Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Adjectives
1.1 Kinds of adjectives1.2 Position of adjectives1.3 Order of adjectives1.4 Comparison of adjectives
Adverbs
2.1 Kinds of adverbs2.2 Formation of adverbs2.3 Comparison of adverbs2.4 Position of adverbs2.5 Adverbs of degree
Articles
3.1 The indefinite articles3.2 The definite article
Auxiliary verbs
4.1 The verb to be4.2 The verb to have4.3 The verb to do4.4 Used to
Conjunctions
5.1 Common conjunctions5.2 So and neither
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
Determiners
7.1 Some7.2 Any7.3 No and none7.4 A few, a little, and a lot7.5 Many, much, plenty of and a lot of7.6 Each and every
Appendix
4
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Direct and indirect speech
8.1 Statements in indirect speech8.2 Questions in indirect speech8.3 Commands, requests, and advice in indirect speech8.4 Mixed types of indirect speech
Discourse markers
Gerunds
Imperatives
Infinitives
12.1 The infinitive with to12.2 The infinitive without to
Modal verbs
13.1 Introduction13.2 Uses
13.2.1 Can13.2.2 Could13.2.3 May13.2.4 Might13.2.5 Will13.2.6 Would13.2.7 Should and ought to13.2.8 Must
Nouns
14.1 Gender14.2 Plurals14.3 Non-count nouns14.4 Possessive ’s14.5 Nouns followed by an infinitive
GRAMMAR
15
16
17
19
18
20
21
22
Numerals
15.1 Cardinal numbers15.2 Ordinal numbers
Passive voice
16.1 Form16.2 Uses
Phrasal verbs
Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Prepositions
19.1 Prepositions of time and date19.2 Prepositions of place19.3 Prepositions after adjectives19.4 Prepositions after verbs19.5 Prepositions before gerunds
Questions
20.1 Question words20.2 Question words as subject20.3 Tag questions
Relative clauses
21.1 Introduction21.2 Defining relative clauses about people21.3 Defining relative clauses about things21.4 Non-defining relative clauses about people21.5 Non-defining relative clauses about things21.6 Commas in relative clauses
Reflexive pronouns
Appendix
4
23
24
Tenses
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Present tenses23.2.1 Present continuous
Form and uses23.2.2 Simple present
Form and uses
23.3 Past and perfect tenses23.3.1 Simple past tense
Form and uses23.3.2 Past continuous tense
Form and uses23.3.3 Present perfect tense
Form and uses23.3.4 Present perfect continuous tense
Form and uses23.3.5 Past perfect tense
Form and uses
23.4 Future forms23.4.1 The simple present tense23.4.2 Future with will23.4.3 The present continuous tense23.4.4 Future with going to23.4.5 The future continuous tense
23.5 Conditional forms23.5.1 First conditional23.5.2 Second conditional23.5.3 Third conditional
Verbs
24.1 Introduction24.2 Verbs followed by an infinitive24.3 Verbs followed by a gerund24.4 Verbs followed by a gerund or an infinitive
GRAMMAR
1.3
1
1.1
1.2
1.4
Adjectives
Kinds of adjectives
There are many kinds of adjectives.
a. Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, and thoseb. Quantitative adjectives: some, any, little, few, many, and muchc. Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, and theird. Descriptive adjectives: good, bad, happy, long, and expensive
Position of adjectives
Most adjectives come before the noun.
This is a good film. They’ve bought a new car.
Descriptive adjectives can also follow a verb.
The tickets were expensive. She looks happy.
Order of adjectives
In most cases, if more than one adjective is used to qualify a noun, the adjectives are placed in the following order:
size: large, smallgeneral description: expensive, happyage: old, middle-agedshape: round, flatcolor: red, yellow, greenmaterial: paper, leather, plasticorigin: Japanese, Africanpurpose: laptop, sports, toy
A large, happy, middle-aged, African elephantA red, plastic, Japanese toy car
Comparison of adjectives
There are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
The positive degree is the base form of the adjective: happy, sad, intelligent,beautiful.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
a. We form the comparative and superlative of one-syllable adjectives by adding -er or -est to the positive form.
long longer longest rich richer richest
b. We form the comparative and superlative of adjectives with three or more syllables by putting more or most before the adjective.
more beautiful most beautiful more intelligent most intelligent
c. Adjectives of two syllables follow one of the above rules.
Adjectives ending in -er, -le, and -ow often take -er and -est.
narrow narrower narrowest gentle gentler gentlest
With adjectives ending in -y, we change the -y to -i and add -er or -est.
happy happier happiest
Adjectives ending in -ful or -re usually take more and most.
careful more careful most careful
d. Some adjectives have irregular forms.
bad worse worst good better bestlittle less least far farther farthest
e. We can use a lot, much, a little, and far to modify comparatives and superlatives.
Mt. Everest is much higher than Mt. Fuji.Susanna is by far the most intelligent girl I know.Power steering is only a little more expensive.
f. We can express equality with as + adjective + as.
There are as many days in April as in June.Siberia is as cold in winter as Alaska.
g. We can qualify adjectives with so and such.
We use so with an adjective on its own.
The weather was so bad that they stayed at home all day.
We use such with an adjective and a noun.
It was such bad weather that they stayed at home all day.
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
Adverbs
Kinds of adverbs
There are many kinds of adverbs.
a. Adverbs of manner: well, quickly, easilyb. Adverbs of time: now, today, thenc. Adverbs of place: here, there, neard. Adverbs of frequency: always, never, oftene. Adverbs of degree: too, very, enough, and quitef. Interrogative adverbs: where, when, which
Formation of adverbs
Many adverbs of manner are formed by adding -ly to the adjective.
a. If the adjective ends in a consonant, we add -ly.
slow slowly quick quickly
b. If the adjective ends in -y, we drop the -y and add -ily.
happy happily greedy greedily
c. If the adjective ends in -e, we usually add -ly.
large largely strange strangely
d. Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form.
Adjective Adverb
hard hardfast fastearly early
They are hard workers. They work hard.
Comparison of adverbs
a. Adverbs form their comparative and superlative with more and most.
more slowly most slowly more carefully most carefully
Appendix
43
3.1
GRAMMAR
2.4
2.5
b. Some adverbs have irregular forms.
well better best badly worse worstlittle less least much more most
Position of adverbs
a. Adverbs of manner usually come after the verb.
She speaks very quickly. He flew slowly around the airport.
b. Adverbs of frequency usually come before main verbs.
We usually go to the coast in June. They never answer the phone.
c. Adverbs of frequency usually come after the verb be.
He is always late for lunch. She is never here on time.
Adverbs of degree
a. We use too, very, and enough to modify adjectives.
She’s very poor. She can’t afford new clothes.He’s too young. He can’t drive a car yet.They aren’t rich enough to travel in business class.
Articles
The indefinite articles
The indefinite articles are a and an.
a. We use a before words beginning with a consonant sound and an beforewords beginning with a vowel sound.
a computer, a window, a tree, a man, a womanan apple, an island, an hour
b. We use a or an before a count noun that we mention for the first time.
You need a visa to visit Russia. He rides to work on a bicycle.
3.2
4
c. We use a or an with professions.
