protestors witnessed the antiwar protestors witnessed the escalation of the war. LBJ wasn’t escalation of the war. LBJ wasn’t listening.listening.

– By 1965 there were 175,000 U.S. By 1965 there were 175,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam, and Johnson was troops in Vietnam, and Johnson was still rapidly escalating the war.still rapidly escalating the war.

This is a teach-in that occurred at UCLA. Students were frustrated that they were not being taught about Vietnam in their college classrooms. With the help of sympathetic teachers and administrators they organized these extra-curricular teach-ins to learn more about Vietnam history, U.S. policy in Southeast Asia, the Cold War, etc. The teach-ins often exposed the contradictions of U.S. policy in Vietnam.

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The Anti-War MovementThe Anti-War Movement• By 1966, antiwar protestors By 1966, antiwar protestors

were matching the were matching the government’s escalation of government’s escalation of the war with their own the war with their own escalation of strategy: a escalation of strategy: a draft resistance movement draft resistance movement along with rising radicalism along with rising radicalism against the military-against the military-industrial complex.industrial complex.

• Throughout 1966-1967, Throughout 1966-1967, antiwar confrontations antiwar confrontations escalated. Government escalated. Government officials were confronted officials were confronted with mass protestors with mass protestors wherever they went. wherever they went. – On college campuses, ROTC On college campuses, ROTC

programs were being programs were being challenged. These protestors challenged. These protestors were also questioning college were also questioning college military contracts.military contracts.

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The Rise of the The Rise of the CountercultureCounterculture• The Vietnam War provided the The Vietnam War provided the

galvanizing element that united galvanizing element that united the various protestors of the the various protestors of the 1960s. 1960s.

• The counterculture was very The counterculture was very broad. It was a loose group of broad. It was a loose group of single-interest subcultures single-interest subcultures which came together because of which came together because of rising alienation from rising alienation from established institutions. established institutions. – Most of these groups had started Most of these groups had started

out idealistic about the prospects out idealistic about the prospects for reform, but had become for reform, but had become frustrated with the establishment’s frustrated with the establishment’s slow pace of change. The escalation slow pace of change. The escalation of the war provided a dramatic of the war provided a dramatic example of the establishment’s example of the establishment’s failure to change. failure to change.

– Much of this confrontation was Much of this confrontation was over deep core values about what over deep core values about what America stood for.America stood for.

Virtually everyone at this late 1960s rock concert had at least some countercultural values in common. Almost all were opposed to U.S. policy in Vietnam, and this united them. Most were also distrustful of establishment authority figures, and most believed in the issue of empowerment, or taking control of one’s own life. But Vietnam had a visceral reality, given the escalation of the war and the draft.

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Polarization of Western Polarization of Western CultureCulture

America, like other Western cultures at America, like other Western cultures at this time, was becoming polarized over two this time, was becoming polarized over two different sets of values.different sets of values.– If the dominant culture promoted If the dominant culture promoted

individualismindividualism, the counterculture promoted , the counterculture promoted communalismcommunalism..

– If the dominant culture promoted If the dominant culture promoted competitioncompetition, , the counterculture promoted the counterculture promoted cooperationcooperation..

– If the dominant culture promoted If the dominant culture promoted careerismcareerism, , the counterculture promoted the counterculture promoted personal self-personal self-discoverydiscovery..

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The CountercultureThe Counterculture• The counterculture developed The counterculture developed

its own music, fashion and its own music, fashion and lifestyles to symbolize its lifestyles to symbolize its alternative value system.alternative value system.

• Many stopped wearing formal Many stopped wearing formal clothing and embraced clothing and embraced inexpensive loose-flowing inexpensive loose-flowing dresses and casual jeans and t-dresses and casual jeans and t-shirts as their “anti-fashion” shirts as their “anti-fashion” fashion statements. fashion statements.

• More than anything else, the More than anything else, the counterculture stood for counterculture stood for freedom and empowerment freedom and empowerment (against the authoritarian (against the authoritarian establishment). establishment).

• By the mid-1960s, Vietnam, By the mid-1960s, Vietnam, along with the lifestyle along with the lifestyle elements symbolizing personal elements symbolizing personal freedom (sex, drugs, and freedom (sex, drugs, and rock’n’roll) united the rock’n’roll) united the disparate elements of the disparate elements of the counterculture.counterculture.