Ahmet was a dancer. Jen is an artist.
d. We use a with expressions of quantity.
a lot of people, a dozen eggs, a couple of years
e. We use a with some numbers.
a hundred, a thousand, a million
The definite article
The definite article is the. The is used with both singular and plural nouns, and with masculine and feminine nouns. It doesn’t change, but we don’t always use it.
a. We use the for things that are unique.
the sun, the moon, the 21st century
b. We use the when we mention something a second time.
You need a visa to visit Moscow. The visa costs about $90.
c. We use the with superlatives.
Mt. Erebus is the highest mountain in Europe.
d. We use the with first, second, etc.
This is the second time I have met her.
e. We use the with groups of people and families.
the old, the poor, the unhappy, the Smiths, the Fishers
f. We use the with geographical names.
the Gobi Desert, the Himalayas, the China Sea
Auxiliary verbs
Be, have, and do are the principal auxiliary verbs.
Appendix
4
4.1
GRAMMAR
The verb to be
The forms of the verb to be are the same, whether it is used as an auxiliary or a main verb.
Present tense
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Am I...? I am I’m I am not I’m notAre you...? You are You’re You are not You aren’tIs he...? He is He’s He is not He isn’tIs she...? She is She’s She is not She isn’tIs it...? It is It’s It is not It isn’tAre we...? We are We’re We are not We aren’tAre they...? They are They’re They are not They aren’t
Alternative negative contractions: I’m not, you’re not, he’s not, etc.
Past tense
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Was I...? I was I was not I wasn’tWere you...? You were You were not You weren’tWas he...? He was He was not He wasn’tWas she...? She was She was not She wasn’tWas it...? It was It was not It wasn’tWere we...? We were We were not We weren’tWere they...? They were They were not They weren’t
Uses
As an auxiliary verb, we use be:
a. to form the continuous tenses
He is working in Nigeria at the moment.They were eating at three o’clock.
b. in short answers
Are you visiting Java? Yes, I am.Was she training to be a nurse? No, she wasn’t.
As a main verb, we use be:
a. to give information about a person or a thing
Lombok is an island. They are doctors.
4.2
b. to ask and talk about age
How old are you? I am 18 years old.
c. to ask and talk about prices
How much is this lemon? It’s 20 pesos. They are 20 pesos each.
d. with there
There is a book on the table. There are a lot of people in China.
e. to ask and talk about the weather
What is the weather like? It is very cold in winter.
f. in short answers
Are you from Java? Yes, I am.Is she a nurse? No, she isn’t.
The verb to have
As an auxiliary verb, the forms of have are:
Present tense
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Have I...? I have I’ve I have not I haven’tHave you...? You have You’ve You have not You haven’tHas he...? He has He’s He has not He hasn’tHas she...? She has She’s She has not She hasn’tHas it...? It has It’s It has not It hasn’tHave we...? We have We’ve We have not We haven’tHave they...? They have They’ve They have not They haven’t
Alternative negative contractions in British English are: I’ve not, you’ve not, he’s not, etc.
When have is used as a main verb, we use the auxiliary do to form the interrogative and negative.
Do you have...? You have You do not have You don’t have, etc.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
Past tense
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Had I...? I had I had not I hadn’tHad you...? You had You had not You hadn’tHad he...? He had He had not He hadn’tHad she...? She had She had not She hadn’tHad it...? It had It had not It hadn’tHad we...? We had We had not We hadn’tHad they...? They had They had not They hadn’t
As a main verb, have forms the interrogative and negative with the auxiliary did.
Did you have...? You had You did not have You didn’t have
Uses
As an auxiliary verb, we use have:
a. to form other tenses
I have lived here for ten years.I had met Arleta before I went to Indonesia.
b. in short answers
Have you seen Georgina today? Yes, I have.Had he finished when you arrived? No, he hadn’t.
As a main verb, we use have:
a. with the meaning of “possess”
I have a house in the country. Do you have any pets?
b. with pains and illnesses
She has a bad headache. Georgina has a bad cold.
c. with food and meals
What time do you have lunch? I always have an egg for breakfast.
d. with other meanings
We are having a wonderful vacation.They had a lot of problems with their car.
e. with an object + past particles to talk about arrangements
I have my car serviced every 10,000 miles.
4.3The verb to do
Do as an auxiliary verb
Present tense
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Do I...? I do I do not I don’tDo you...? You do You do not You don’tDoes he...? He does He does not He doesn’tDoes she...? She does She does not She doesn’tDoes it...? It does It does not It doesn’tDo we...? We do We do not We don’tDo they...? They do They do not They don’t
As a main verb, do forms the interrogative and negative with the auxiliary do.
Do you do...? You do You do not do You don’t do
Past tense
As an auxiliary in the past tense we use did in place of do and does for all persons.
Uses
As an auxiliary verb, we use do or did:
a. to form the negative and interrogative of simple present and simple pasttenses of main verbs
Do you like my new car? I didn’t buy any more clothes.
b. in short answers
Did he pass his exams? Yes, he did.Does Slava study Chinese? Yes, she does.
c. to avoid repeating the main verb
Sasha studies Chinese, but Boris doesn’t.
d. in tag questions
They don’t have a visa, do they? You liked the meal, didn’t you?
As a main verb, we use do or did:
a. with the meaning of make or perform
What do you do? I am an engineer.Did James do his homework last night? Yes, he did.
Appendix
4
4.4
5
5.1
GRAMMAR
b. in many idiomatic expressions, such as:
do harm, do one’s duty, do business, do good, do one’s hair, do one’s best.
Used to
We use used to:
a. to talk about a discontinued habit
She used to smoke cigars, but she stopped before she had her baby.
b. to talk about past routines
Every day in summer they used to get up early. They used to go for a swim and....
Conjunctions
We use conjunctions to join parts of sentences together.
Common conjunctions
Some common conjunctions are and, but, so, because, and when.
a. We use and to introduce something extra.
He studies in the mornings, and he teaches in the afternoons.
b. We use but to introduce a contrast.
They got married, but decided not to have children.
c. We use so to introduce a consequence.
We were very late, so we took a taxi to the station.
d. We use because to introduce a reason.
She was angry because he had forgotten to buy her a present.
e. We use when to introduce a time.
We ate out every night when we were in Shanghai.
5.2
6
7
7.1
So and neither
We can use so and neither with auxiliary and modal verbs to indicate similarity between people and things.
We use so with affirmative sentences and neither with negative sentences.
I have a pet parrot at home. So do I.Maria doesn’t have a car. Neither does her brother.
They can speak Japanese fluently. So can I.We wouldn’t go there on vacation. Neither would we.
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
This, that, these, and those are the demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative pronouns.
This and that are singular; these and those are plural.
a. Demonstrative adjectives are used with nouns.
This book is really interesting. Whose is that car?Those cakes are delicious. Why did you buy these magazines?
b. Demonstrative pronouns are generally used without nouns.
Who’s that? This is my sister Jane.Whose are these books? These are Helen’s, and those are Jack’s.
Determiners
Some, any, no, none, a lot, a little, and a few are used to indicate quantity and amount.
Some
Some is one possible plural form of a, an, and one.
Some means an indefinite number or quantity. We use some:
a. with affirmative verbs
I met some interesting people at the party.
b. in questions, if we think the answer will be “yes”
Did you make some good friends at school?
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
c. in offers and requests
Can I have some more wine?
Any
Any also means an indefinite number or quantity We use any:
a. with negative verbs
I didn’t buy any books when I was in town.
b. in questions (apart from those mentioned above)
Have you seen any good movies recently?
No and none
We use no and none with verbs in the affirmative to express a negative.
I have no friends.Jen has some friends but I have none.
A few, a little, and a lot
a. We use a few with count nouns.
There are only a few people working in the Arctic.
b. We use a little with non-count nouns.
She likes a little sugar in her coffee.
c. We use a lot of or lots of with count and non-count nouns.
There are a lot of people living in Mexico City.There’s lots of traffic on the roads these days.
Many, much, a lot of, and plenty of
a. We use many with count nouns.
There are many people learning English around the world.
b. We use much with non-count nouns.
She doesn’t show much interest in studying Latin grammar.
8
7.6
8.1
Each and every
a. Each means a number of things or persons considered individually.
Each time he phoned, the line was engaged.
b. Every has a similar meaning to each but places less emphasis on the individual.
Every applicant has some interesting qualities.
Both each and every are followed by a singular verb form.
Direct and indirect speech
We can use direct or indirect speech to report what somebody has said. In direct speech we repeat the exact words that the speaker used.
Francesca said, “I’m going out for a walk.”
We place the speaker’s words between quotation marks.
In indirect speech we report the meaning of what the speaker said, but not always the exact words.
Francesca said (that) she was going out for a walk.
Statements in indirect speech
a. If we introduce indirect speech with a verb in the present, present perfect,or future tense, we do not need to change the tense.
Peter (on the phone): I’m arriving at 5:00 p.m.Mary (to a friend): Peter says he’s arriving at 5:00 p.m.
b. If we introduce indirect speech with a verb in the past tense, we normallyhave to change the tense.
Direct speech Indirect speech
He said,...
“I live in Rome.” He said that he lived in Rome.“I’m enjoying life very much.” He said that he was enjoying life very much.“I have bought a house there.” He said that he had bought a house there.“I paid a lot for it.” He said that he had paid a lot for it.“I will be there for a year.” He said he would be there for a year.“I will be coming home in May.” He said he would be coming home in May.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
c. Sometimes we don’t change the tense to avoid a change in meaning.
“I would like to stay longer.”He said he would like to stay longer.
“I was on my way to the station.”He said that he was on his way to the station.
d. Modal verbs often remain unchanged in indirect speech.
“I might phone Anne.”He said he might phone Anne.
“She should be more careful.”He said she should be more careful.
e. We usually change demonstratives adjectives and pronouns to the.
“I love this color.”He said he loved the color.
f. Time phrases also change.
“She is arriving today.”He said she was arriving that day.
...tomorrow ...the next day
...the day before yesterday ...two days before
...last week ...the previous week
...two years ago ...two years before
g. With some verbs, we can use an infinitive or gerund instead of a that clause.
“I’ll help you.” He offered to help her.He said that he would help her.
“I’m sorry I’m late.” He apologized for being late.He said that he was sorry he was late.
h. We can use say and tell with direct and indirect speech. Tell requires an object.
He said, “I’m from the Ukraine.” He said he was from the Ukraine.“I’m from the Ukraine,” he told me. He told me he was from the Ukraine.
We can also use the following verbs with direct and indirect speech:
add, admit, answer, complain, deny, explain, promise, protest, remind, reply
“I stole the car,” he admitted. He admitted that he had stolen the car.
8.2
8.3
8.4
9
Questions in indirect speech
a. When we report questions in indirect speech, we change the interrogativeto affirmative and make other changes as in statements. If the question begins with a question word, this is repeated.
“Where do you work?” He asked (me) where I worked.
b. If there is no question word, we use if or whether.
“Do you love me?” She asked if he loved her.
c. We often use suggest or offer to report suggestions and offers.
“Shall we go to the beach?” She suggested going to the beach.
Commands, requests, and advice in indirect speech
a. We usually report commands, requests, and advice using one of the following verbs:
advise, ask, command, encourage, forbid, invite, order, remind, request, tell
“Don’t spend too much money.”He advised them not to spend too much money.
“Stop!”She ordered him to stop.
b. The modal must remains unchanged or is reported with have to.
“You must leave now.” He said we must leave immediately.He said we had to leave immediately.
Mixed types of indirect speech
When direct speech consists of a mixture of sentence types, we use a different introductory verb for each type.
“I’m going into town. Do you need anything?”He said he was going into town and asked if I needed anything.
“I’ll lend you my car but you must not drink any alcohol.”He said he would lend me his car but forbade me to drink any alcohol.
Discourse markers
Discourse markers are words such as while, however, but, by the way, on the whole,and therefore.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
Discourse markers can show links with what has been said or what is going to be said, they can indicate a speaker’s opinion, and they can clarify the structure of what is being said.
a. We can use with reference to and regarding to focus on what is being said.
Regarding the sale of your house, I think....
b. We can use while, whereas, and on the other hand to contrast two points.
While I agree that John is a good manager, I don’t think he is right for this job.
c. We can use however, nevertheless, still, and yet to emphasize a contrast.
I don’t like junk food. However, it’s very cheap and convenient.
d. We can use by the way, incidentally, and all right to introduce a change of subject.
Do you like skiing? Oh, by the way, did I tell you that Jim is getting married?
e. We can use as I was saying to return to something you were talking about earlier.
Yes, I love skiing. Sorry, but you’re not allowed to smoke in here. As I was saying, I love skiing. I try to go every year.
f. We can use firstly, secondly, lastly, finally to structure what we are saying.
I don’t agree for several reasons. Firstly, I think it’s too expensive. Secondly....
g. We can use for example and for instance to give examples.
Some words, for example, “sputnik,” have a foreign origin.
h. We can use therefore, so, consequently, and then to express a logical consequence.
The train was late, so she missed the start of the meeting.
i. We can use on the whole, in general, to some extent, and in most casesto generalize.
On the whole, they are happy with their new gardener.
j. We can use I mean, actually, and in other words to clarify details.
He’s really egocentric. In other words, he only thinks of himself.
10
k. We can use let me see, well, I mean, and kind of to gain time.
What did you think of the performance? Well, you know, I think it was kind of....
l. We can use briefly, in conclusion, and in short to summarize what we are saying.
In brief, discourse markers can be extremely useful.
Gerunds
The gerund has the same form as the present participle: eating, watching, smoking
a. We can use the gerund as the subject of a sentence.
Jogging three times a week is good for you.
We can use the gerund in short prohibitions.
No waiting. No smoking.
b. We can use the gerund as the complement of a verb.
His favorite pastime is fishing.
c. We can use the gerund after prepositions.
They are only interested in making money.I am sorry for keeping you waiting.
We can use the gerund after certain phrasal verb combinations.
I don’t care for flying.We are looking forward to going on vacation.
d. We can use the gerund after certain verbs such as:
avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, imagine, keep, like, love, mind, miss, practice, prefer, remember, stop, suggest, understand
We suggested having something to eat before the trip.I can’t imagine living anywhere else.
We can use the gerund after a pronoun or a possessive adjective following a verb.
We don’t mind her driving fast.I can understand their feeling unhappy.