The counterculture rejected many of the mainstream values and institutions of Western culture, preferring a more humanistic value system. Even the traditional marriage was questioned. This is a photo of a hippie wedding, and you can see that they have reinvented the ceremony.

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The CountercultureThe Counterculture• The music of the counterculture had The music of the counterculture had

become increasingly political with become increasingly political with anti-establishment messages. anti-establishment messages. – Folk artists, with their emphasis on Folk artists, with their emphasis on

substantive lyrics, were at the crest of the substantive lyrics, were at the crest of the wave in the early and mid-1960s. Artists wave in the early and mid-1960s. Artists like Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Pete Seeger, like Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Pete Seeger, Phil Ochs, and Simon and Garfunkel Phil Ochs, and Simon and Garfunkel spoke to youth culture alienation and the spoke to youth culture alienation and the alienation of social marginals. alienation of social marginals.

– By the mid to late 1960s pop-rock bands By the mid to late 1960s pop-rock bands like the Beatles and the Rolling Stones like the Beatles and the Rolling Stones would join in and the counterculture would join in and the counterculture would become a force that could not be would become a force that could not be ignored.ignored.

• The capital of the counterculture was The capital of the counterculture was San Francisco, with Haight Ashbury San Francisco, with Haight Ashbury the center of the hippie element and the center of the hippie element and Oakland, only 20 miles away, the Oakland, only 20 miles away, the center of the antiwar radical element. center of the antiwar radical element.

The Grateful Dead at their Haight-Ashbury house. Communal living and sharing created a sense of tribe, which was something missing from the mainstream suburban culture.

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The CountercultureThe Counterculture• Drugs represented another countercultural Drugs represented another countercultural

sacrament. Smoking pot became a ritual sacrament. Smoking pot became a ritual symbolizing shared membership, with the symbolizing shared membership, with the joint passed from person to person in a joint passed from person to person in a communal manner.communal manner.

• Smoking pot was also an act of defiance Smoking pot was also an act of defiance against the law. It symbolized the willingness against the law. It symbolized the willingness of a person to take a risk for something they of a person to take a risk for something they stood for. In American folklore, outlaws are stood for. In American folklore, outlaws are romantic and often symbolize freedom and romantic and often symbolize freedom and personal empowerment.personal empowerment.

• Pot also heightened the senses. The 60s Pot also heightened the senses. The 60s lifestyle promoted self-discovery merged with lifestyle promoted self-discovery merged with hedonism.hedonism.– BeingBeing was more important than was more important than becomingbecoming. . – One was to learn by experience – not just One was to learn by experience – not just

by reading books – as Jimi Hendrix by reading books – as Jimi Hendrix captured on his first album (1967), captured on his first album (1967), entitled “Are You Experienced.”entitled “Are You Experienced.”

• By 1967 the countercultural lifestyle was a By 1967 the countercultural lifestyle was a Western culture sensation and San Francisco Western culture sensation and San Francisco had become Mecca.had become Mecca.

Jimi Hendrix’s ground-breaking 1967 album, Are You Experienced, reflected the swirling creativity, spontaneity, and explosive energy of the psychedelic movement within the counterculture. Click the album cover to hear the title song in mp3 format.

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The CountercultureThe Counterculture• By the end of 1967, the antiwar movement By the end of 1967, the antiwar movement

– a key element of the counterculture - – a key element of the counterculture - had reached a crossroads. had reached a crossroads.

• One the one hand, respectable officials One the one hand, respectable officials had turned against the war and there was had turned against the war and there was growing debate among the straights. growing debate among the straights. – By the Fall of 1967, public support for the By the Fall of 1967, public support for the

Vietnam war had declined to slightly more than Vietnam war had declined to slightly more than half the public.half the public.

• On the other hand, many in the On the other hand, many in the counterculture had lost faith in America’s counterculture had lost faith in America’s capacity to reform its institutions and had capacity to reform its institutions and had become radicalized. become radicalized. – They saw Vietnam as a symptom of a deeper They saw Vietnam as a symptom of a deeper

problem and they sought revolutionary changes. problem and they sought revolutionary changes.

• Which way the movement would go would Which way the movement would go would be decided by the pivotal year of 1968.be decided by the pivotal year of 1968.

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The Women’s MovementThe Women’s Movement• The women’s movement was another The women’s movement was another

element of the counterculture that element of the counterculture that emerged in the early 1960s but which did emerged in the early 1960s but which did not clearly galvanize until the late 1960s not clearly galvanize until the late 1960s and early 1970s. and early 1970s.

• Although women’s roles had changed Although women’s roles had changed toward wage work since World War II, toward wage work since World War II, there was no corresponding shift in there was no corresponding shift in women’s ideals.women’s ideals.

• Sexism, the belief that women are Sexism, the belief that women are naturally inferior to men, was still popular naturally inferior to men, was still popular during the 1960s. The prevailing attitude during the 1960s. The prevailing attitude was that women belonged in family roles.was that women belonged in family roles.– Sociologists term this the “Sociologists term this the “cult of cult of

domesticitydomesticity.” Women are viewed as .” Women are viewed as exclusively mothers and wives, with exclusively mothers and wives, with “opposite” characteristics compared “opposite” characteristics compared with men: If men are rational, then with men: If men are rational, then women must be emotional; and if men women must be emotional; and if men are strong then women must be weak. are strong then women must be weak. If men are the leaders, then women are If men are the leaders, then women are the followers. Her “natural” place is in the followers. Her “natural” place is in the home.the home.

Betty Friedan, the author of the 1963 book, The Feminist Mystique, attends a women’s protest march in 1970 as the women’s movement is taking off.

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The Women’s MovementThe Women’s Movement• In the 1960s, most jobs were In the 1960s, most jobs were

still sex-segregated. Women still sex-segregated. Women suffered under a patriarchal suffered under a patriarchal system that paid men higher system that paid men higher wages. wages.

• By the 1960s, most middle class By the 1960s, most middle class women had at least a part-time women had at least a part-time job, yet these jobs continued to job, yet these jobs continued to be “women’s jobs” that paid low be “women’s jobs” that paid low wages and offered little upward wages and offered little upward mobility. mobility.

• Many women were so deeply Many women were so deeply ingrained into the ideology of ingrained into the ideology of traditional gender roles that traditional gender roles that they considered it heresy to they considered it heresy to question them. The woman was question them. The woman was supposed to “stand by her man.” supposed to “stand by her man.”

• At that time, unlike the civil At that time, unlike the civil rights movement, there was no rights movement, there was no critical mass of protestors to critical mass of protestors to provide an alternative ideology. provide an alternative ideology.

During the 1940s the government promoted Rosie the Riveter as a symbol of women’s strength in the industrial workforce. Women were getting mixed messages in the post-war period as well.

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The Feminine Mystique, The Feminine Mystique, 19631963

• Unlike the black civil rights movement, Unlike the black civil rights movement, women initially tended to see their women initially tended to see their problems as individual rather than social. problems as individual rather than social. Their unhappiness was due to flaws in their Their unhappiness was due to flaws in their own own personalpersonal lives. lives.

• In 1963, Betty Friedan published “The In 1963, Betty Friedan published “The Feminine Mystique.” This book exposed Feminine Mystique.” This book exposed women’s problems as similar to the women’s problems as similar to the problems of racial minorities, and not problems of racial minorities, and not simply the result of the simply the result of the personalpersonal troubles. troubles.– Like blacks, women had been oppressed Like blacks, women had been oppressed

because of their ascribed characteristics because of their ascribed characteristics – their physical differences.– their physical differences.

• In the Feminine Mystique, Betty Friedan In the Feminine Mystique, Betty Friedan explained how she became a good wife and explained how she became a good wife and mother, but she felt that she was limited in mother, but she felt that she was limited in these two roles and that she could these two roles and that she could contribute more to society by having contribute more to society by having additional roles.additional roles.

• This book helped ignite the modern This book helped ignite the modern women’s movement.women’s movement.

Betty Friedan

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The Women’s MovementThe Women’s Movement• The basic principles of the civil The basic principles of the civil

rights movement are humanism rights movement are humanism and equality – and these messages and equality – and these messages are just as relevant to women as are just as relevant to women as the are to racial minorities. In this the are to racial minorities. In this way, the civil rights movement way, the civil rights movement helped bring about the women’s helped bring about the women’s movement.movement.