Appendix
412.1
GRAMMAR
11
12
e. We can use the gerund after certain expressions such as:
It’s no good.... There’s no point in.... It’s no use.... and Would you mind...?
It’s no good waiting any longer.There’s no point in speaking more slowly. She doesn’t understand the language.Would you mind opening the door for me?
Imperatives
a. We form the affirmative imperative with the base form of the verb withthe second person singular and plural.
Drive faster! Finish your vegetables! Open your books!
b. We form the first person plural affirmative imperative with Let’s (Let us)and the base form of the verb.
Let’s run! Let’s give her a surprise!
c. We form the negative imperative with Don’t.... or Let’s not....
Don’t shoot! Let’s not do any more work today.
Infinitives
There are four infinitive forms of most verbs.
to eat to be eating to have eaten to be eaten
The infinitive with to
a. We can use the full infinitive as the object or complement of a verb.
He began to watch the movie. She agreed to help him.
b. We can use the full infinitive as the object of a sentence.
His plan is to visit all the countries in South America.
c. We can use the full infinitive after certain verbs followed by where,which, why, how, when, and whether.
He never knows what to have for breakfast.She told her brother how to get to the library.They can’t decide whether to study classics or modern languages.
12.2
13
13.1
Verbs used in a main clause in this way include ask, decide, discover, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, say, see, think, understand, and wonder.
d. We can use the full infinitive after too and enough.
They are old enough to drive a car.She’s too young to get married.
e. We can use the full infinitive as the subject of a sentence.
To leave now would be silly.
f. We can use the full infinitive after a verb followed by an object.
The company prefers its staff to dress formally.We expect the plane to land on time.She reminded him to lock the windows.
Some other verbs used in this way include advise, ask, beg, encourage, expect, help, intend, invite, make, mean, remind, teach, tell, want, and wish.
g. We can use the infinitive to express purpose.
They have bought a new car to replace the old one.
The infinitive without to
We can use the bare infinitive, without to, after certain verbs and expressions.
a. After the verbs let, make, and help
She helped him do his homework.They made the children finish their lunch.
b. After certain expressions such as would rather and had better
You had better hurry. The train leaves in five minutes.I would rather live in the country. I hate city life.
Modal verbs
Introduction
Can, could, may, might, must, should, ought, will, and would are modal verbs.
Appendix
413.2
GRAMMAR
There are some important differences between modal verbs and main verbs.
a. Modal verbs do not take a final -s in the third person singular.
I can swim. You can swim. He can swim.
b. Modal verbs have no infinitives, no participles, and no real past tenses.
c. Modal verbs, with the exception of ought, are followed by the base formof the verb without to.
You must go now. You can go now. You ought to go now.
d. Modal verbs form their negative with not. We do not use auxiliary do inthe negative.
You must not tell anybody. She will not arrive before we leave.
e. We do not use auxiliary do to form questions with modal verbs. Weinvert the subject and the modal.
Can they swim? Will she come on time? Where should I go?
f. We can use modal verbs in short answers to questions.
Can he speak English? Yes he can. Can they speak Japanese? No, they can’t.
g. We can use modal verbs in tag questions.
He should arrive soon, shouldn’t he?You won’t tell my parents, will you?
Uses of modal verbs
13.2.1 can
We use can:
a. to ask for, give, or refuse permission
Can I leave early this evening? Of course you can.You can’t have another cookie.
b. to talk about ability
She can swim very well, but she can’t dive.
c. to make requests and offers
Can I have a chocolate ice cream, please?Can I buy you a drink?
d. to express possibility
You can see the sea from the top of that mountain.
e. to make deductions about the present and the past
He can’t be in Tokyo. I met him in London this morning.He can’t have arrived already; he only left ten minutes ago.
13.2.2 could
We use could:
a. to ask for permission
Could I borrow the car this evening?
b. to express possibility in the present, past, and future
They could be in the library.It could rain this evening. She could have left already.
c. to talk about past ability
They could speak Mandarin well when they were children.We could have gone for a walk, but we watched the cricket instead.
13.2.3 may
We use may:
a. to indicate possibility
She may be late. They may not arrive on time.
b. to ask for and give permission
May I borrow the car this evening?No, you may not! Last time you nearly had an accident.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
13.2.4 might
We use might:
a. to indicate present or future possibility
It might be sunny tomorrow.They might not arrive on time.
b. to speculate about the past
It might have been quicker to go by train.
13.2.5 will
We use will:
a. to make requests
Will you send me three copies of the book, please?
b. to agree to something
I will help you if I have time.
c. to make offers
Will you have another cup of tea?
d. to refuse to do something
I will never talk to you again.
e. for spontaneous decisions
I can hear the front doorbell. I’ll go and see who it is.
f. in conditional sentences
I will buy you lunch if you help me this afternoon.
g. to make assumptions about the present and future
He’ll be at home now. He always watches the news at 6:00.
13.2.6 would
We use would :
a. to make requests
Would you bring me the bill, please?
b. to give advice
If I were you, I would call the police.
c. to make invitations
Would you like to come with me?
d. in conditional sentences
I would buy you lunch if I had some money.
13.2.7 should and ought to
We use should and ought to:
a. to give advice
You should see a doctor. You look really sick.You ought to leave soon, or you’ll miss the plane.
b. to express mild obligation
You should check in one hour before the flight leaves.You ought to see a dentist at least once a year.
c. to talk about unfulfilled obligations
He should have worn his seat belt.
13.2.8 must
We use must:
a. to express strong obligation or necessity
You are too fat. You must get more exercise.
b. to make deductions about the present
There is a lot of smoke; there must be a fire.
Appendix
4
14
14.1
14.2
GRAMMAR
c. to make deductions about the past
I must have been asleep. I didn’t hear the phone ring.
Nouns
Gender
a. Nouns can be masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Men, boys, and male animals are masculine. We use pronouns he andthey with masculine nouns.
Women, girls, and female animals are feminine. We use pronouns sheand they with feminine nouns.
Inanimate things are neuter. We use pronouns it and they with neuter nouns.
b. There are different masculine and feminine nouns for some people.
boy, girl; son, daughter; husband, wife; father, mother; king, queen
Some nouns are the same for both genders.
baby, relative, child, parent, teenager, cousin
c. Most nouns indicating occupation have the same form, regardless of gender.
artist, cook, driver, doctor, nurse
Some have different forms.
actor, actress waiter, waitress
Plurals
a. We generally form the plural of nouns by adding -s to the singular. The -s is pronounced /s/ after a /p/, /f/, or /k/ sound. Otherwise it is pronounced /z/ or /Iz/.
b. When a word ends in -ce, -ge, -se or -ze, the plural -s is pronounced /Iz/.
price - prices, cage - cages, case - cases, gaze - gazes
14.3
c. We add -es to nouns that end in -o, -ch, -sh, -ss, or -x.
tomato - tomatoes, church - churches, kiss - kisses, fox - foxes
But we add -s only to words of foreign origin ending in -o.
photo - photos, kilo - kilos, piano - pianos
d. If a noun ends in a consonant + y, we drop the -y and add -ies.
baby - babies, country - countries, lady - ladies
But we add -s if a noun ends in a vowel and -y.
boys, days, guys
e. With some nouns ending in -f or -fe, we change the -f or -fe to -ves.
wife - wives, knife - knives, half - halves
f. Some plurals are irregular.
foot - feet, man - men, woman - women, tooth - teeth, child - children
Non-count nouns
Non-count nouns are always singular and cannot be used with a or an. These include:
a. the names of substances
paper, tea, soap, wine, coffee, glass
b. abstract nouns
beauty, information, help, work, advice
c. some other words
luggage, weather, furniture
Some non-count nouns can be used as countable nouns in a particular sense.
glass (material) a glass (a glass of wine)hair (covering the head) a hair (She has one gray hair.)
Appendix
4
14.4
GRAMMAR
14.5
15
15.1
Possessive ’s
a. We can indicate possession with ’s after singular nouns and after pluralnouns that do not end in -s.
a woman’s bag the dog’s food children’s clothes
b. With plural nouns ending in -s, we use an apostrophe after the -s.
a boys’ school the girls’ hats the Browns’ house
This way of indicating possession is normally used with people, animals, and countries. In other cases we indicate possession with of.
the door of the house not the house’s door
Nouns followed by an infinitive
Some nouns can be followed by an infinitive. Some of the most common ones are:
ability, ambition, attempt, decision, offer, plan, promise, request , refusal, wish
Their attempt to climb the mountain failed.Her refusal to marry the millionaire amazed a lot of people.
Numerals
Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numbers represent an amount.
1 one 13 thirteen 45 forty-five2 two 14 fourteen 50 fifty3 three 15 fifteen 57 fifty-seven4 four 16 sixteen 60 sixty5 five 17 seventeen 69 sixty-nine6 six 18 eighteen 70 seventy7 seven 19 nineteen 72 seventy-two8 eight 20 twenty 80 eighty9 nine 21 twenty-one 84 eighty-four
10 ten 30 thirty 90 ninety11 eleven 33 thirty-three 96 ninety-six12 twelve 40 forty 100 one hundred
15.2
16.1
16
16.2
Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numbers represent an order.
1st first 12th twelfth 23rd twenty-third2nd second 13th thirteenth 24th twenty-fourth3rd third 14th fourteenth 25th twenty-fifth4th fourth 15th fifteenth 26th twenty-sixth5th fifth 16th sixteenth 27th twenty-seventh6th sixth 17th seventeenth 28th twenty-eighth7th seventh 18th eighteenth 29th twenty-ninth8th eighth 19th nineteenth 30th thirtieth9th ninth 20th twentieth 31st thirty-first
10th tenth 21st twenty-first11th eleventh 22nd twenty-second
Passive voice
Form
We change a verb from active to passive by using the verb to be in the same tenseas the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb.
Tense Active Passive equivalent
Simple present eats is eatenPresent continuous is using is being usedSimple past opened was openedPresent perfect have written has been writtenPast perfect had kept had been keptFuture will cook will be cookedConditional would shoot would be shotPerfect conditional would have cleaned would have been cleanedPresent infinitive to shut to be shut
Modal forms must start must be startedcan read can be readused to clean used to be cleaned
Uses
a. We often use the passive when it is unnecessary to say who does the action.
The match was played in the afternoon.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
17
If we decide to mention who does the action, we use the preposition by.
The house was built by his grandfather.
b. We often use the passive when we don’t know who did the action.
The car was stolen during the night.
c. We often use the passive when “people” would be the subject of the active verb.
They are thought to have died in the crash.
d. We often use the passive when the action is more important than the person who does the action.
The grass is cut every week in summer.
e. We use the passive when we want to avoid mentioning the name of the doer of the action.
Salaries have been cut by 5%.
f. We sometimes use the passive with assume, believe, consider, know, think,and other verbs.
They are thought to have emigrated to Australia.It is well known that he was killed by a terrorist group.
Phrasal verbs
a. Phrasal verbs are verbs combined with a preposition or an adverb. The addition of the preposition or adverb often gives the verb combination a different meaning.
to look means to observeto look after means to take care ofto look into means to investigate
b. Phrasal verbs can be transitive, intransitive, or both. A transitive verb must have an object.
(Trans.) The man took off his hat when he arrived. (He removed his hat.)(Intrans.)The helicopter took off at 4:00. (It rose into the air.)
c. Some phrasal verbs can be used with both a preposition and an adverb.
The children get along with each other very well.She had to walk fast to catch up with the rest of her group.
18
19
d. We usually place the preposition before the object of a phrasal verb.
Will you look after the dogs while I am away?She gave up her job after her fourth baby.
e. Adverb particles can go before or after the noun.
I’ve turned the lights off.I’ve turned off the lights.
f. If the object is a pronoun, the particle is placed after it.
I turned them off.
Possessive adjectives and pronouns
The possessive adjectives are: my, your, his, her, its, our, and their
The possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs
We use possessive adjectives and pronouns with both singular and plural nouns.
This is my pen. These are my pens.
Possessive adjectives and pronouns refer to the person who possesses something, and not to the thing that belongs to the person.
We use his for something that a man or a boy possesses.
All these things belong to John. That’s his car. This is his pen. Those are his books.
We use her for something that a woman or a girl possesses.
All these things belong to Susan. That’s her car. This is her pen. Those are her books.
We use possessive adjectives before nouns.
I drove my car to London.
We use pronouns in place of nouns.
The car outside that house is mine.
Prepositions
Prepositions are words we often use before nouns or pronouns. They have a grammatical function but carry little meaning of their own. We can also use prepositions after some adjectives and verbs.
Appendix
4
19.1
GRAMMAR
19.2
Prepositions of time and date
a. We use at with the time you read from a watch or a clock.
He arrives at seven. (at noon, at 5:15, at half past five, at night)
b. We use on with days.
She left on Tuesday. (on her birthday, on New Year’s Day, on May 31)
c. We use in with seasons, months, and years.
in the summer, in March, in 1999, in the morning
d. We use since for the start of a period of time.
She’s been here since six o’clock. (since I arrived, since 1998)
e. We use for to indicate the length of a period of time.
He’s known Lucy for ten years. (for half an hour, for ages)
f. We use during to indicate some time between the start and the end of a period.
It happened during the night. (during her time in Seoul, during the meal)
g. We use after to indicate a time later than the end of a particular time.
I learned to walk a year after I was born.
h. We use before to indicate a time earlier than a particular time.
I learned to swim before I learned to walk.
Prepositions of place
a. We use at with the meaning of “inside” or “just outside.”
at home, at the office, at school, at a bus stop
b. We use in, meaning inside, with nouns.
in a town, in a street, in a room, in a swimming pool
c. We use into to show movement from outside to inside.
He ran into the bank.
19.3
19.4
19.5
d. We use above and over to mean in a higher position than something else.
The second floor is above the first floor.
e. We use below and under to mean in a lower position than something else.
The second floor is below the third floor.
f. We use between, behind, in front of, next to, across from, and opposite toindicate relative position. Think of some people in a car:
Passengers in the back seat of the car sit behind the driver.A passenger in the front seat sits next to the driver.With three passengers in the back seat, the middle one sits between the other two.Cars in the UK and the US drive on opposite sides of the road.