• The 1964 Civil Rights Act included The 1964 Civil Rights Act included sex discrimination as an incidental sex discrimination as an incidental feature that was not taken very feature that was not taken very seriously at that time by Congress. seriously at that time by Congress. Indeed, the government initially Indeed, the government initially failed to act on complaints of sex failed to act on complaints of sex discrimination, just as they had discrimination, just as they had been slow to act on racial been slow to act on racial discrimination earlier.discrimination earlier.

• In 1966, a group of activists formed In 1966, a group of activists formed NOW, the National Organization NOW, the National Organization for Women, to pressure for the for Women, to pressure for the enforcement of the Civil Rights Act. enforcement of the Civil Rights Act.

Shirley Chisholm, first feminist Congresswoman and NOW member in the 1970s.

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The Women’s MovementThe Women’s Movement• Many of the early NOW members Many of the early NOW members

had experience working with had experience working with SNCC, the SCLC and SDS and they SNCC, the SCLC and SDS and they knew how to build a movement.knew how to build a movement.

• Yet they had been frustrated in Yet they had been frustrated in those other activist groups those other activist groups because even those groups tended because even those groups tended to be patriarchal. to be patriarchal. – Women were routinely steered Women were routinely steered

toward clerical work and away toward clerical work and away from leadership roles.from leadership roles.

– In 1964, black women at SNCC In 1964, black women at SNCC even staged a sit-in to protest even staged a sit-in to protest their sexist treatment by the their sexist treatment by the men of SNCC. Women were men of SNCC. Women were beginning to think that they beginning to think that they needed their own liberation needed their own liberation movement.movement.

– The SDS also suffered from The SDS also suffered from patriarchy. patriarchy.

This women’s march occurred in 1971 in NY City. The sign in the background on the left says “The women of Vietnam are our sisters.” Feminists have a sense of class consciousness for other women, but this is difficult to achieve in a patriarchal society, where women are socialized to obey the dominant ideologies that define them as “naturally” inferior. The significance of NOW was that they helped instill this feminist class consciousness, and this seeded the women’s liberation movement.

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The Women’s MovementThe Women’s Movement• As women came together to share As women came together to share

their personal experiences, they their personal experiences, they developed a new sense of strength developed a new sense of strength and solidarity (class and solidarity (class consciousness). consciousness).

• By 1967, many women activists By 1967, many women activists decided they needed to control decided they needed to control their own agenda and they began their own agenda and they began to meet separately from men. to meet separately from men.

• This led to This led to consciousness consciousness raisingraising sessions, where small sessions, where small groups of women would gather groups of women would gather and discuss their issues. Men and discuss their issues. Men were not allowed in these were not allowed in these meetings, largely because men meetings, largely because men tend to interrupt women (another tend to interrupt women (another aspect of patriarchy). aspect of patriarchy).

• In these sessions, women In these sessions, women identified a key structural identified a key structural problem in Western society: male-problem in Western society: male-dominated institutions. The goal dominated institutions. The goal of the women’s movement was of the women’s movement was women’s equality.women’s equality.

This is a consciousness-raising session. Women take turn sharing their innermost thoughts with each other about any aspect of their lives. As one person talks, everyone listens without interruption. These sessions were empowering for women, who were routinely interrupted and dominated in their everyday lives in patriarchal society. These sessions functioned to de-construct the patriarchal values and ideology instilled in them from birth.

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The CountercultureThe Counterculture• In 1967, the women’s In 1967, the women’s

movement was viewed movement was viewed largely as a side-show. The largely as a side-show. The ultimate impact of women’s ultimate impact of women’s liberation would not be felt liberation would not be felt until the 1970s. until the 1970s.

• William Chafe argues that William Chafe argues that there were three pivotal there were three pivotal movements during the movements during the 1960s that would shape the 1960s that would shape the society: the civil rights society: the civil rights movement, the student-movement, the student-antiwar movement, and the antiwar movement, and the women’s movement. women’s movement. – A fourth key movement we will A fourth key movement we will

discuss later was the discuss later was the environmental movement, environmental movement, which began in the late 1960s which began in the late 1960s and blossomed in the 1970s.and blossomed in the 1970s.

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Summary of Value Summary of Value DifferencesDifferences

Mainstream CultureMainstream Culture VS VS The The CountercultureCounterculture• Emphasis on IndividualEmphasis on Individual

• CompetitionCompetition• AchievementAchievement• Group superiority valuesGroup superiority values• Conformity/obedienceConformity/obedience• Materialism and moneyMaterialism and money• AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism• Militarism/imperialismMilitarism/imperialism• Rationality/bureaucracyRationality/bureaucracy• Self-disciplineSelf-discipline• Delayed gratificationDelayed gratification

• CommunityCommunity• CooperationCooperation• HappinessHappiness• Equality & social Equality & social

justicejustice• FreedomFreedom• Spiritualism, sharingSpiritualism, sharing• DemocracyDemocracy• Diplomacy/sovereigntyDiplomacy/sovereignty• Emotionality/tribalismEmotionality/tribalism• Laid back, go with the Laid back, go with the

flowflow• Immediate gratificationImmediate gratification

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The Counter-responseThe Counter-response• Inevitably the protestors sparked Inevitably the protestors sparked

a backlash of resentment. a backlash of resentment. • There was never a time during There was never a time during

the 1960s when the protestor the 1960s when the protestor activists represented a majority activists represented a majority of the American population.of the American population.

• The majority of Americans felt The majority of Americans felt their way of life was under their way of life was under assault. They had devoted their assault. They had devoted their lives to conforming to the lives to conforming to the dominant culture.dominant culture.

• The louder the protestors were, The louder the protestors were, the more resistant and hostile the more resistant and hostile was the backlash.was the backlash.

• In 1964, only 34% of whites In 1964, only 34% of whites believed that blacks were believed that blacks were seeking too much too fast. By seeking too much too fast. By 1966, that figure climbed to 85% 1966, that figure climbed to 85% as cities were burning and as cities were burning and “Black Power!” could be heard “Black Power!” could be heard from the ghettos. from the ghettos.

Antiwar posters like this enraged conservative law-abiding patriotic citizens who saw the United States as the greatest nation on Earth. Such behavior wasn’t just rude, it was down right traitorous. Both sides were polarized by the late 1960s.

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The Counter-responseThe Counter-response• Some of the backlash was due to blue Some of the backlash was due to blue

collar workers feeling threatened by collar workers feeling threatened by minority gains. minority gains. – Now their jobs were less secure Now their jobs were less secure

because they would have to because they would have to compete with blacks and women.compete with blacks and women.

– By the late-60s, Vietnam had By the late-60s, Vietnam had caused inflation which threatened caused inflation which threatened the incomes of Americans.the incomes of Americans.

• Some of the blue collar backlash was Some of the blue collar backlash was also due to the nature of the also due to the nature of the counterculture. Many counterculture. Many working classworking class workers resented these workers resented these middle classmiddle class “spoiled” students who were not “spoiled” students who were not taking school seriously. taking school seriously. – This helps explain why there were This helps explain why there were

so many police riots directed so many police riots directed against the counterculture. Part of against the counterculture. Part of this was this was generationalgenerational hostility, hostility, and part was and part was classclass hostility. hostility.

The police tend to be members of the working class and they also tend to be older than students, who tend to be members of the middle class. Class, age, race, and other tensions polarized Americans during the 1960s. The reactionary counter-response tended to come from the working class, older people, traditional values and religious groups, and conservative white males.

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The Counter-responseThe Counter-response• The “Silent Majority” of Americans The “Silent Majority” of Americans

sensed a crisis in values. sensed a crisis in values. – Every day they turned on the TV to see Every day they turned on the TV to see

protestors challenging traditional protestors challenging traditional values and beliefs. values and beliefs.

• Yet during unstable times many Yet during unstable times many people have a tendency to cling to people have a tendency to cling to these traditional values.these traditional values.

– They believed their sacred values of They believed their sacred values of blind patriotism, religion, monogamy, blind patriotism, religion, monogamy, hard work, consumerism, traditional hard work, consumerism, traditional sexuality, know-your-place ethnicity, sexuality, know-your-place ethnicity, conformity to Biblical and political conformity to Biblical and political authority, and traditional gender roles authority, and traditional gender roles were under attack. were under attack.

• By 1968 they began to rally around By 1968 they began to rally around the flag with messages like the flag with messages like “America – love it or leave it.”“America – love it or leave it.”

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AMST 3100AMST 3100

End