Prepositions after adjectives
Some common adjectives that can be followed by a preposition include:
afraid of, bad at/for, fond of, good at/for, interested in, pleased with, readyfor, scared of, tired of
My sister’s afraid of spiders. Galileo was interested in astronomy.
Prepositions after verbs
Some common verbs that can be followed by a preposition include:
ask for/about, believe in, depend on, hope for, succeed in, think of/about,wait for
I don’t believe in astrology. Can you ask for the check?
Prepositions before gerunds
We often precede a gerund (the -ing form of a verb) with a preposition.
We had a pizza after going to the movies.He looked at the postmark before opening the letter.The plane crashed while flying to Medan.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
20
20.1
Questions
Question words
The most common question words are who, whose, what, which, where, when, and how.
a. We use who to ask about people.
Who is the ugly man standing on the corner? That’s my husband.
b. We use whose to ask about possession.
Whose are these gloves? They are Jessica’s.
c. We use what to ask about things.
What is this? It’s a corkscrew.
We use what with like to ask for descriptions.
What is your sister like? She’s tall and very thin.
We use what with time to ask about time.
What time does the concert start? At 7:45 tomorrow evening.
d. We use which to ask about a small number of things.
Which do you prefer—the blue or the red? I prefer the blue one.
e. We use where to ask about places.
Where does your father live? He lives in Chile.
f. We use when to ask about times and dates.
When is your birthday? It’s in August.
g. We use how to ask “in what way?”
How do you get to the airport? I suggest you take a taxi.
We use how many to ask about numbers.
How many days are there in June? 30.
We use how much to ask about quantity and price.
How much milk do we need? Could you buy two liters?How much are these shoes? They’re 800 francs.
20.2
20.3
We use how old to ask about age.
How old are your parents?
We use how often to ask about frequency.
How often do you see your brother? Two or three times a month.
Question words as subject
When a question word is the subject of a sentence, we do not use the auxiliary do.
Who lives in the large house on the corner?but
Who does the large house on the corner belong to?
What is making that awful noise?but
What does that awful noise mean?
Tag questions
We use tag questions to check information, and to ask for confirmation.
a. Formation
We form tag questions with auxiliary or modal verbs. We generally use tag questions in spoken English.
When the statement is affirmative, the tag is usually in the negative:
You’re Tom Cruise, aren’t you? He speaks Russian, doesn’t he?
When the statement is negative, the tag is usually formed with the affirmative:
You aren’t afraid, are you? They can’t come, can they?
b. Intonation
We pronounce the tag question with falling intonation if we are sure that our information is correct.
We pronounce the tag question with rising intonation when we are not sure and when we need confirmation that the information is correct.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
21
21.1
21.2
Relative clauses
Introduction
There are two main types of relative clauses: defining clauses and non-defining clauses.
A defining relative clause is essential to the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence:
The man who stole the car was very tall.
the clause who stole the car defines the person we are talking about. Without the clause, we don’t know which man the person is talking about.
A non-defining relative clause gives more information about the subject; it is not essential to the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence:
John, who stole my car, is very tall.
the clause who stole my car does not define the person we are talking about. We already know that John is the person who is tall.
Defining relative clauses about people
a. When the relative clause modifies the subject, we generally use who or that.
The man who saw the accident phoned the police.Everybody that came to the party drank champagne.
b. When the relative clause is the object, we use whom, who, or that. Wecan omit the relative pronoun. Whom is very formal.
The man (whom) I met is a policeman.Everybody (that) we saw was wearing jeans.
c. Relative clauses with a preposition
In formal English, we place the preposition before whom.
The girl to whom I gave the book is French.
In less formal English, we move the preposition to the end of the clause, and often omit the relative pronoun.
The girl (who) I gave the book to is French.
21.3
21.4
d. We use whose in clauses with a possessive.
Children whose parents work for the airline travel half-price.
e. We can replace the relative clause with an infinitive after first, second,and last.
The last person to leave the building must turn out the lights.The last person who leaves the building must turn out the lights.
f. We can also replace the relative clause with an infinitive when we express purpose or permission.
She has a lot of work to finish.They need a bigger car to take the children to school.
Defining relative clauses about things
a. When the relative clause is the subject, we generally use which or that.
This is the horse that won the race.
b. When the relative clause is the object, we generally use which or that.We can omit the relative pronoun.
That is the horse (which) I bought last week.
c. In formal English, we place the preposition before the relative pronoun.
The train on which we traveled was very old.
In less formal English, we can place the preposition at the end of the clause. We can also omit the relative.
The train (which) we traveled on was very old.
d. We can also use adverbs when, where and why in relative clauses.
The hotel where they stayed was in the center of town.
Non-defining relative clauses about people
a. When the non-defining relative clause modifies the subject, we only use who.
Tati, who works in the accounts department, is leaving to have a baby.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
21.5
21.6
b. When the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, we must use whoor whom. Who is more often used in conversation.
Ivan, whom everyone thought was French, says that he is Russian.
c. When the relative pronoun follows a preposition, we use whom. We often use who in informal English and conversation.
Alejandro, for whom I designed the house, now wants me to build him a boat.Alejandro, who I designed the house for, now wants me to build him a boat.
d. In sentences with a possessive, we use whose.
This is Susan, whose sister is going to marry Hernando.
Non-defining relative clauses about things
a. When the non-defining relative clause modifies the subject, we only use which.
The new textbooks, which took a year to produce, are used all over the world.
In less formal English we could also say:
The new textbooks took a year to produce and are used all over the world.
b. When the non-defining relative clause is the object, we always use which.
My sister gave me this tie, which she bought at the airport in Paris.
c. When the relative pronoun follows a preposition in a non-defining relative clause, we use which.
The painting, for which he paid only $600, is now worth nearly $150,000.
Commas in relative clauses
Defining clauses are written without commas.
The houses which have swimming pools cost $300,000.
This means that the houses with pools cost $300,000; those without pools probably cost less.
Non-defining clauses are written with commas.
The houses, which have swimming pools, cost $300,000.
This implies that all the houses have pools and all cost $300,000.
22
23
23.1
Reflexive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
a. Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of a verb are the same person.
She’s only a baby. She can’t dress herself yet.Charles and Stephen cooked themselves omelettes for lunch.
Note that if we replace themselves with each other in the last example, the meaning changes.
Charles and Stephen cooked each other omelettes for lunch.
means that Charles cooked an omelette for Stephen, and Stephen cooked an omelette for Charles.
b. Reflexive pronouns can be used after a preposition.
She speaks to herself all the time.Look after yourself while I am away.
c. Reflexive pronouns can also be used to emphasize a noun or pronoun.
The Queen herself answered the phone.She drove the car herself.
Tenses
Introduction
There are present, past, future, and conditional tenses in English.
Each tense can have different forms.
Present simple we work continuous we are workingperfect we have workedperfect continuous we have been working
Past simple we workedcontinuous we were workingperfect we had worked
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
23.2
Future simple we will workother forms we are working, we are going to workcontinuous we will be working
Conditional first I will come if....second I would come if....third I would have come if....
Present tenses
23.2.1 Present continuous
Form
a. We form the present continuous with the present tense of to be and thepresent participle.
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Am I working? I am working. I am not working.Are you working? You are working. You are not working.Is he working? He is working. He is not working.Is she working? She is working. She is not working.Is it working? It is working. It is not working.Are we working? We are working. We are not working.Are they working? They are working. They are not working.
b. Contracted forms are possible.
I’m working. She isn’t working. They aren’t working.
Uses
a. We use the present continuous for actions that are happening at the timewe speak.
It’s snowing. Lorna’s wearing blue boots.
b. We use the present continuous for ongoing actions taking place at thepresent time.
We’re reading a play by Shakespeare at school.
c. We use the present continuous for plans in the immediate future.
I’m taking Beatrice to the movies this evening.
Note that some verbs are not often used in the continuous form. These include:
Verbs of the senses: hear, see, smell, tasteVerbs of desire: like, love, want, wish, hateVerbs of mental activity: believe, forget, know, remember, think, understandVerbs describing possession: possess, own, belong
23.2.2 Simple present
Form
a. We form the interrogative and negative using the auxiliary verb do.
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Do I work? I work. I do not work.Do you work? You work. You do not work.Does he work? He works. He does not work.Does she work? She works. She does not work.Does it work? It works. It does not work.Do we work? We work. We do not work.Do they work? They work. They do not work.
Do not and does not can be contracted to don’t and doesn’t.
Note that we add an -s to the third person singular affirmative form. We add -esif the verb ends in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -o.
He works. She misses. He washes. It itches. She faxes. He goes.
Uses
a. We use the simple present to talk about habitual actions.
He goes to the office every day. He doesn’t drink coffee.What time do they get up in the morning?
b. We sometimes use the simple present for planned future actions.
The plane takes off at 10:20 tomorrow evening.
c. We use the simple present when the continuous form of verbs is not possible.
I remember meeting you in Athens last year. (not I am remembering....)
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
23.3Past and perfect tenses
23.3.1 Simple past tense
Form
a. We form the simple past tense of regular verbs by adding -edto the infinitive.
work worked open opened kiss kissed
If the infinitive ends in -e, we add -d.
smile smiled live lived
If the infinitive ends in -y, we drop the -y and add -ied.
carry carried try tried
b. Irregular verbs have irregular past forms. A list of these is in Appendix 3.
speak spoke leave left read read
Uses
a. We use the simple past for past actions when the time is stated.
I arrived at 4:00 in the morning. She left yesterday.
b. We use the simple past when we ask about the time something happened.
When did the plane take off? What time did the movie start?
c. We use the simple past when a definite time is implied.
I bought this watch in Paris. The team played very well.
d. We use the simple past for past habits.
I smoked a lot when I lived alone.
e. We use the simple past with just in North American English for recently completed actions.
She just left.
f. We use the simple past tense after wish to express regret about a present situation.
I wish I knew the answers to the homework. (I don’t know the answers.)I wish you weren’t working on the project. (You are working on the project.)
23.3.2 Past continuous tense
Form
a. We form the past continuous tense with the past tense of be and the present participle.
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Was I working? I was working. I was not working.Were you working? You were working. You were not working.Was he working? He was working. He was not working.Was she working? She was working. She was not working.Was it working? It was working. It was not working.Were we working? We were working. We were not working.Were they working? They were working. They were not working.
b. Contracted forms are possible:
He wasn’t working. They weren’t working.
Uses
a. We use the past continuous tense for past actions that started before, and finished after, a certain time in the past. The time is not always mentioned specifically.
The sun was rising (when I got up yesterday).The cat was sleeping (when I arrived home).
b. We use the past continuous tense in reported speech.
He said he was taking Beatrice to the movies that evening.
23.3.3 Present perfect tense
Form
We form the present perfect tense with the verb to have and the past participle of the verb.
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Have I worked? I have worked. I have not worked.Have you worked? You have worked. You have not worked.Has he worked? He has worked. He has not worked.Has she worked? She has worked. She has not worked.Has it worked? It has worked. It has not worked.Have we worked? We have worked. We have not worked.Have they worked? They have worked. They have not worked.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
b. Contracted forms are possible.
He hasn’t worked. They haven’t worked.
Uses
a. We use the present perfect with just for a recently completed action.
She’s just bought a new coat.
b. We use the present perfect for recent past actions when the time is not specified.
She’s broken her leg.Have you met the new teachers?
In the above examples, American English speakers will often use the simple past.
c. We use the present perfect for completed actions in a period of time thatincludes the present.
She has phoned three times today.I haven’t seen him this afternoon.
d. We use the present perfect with for, since, and never.
I have known Jacqueline for a long time.I have never eaten frog’s legs.She’s been here since ten o’clock.
e. We use the present perfect with lately, recently, always, occasionally, and phrases such as several times, all my life, for a long time, etc.
I’ve been to Moscow several times.Have you been to Jakarta lately?
f. We often start a conversation using the present perfect and continue with the simple past, even when no specific time is mentioned. This is because a specific time is implied.
Husband: Where have you been?Wife: I’ve been to the market.Husband: What did you buy?
(when you were there)Wife: I bought some apples and a watermelon.
(when I was in the market)
g. The present perfect is often used in letters.
I am sorry that I haven’t written for so long, but I’ve been in the hospital.We’ve considered your proposals carefully and have decided to accept your offer.
23.3.4 Present perfect continuous tense
Form
a. We form the present perfect continuous tense with the present perfect ofthe verb to be and the present participle.
Interrogative Affirmative Negative
Have I been eating? I have been eating. I have not been eating.Have you been eating? You have been eating. You have not been eating.Has he been eating? He has been eating. He has not been eating.Has she been eating? She has been eating. She has not been eating.Has it been eating? It has been eating. It has not been eating.Have we been eating? We have been eating. We have not been eating.Have they been eating? They have been eating. They have not been eating.
Uses
a. We use the present perfect continuous for actions that began in the past and are still continuing.
She’s been reading that book for a month and she still hasn’t finished.
b. We use the present perfect continuous for repeated actions in the immediate past.
I’ve been making sandwiches all morning.
c. We use the present perfect continuous in preference to the present perfect simple for actions that began in the past and may well continue.
They’ve been playing chess for three hours already (and the game still isn’t finished).
23.3.5 Past perfect tense
Form
a. We form the past perfect tense with had and the past participle of the verb.
Interrogative: Had I eaten...?, Had you eaten...?, etc.Affirmative: I had eaten..., You had eaten..., etc.Negative: I had not eaten..., You had not eaten..., etc.
b. Contracted forms are possible.
Affirmative: I’d eaten..., You’d eaten..., etc.Negative: I hadn’t eaten..., You hadn’t eaten..., etc.
Appendix
423.4
Uses
The past perfect tense is the past equivalent of the simple past and present perfect tenses. We can use this tense whether a specific time is mentioned or not.
a. We use the past perfect tense to indicate that one action in the past happened before another in the past.
He had studied for seven years before he qualified as a doctor.He had studied for seven years when he decided to leave college to become a monk.
b. We can use the past perfect with until and before to emphasize the completion of an action.
She didn’t say a word until she had finished her breakfast.
c. We use the past perfect in indirect speech to report actions in the past.
“We’ve seen every match the team has played,” they said.They said that they had seen every match the team had played that season.
d. We use the past perfect tense after wish to express regret about a past situation.
I wish I had studied harder before the exam. (I didn’t study hard enough.)She wishes she hadn’t eaten the shellfish. (She ate them and she was sick.)
Future forms
There are many ways to express the future in English.
23.4.1 The simple present tense
We generally use the simple present for future plans and intentions that have already been made.
The plane takes off at 10:20 tomorrow evening.
23.4.2 Future with will
We can form the future with will and the base form of the verb. We often use this form for decisions about the future made at the time of speaking.
I’ll help you if you like.There’s someone at the front door. I’ll answer it.
GRAMMAR
23.5
23.4.3 The present continuous tense
We can express the future using the present continuous tense. To avoid confusionwith actions occurring at the moment of speaking, we add an expression of time.
I’m having dinner with her friends tomorrow. When are they getting married?They’re having a champagne breakfast tomorrow.
23.4.4 Future with going to
We often use to be going to with the base form of the verb to express the future. We use this form when the decision has already been taken to do something.
They are going to work in South America next year.What are they going to do there?
We can also use this form to make predictions about the future.
I’m sure she’s going to fail her exams. She never does any work.
23.4.5 The future continuous tense
We form the future continuous with will (not) be and the present participle.
Interrogative: Will I be working...?, Will you be working...?, etc.Affirmative: She will be flying..., We will be flying..., etc.Negative: You will not be eating..., They won’t be eating..., etc.
a. We can use the future continuous to talk about an action that will begin before, and finish after, a particular time in the future.
At midday tomorrow they will be having a meeting with the Foreign Minister.
b. We can use the future continuous to express a future without intention. In the following examples, use of the present continuous implies that theaction is part of a definite plan; use of the future continuous implies thatthe action is part of the normal course of events.
I am meeting the directors tomorrow. (This is a specially arranged meeting.)I’ll be meeting the directors tomorrow. (I often meet them in the morning.)
Conditional forms
Conditional sentences have two clauses. The if-clause and the main clause. There are various types of conditional sentences. Each type uses different tenses and describes a different degree of probability.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
23.5.1 First conditional sentences
In first conditional sentences, the action in the if-clause is quite likely to happen.
a. First conditional sentences with will
In conditional sentences of this type, the verb in the main clause is in the future simple tense and the verb in the if-clause is in the present tense.
I’ll lend you my car if you promise to drive carefully.If you promise to drive carefully, I’ll lend you my car.
b. First conditional sentences with modal verbs
If you don’t leave soon, you might miss your train.You can leave now if you have finished your work.
23.5.2 Second conditional sentences
In second conditional sentences, the if-clause supposes something that is not the case at the moment.
a. Second conditional sentences with would
In second conditional sentences, we use would + verb in the main clause; and the simple past tense in the if-clause.
If I lived near the sea, I would go swimming every day.I would go swimming every day if I lived near the sea.(The speaker doesn’t live near the sea.)
If I lost my passport, I’d call the police.(I don’t expect to lose my passport.)
b. Second conditional sentences with might or could
We can use could or might in place of would.
If I lost my passport, I could call the police.If I lived by the sea, I might go swimming every day.
c. We can sometimes use the past continuous or past perfect tense instead of the simple past.
If we were flying to Sydney, we would have a wonderful view of the Opera House.If you hadn’t gone to the casino, you would still be a rich man.
24
24.1
23.5.3 Third conditional sentences
In third conditional sentences, the if-clause describes something that didn’t happen, so the action in the main clause was impossible.
a. Third conditional sentences with would + past participle
In conditional sentences of this type, we use would + the past participle of the verb in the main clause; the verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tense.
If he had driven faster, he would have arrived on time.(He drove slowly and was late.)
If I had heard the forecast, I wouldn’t have gone to the beach.(I didn’t hear it and went to the beach.)
b. Third conditional sentences with might or could
We can use could or might in place of would.
If he had driven faster, he might have arrived on time.
c. We can also use continuous forms.
If we hadn’t missed our flight, we could have been lying on the beach by now.We would have been injured if we hadn’t been wearing our seat belts.
Verbs
Introduction
There are two kinds of verbs in English: auxiliary verbs and main verbs.
Auxiliary verbs are used with main verbs to form different tenses or perform certain functions. We can divide auxiliary verbs into two groups.
a. Principal auxiliary verbs: do, be, and have
These can be both auxiliary and main verbs.
b. Modal auxiliary verbs: can, could, may, might, must, should, ought, will,and would
Main verbs are all the other verbs, such as work, play, eat, drink.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
24.2Verbs followed by an infinitive
Many verbs can be followed by an infinitive with to.
a. Verbs followed directly by an infinitive
They decided to enter the marathon.She refused to buy the children any candy.
Some common verbs that can be followed directly by the infinitive include:
agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand, fail, forget, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare, promise, refuse, remember, seem, try
b. Verbs followed by a question word and an infinitive
We asked how to get to the station.Did he remember where to send the letter?
c. Verbs followed by an object and an infinitive
They want their children to learn the piano.She invited all her friends to come to her party.
Some common verbs that can be followed by an object and an infinitive include:
advise, allow, command, enable, encourage, forbid, invite, order, permit, persuade, remind, request, teach, tell, train, warn
d. We use how + infinitive after the verbs show, teach, and tell.
Can you show me how to use this?He told her how to open the door.
e. Sometimes we use to instead of the full infinitive to avoid repetition.
Would you like to come with me? Yes, I’d love to.
f. We can use the infinitive after too and enough.
They are too young to understand the idea.She isn’t old enough to go to university.
g. The verbs hear, let, make, and watch are followed by the infinitive without to.
They watched her prepare the cake.He made the children repeat the exercise.
24.3
24.4
Verbs followed by a gerund
Many verbs can be followed by a gerund. The most important of these are:
avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, imagine, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practice, remember, stop, suggest, understand
I don’t mind helping you if you agree not to smoke.They enjoy going to the coast in summer.
a. If the verb is followed directly by the gerund, the gerund refers to the subject of the verb.
Lucy hated talking to Amanda. (Lucy talked to Amanda.)
b. If the verb is followed by a pronoun or a possessive adjective, the gerund refers to the person indicated by the pronoun or the possessive.
Lucy hated his talking to Amanda. (A man spoke to Amanda.)
Verbs followed by a gerund or an infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by both a gerund and an infinitive, sometimes with a change of meaning.
a. The meaning doesn’t change with the following verbs: begin, start, continue, can’t bear, intend, advise, allow, recommend
It started raining at 4:00. It started to rain at 4:00.
b. With the verbs remember and forget, we use the gerund to express the earlier action.
I remember telling you about the accident.(The accident happened first. I told you about it later)
c. We use the infinitive to express the later action.
She remembered to lock the door.(She remembered the advice and then locked the door.)
d. The verb stop means cease if followed by a gerund and halt if followed byan infinitive.
They stopped smoking when they began jogging.The train stopped to allow passengers to get off.
Appendix
4
GRAMMAR
e. The verb try means experiment if followed by a gerund and attempt if followed by an infinitive.
They tried using a knife instead of a key, but it still didn’t open.They tried to open the door, but it was locked.
f. We use used followed by an infinitive to talk about past habits or routines.
We used to go swimming every morning.
g. We use be or get or become + used to + gerund to mean accustomed.
They had to get used to driving on the right when they moved abroad.
